CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Ancient Rome: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy" ,"wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e951e80f-0b2f-4f56-9dfb-66c2a0c6f932","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Ancient_Rome","wgTitle":"Ancient Rome","wgCurRevisionId":1259839547,"wgRevisionId":1258979664,"wgArticleId":521555,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the EasyTimeline extension","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles containing Latin-language text","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","CS1 Italian-language sources (it)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","EngvarB from October 2022","Use dmy dates from October 2022", "Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","CS1: long volume value","Commons category link from Wikidata","Articles which contain graphical timelines","Ancient Rome","Ancient history","8th-century BC establishments in Italy","5th-century disestablishments","Classical civilizations","States and territories disestablished in the 5th century","Former empires"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Ancient_Rome","wgRelevantArticleId":521555,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true, "watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"extRevisionSliderTimeOffset":0,"wgDiffOldId":1256845214,"wgDiffNewId":1258979664,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1747689","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.visualEditor.diffPage.init.styles":"ready", "oojs-ui.styles.icons-accessibility":"ready","oojs-ui.styles.icons-editing-advanced":"ready","oojs-ui-core.styles":"ready","oojs-ui.styles.indicators":"ready","mediawiki.widgets.styles":"ready","oojs-ui-core.icons":"ready","ext.RevisionSlider.lazyCss":"ready","mediawiki.interface.helpers.styles":"ready","mediawiki.diff.styles":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.timeline.styles":"ready","mediawiki.helplink":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.visualEditor.diffPage.init","ext.RevisionSlider.lazyJs","mediawiki.diff","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.RevisionSlider.lazyCss%7Cext.cite.styles%7Cext.timeline.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.visualEditor.diffPage.init.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.diff.styles%7Cmediawiki.helplink%7Cmediawiki.interface.helpers.styles%7Cmediawiki.widgets.styles%7Coojs-ui-core.icons%2Cstyles%7Coojs-ui.styles.icons-accessibility%2Cicons-editing-advanced%2Cindicators%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="noindex,nofollow,max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1141"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="760"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="608"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Ancient Rome: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mw-article-diff skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Ancient_Rome rootpage-Ancient_Rome skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Ancient+Rome&returntoquery=diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ancient+Rome&returntoquery=diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Ancient+Rome&returntoquery=diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ancient+Rome&returntoquery=diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early Italy and the founding of Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Punic_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punic_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Punic Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punic_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Late Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Caesar and the First Triumvirate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Octavian and the Second Triumvirate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empire_–_the_Principate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empire_–_the_Principate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Empire – the Principate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empire_–_the_Principate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Julio-Claudian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julio-Claudian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Julio-Claudian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julio-Claudian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flavian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flavian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Flavian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flavian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerva–Antonine_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerva–Antonine_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Nerva–Antonine dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerva–Antonine_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Severan_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Severan_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.4</span> <span>Severan dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Severan_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_of_the_Third_Century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.5</span> <span>Crisis of the Third Century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis_of_the_Third_Century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empire_–_The_Tetrarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empire_–_The_Tetrarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Empire – The Tetrarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empire_–_The_Tetrarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diocletian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diocletian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Diocletian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diocletian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constantine_and_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantine_and_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>Constantine and Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantine_and_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Fall of the Western Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Class_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Class_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Class structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Class_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Roman navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_and_dates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_and_dates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Time and dates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_and_dates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_and_morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_and_morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ethics and morality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_and_morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art,_music_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art,_music_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Art, music and literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art,_music_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_and_Libraries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_Libraries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Literature and Libraries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_Libraries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Cuisine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Games_and_recreation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Games_and_recreation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Games and recreation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Games_and_recreation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_and_secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primary and secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ancient Rome: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 142 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-142" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">142 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antieke_Rome" title="Antieke Rome – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antieke Rome" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Römisches Reich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Römisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%AE%E1%88%9C_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የሮሜ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሮሜ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_v%C3%A4ldikodde" title="Rooma väldikodde – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Rooma väldikodde" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="प्राचीन रोम सभ्यता – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्राचीन रोम सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="روما القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روما القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Roma" title="Antiga Roma – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AA%DC%97%DC%98%DC%A1%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%AC%DC%9D%DC%A9%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܪܗܘܡܐ ܥܬܝܩܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܪܗܘܡܐ ܥܬܝܩܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Roma" title="Antigua Roma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rr%C3%B3ma_Ymaguare" title="Rróma Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Rróma Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Roma" title="Qədim Roma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Roma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="قدیم روم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم روم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE" title="প্রাচীন রোম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন রোম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1" title="Kó͘-tāi Lô-má – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi Lô-má" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Боронғо Рим – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо Рим" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Старажытны Рым – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытны Рым" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Старажытны Рым – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытны Рым" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Древен Рим – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древен Рим" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remisches_Reich" title="Remisches Reich – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Remisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henroma" title="Henroma – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henroma" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Roma" title="Antiga Roma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Авалхи Рим – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи Рим" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaang_Roma" title="Karaang Roma – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karaang Roma" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%BD_%C5%98%C3%ADm" title="Starověký Řím – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověký Řím" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhufain_hynafol" title="Rhufain hynafol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhufain hynafol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerriget" title="Romerriget – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerriget" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_Rom" title="Altes Rom – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Altes Rom" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Römisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dine%CA%BC%C3%A9" title="Roman dineʼé – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Roman dineʼé" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_riik" title="Rooma riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A1%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Αρχαία Ρώμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Ρώμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Roma" title="Antigua Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romio" title="Romio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Erroma" title="Antzinako Erroma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Erroma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="روم باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روم باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antique" title="Rome antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rome antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antighe" title="Rome antighe – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Rome antighe" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-R%C3%B3imh" title="An tSean-Róimh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Róimh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antiga" title="Roma antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Roma antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BA_L%C3%B2-m%C3%A2" title="Kú Lò-mâ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kú Lò-mâ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88" title="고대 로마 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 로마" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawa_na_Da" title="Romawa na Da – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Romawa na Da" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Հին Հռոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Հռոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_Roma" title="Antiqua Roma – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antiqua Roma" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawi_Kuno" title="Romawi Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Romawi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antique" title="Roma antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Roma antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancian_Roma" title="Ancian Roma – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Ancian Roma" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhomani" title="Rhomani – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Rhomani" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3maveldi" title="Rómaveldi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómaveldi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_romana" title="Civiltà romana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civiltà romana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="רומא העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רומא העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_Room" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Room – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Room" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ძველი რომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი რომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Ежелгі Рим – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Рим" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_ya_Kale" title="Roma ya Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Roma ya Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Важ Рим – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ Рим" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B2m_ansyen" title="Wòm ansyen – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Wòm ansyen" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_antik" title="Rom antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Rom antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaya_kevnare" title="Romaya kevnare – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Romaya kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Байыркы Рим – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Байыркы Рим" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_romana" title="Storia romana – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia romana" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_antiqui" title="Romani antiqui – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Romani antiqui" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_Roma" title="Senā Roma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Roma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Roma" title="Senovės Roma – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Roma" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_R%C3%B3ma" title="Ókori Róma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori Róma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стар Рим – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стар Рим" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B4ma_Taloha" title="Rôma Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rôma Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രാചീന റോം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രാചീന റോം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ჯვეში რომი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში რომი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="روما القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روما القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_kuno" title="Rom kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rom kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9D" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯔꯣꯝ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯔꯣꯝ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawi_Kuno" title="Romawi Kuno – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Romawi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_L%C3%B2%CC%A4-m%C4%81" title="Gū Lò̤-mā – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū Lò̤-mā" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antiga" title="Roma Antiga – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Rome" title="Oude Rome – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Rome" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E" title="古代ローマ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ローマ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_Rik" title="Röömsk Rik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Röömsk Rik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerriket" title="Romerriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romerriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_i_antikken" title="Roma i antikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Roma i antikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Rim" title="Qadimgi Rim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Rim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE" title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਰੋਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਰੋਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="پرانا روم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پرانا روم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antiguo" title="Roma antiguo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Roma antiguo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Ruom" title="Ienshent Ruom – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Ruom" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Важ Рим – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Важ Рим" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Перем коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E" title="ទីក្រុងរ៉ូមបុរាណ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ទីក្រុងរ៉ូមបុរាណ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antike" title="Rome antike – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Rome antike" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivilt%C3%A0_roman-a" title="Siviltà roman-a – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siviltà roman-a" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msch_Riek" title="Röömsch Riek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Röömsch Riek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Rzym" title="Starożytny Rzym – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytny Rzym" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antiga" title="Roma Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antic%C4%83" title="Roma Antică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Roma Antică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_roman" title="Imperi roman – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Imperi roman" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Старовікый Рим – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовікый Рим" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Древний Рим – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний Рим" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7" title="سلطنت روما – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سلطنت روما" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tziviltade_romana" title="Tziviltade romana – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tziviltade romana" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_ya_kgale" title="Roma ya kgale – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Roma ya kgale" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Roma e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Roma e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antica_Roma" title="Antica Roma – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Antica Roma" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාතන රෝමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාතන රෝමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Rome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DA%B3%D8%A7%D9%BD%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="آڳاٽو روم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آڳاٽو روم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%BD_R%C3%ADm" title="Staroveký Rím – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveký Rím" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starorimska_civilizacija" title="Starorimska civilizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Starorimska civilizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Rzim" title="Starożytny Rzim – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Starożytny Rzim" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="ڕۆمای کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕۆمای کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стари Рим – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стари Рим" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooman_valtakunta" title="Rooman valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rooman valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerska_riket" title="Romerska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romerska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_Roma" title="Sinaunang Roma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang Roma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பண்டைய உரோமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய உரோமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Борынгы Рим – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Рим" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="โรมโบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรมโบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Руми Бостон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Руми Бостон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Roma" title="Antik Roma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Roma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_gbangbang" title="Rom gbangbang – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Rom gbangbang" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Вашкала Рим – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Вашкала Рим" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стародавній Рим – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавній Рим" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="قدیم روم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم روم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_M%C3%A3_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="La Mã cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="La Mã cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Rooma" title="Vana-Rooma – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vana-Rooma" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" title="古羅馬 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古羅馬" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadton_Roma" title="Hadton Roma – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hadton Roma" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC" title="古罗马 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古罗马" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אוראלט רוים – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלט רוים" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3m%C3%B9_Ay%C3%A9ij%E1%BB%8D%CC%81un" title="Rómù Ayéijọ́un – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Rómù Ayéijọ́un" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" title="古羅馬 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古羅馬" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antike" title="Roma Antike – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Roma Antike" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC" title="古罗马 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古罗马" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C9%99_Imperij%C9%99" title="Romə Imperijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Romə Imperijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1747689#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Ancient_Rome" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&oldid=1258979664" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&oldid=1258979664" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Ancient_Rome" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Ancient_Rome" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&oldid=1258979664" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Ancient_Rome&id=1258979664&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAncient_Rome%26diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAncient_Rome%26diff%3D1258979664%26oldid%3D1256845214"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=render_article&arttitle=Ancient+Rome&returnto=Ancient+Rome&oldid=1256845214&writer=rl" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Rome" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History/Rome" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Roman_Civilization" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1747689" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-mw-helplink" class="mw-indicator"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Diff" target="_blank" class="mw-helplink"><span class="mw-helplink-icon"></span>Help</a></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-revslider-container"><span style='width: 100%; text-align: center;' id='ooui-php-1' class='mw-revslider-toggle-button oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-indicatorElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget' data-ooui='{"_":"OO.ui.ButtonWidget","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"indicator":"down","label":"Browse history interactively","title":"Open revision slider","classes":["mw-revslider-toggle-button"]}'><a role='button' title='Open revision slider' tabindex='0' rel='nofollow' class='oo-ui-buttonElement-button'><span class='oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-iconElement-noIcon'></span><span class='oo-ui-labelElement-label'>Browse history interactively</span><span class='oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicator-down'></span></a></span><div class="mw-revslider-slider-wrapper" style="display: none;"><div class="mw-revslider-placeholder"><div class="mw-revslider-spinner"><div class="mw-revslider-bounce"></div></div></div></div></div><div class="mw-diff-revision-history-links"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=prev&oldid=1256845214" class="mw-diff-revision-history-link-previous" title="Ancient Rome">← Previous edit</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=next&oldid=1258979664" class="mw-diff-revision-history-link-next" title="Ancient Rome">Next edit →</a></div><div class="mw-diff-table-prefix" dir="ltr" lang="en"><div class="mw-diff-inline-legend oo-ui-element-hidden"><span class="mw-diff-inline-legend-del">Content deleted</span> <span class="mw-diff-inline-legend-ins">Content added</span></div><div class="ve-init-mw-diffPage-diffMode"><span class='oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonGroupWidget'><span aria-disabled='true' class='oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-disabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-framed oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget'><a role='button' tabindex='-1' aria-disabled='true' rel='nofollow' class='oo-ui-buttonElement-button'><span class='oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-eye oo-ui-image-invert'></span><span class='oo-ui-labelElement-label'>Visual</span><span class='oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator oo-ui-image-invert'></span></a></span><span class='oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-framed oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget oo-ui-buttonElement-active'><a role='button' tabindex='0' rel='nofollow' class='oo-ui-buttonElement-button'><span class='oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-wikiText oo-ui-image-invert'></span><span class='oo-ui-labelElement-label'>Wikitext</span><span class='oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator oo-ui-image-invert'></span></a></span></span></div><div class="mw-diffPage-inlineToggle-container"><div id='mw-diffPage-inline-toggle-switch-layout' class='oo-ui-layout oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-fieldLayout oo-ui-fieldLayout-align-left' data-ooui='{"_":"OO.ui.FieldLayout","fieldWidget":{"tag":"mw-diffPage-inline-toggle-switch"},"$overlay":true,"label":"Inline","title":"Switches between inline format and two-column format"}'><div class='oo-ui-fieldLayout-body'><span class='oo-ui-fieldLayout-header'><label title='Switches between inline format and two-column format' id='ooui-php-2' class='oo-ui-labelElement-label'>Inline</label></span><div class='oo-ui-fieldLayout-field'><div id='mw-diffPage-inline-toggle-switch' title='Switches between inline format and two-column format' aria-checked='false' tabindex='0' role='switch' aria-labelledby='ooui-php-2' class='oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-toggleWidget oo-ui-toggleWidget-off oo-ui-toggleSwitchWidget' data-ooui='{"_":"OO.ui.ToggleSwitchWidget","href":"\/w\/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=1258979664&oldid=1256845214&diff-type=inline","value":false,"title":"Switches between inline format and two-column format"}'><span class='oo-ui-toggleSwitchWidget-glow'></span><a href='/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=1258979664&oldid=1256845214&diff-type=inline'><span class='oo-ui-toggleSwitchWidget-grip'></span></a></div></div></div></div></div></div><table class="diff diff-type-table diff-contentalign-left diff-editfont-monospace" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" class="diff-otitle diff-side-deleted"><div id="mw-diff-otitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&oldid=1256845214" title="Ancient Rome">Revision as of 21:16, 11 November 2024</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&oldid=1256845214" title="Ancient Rome">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2024-11-11T21:16:48Z"></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle2"><a href="/wiki/User:Arjayay" class="mw-userlink" title="User:Arjayay" data-mw-revid="1256845214"><bdi>Arjayay</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:Arjayay" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Arjayay">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/Arjayay" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Arjayay">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Autopatrolled" title="Wikipedia:Autopatrolled">Autopatrolled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Extended_confirmed_editors" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Extended confirmed editors">Extended confirmed users</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Page_mover" title="Wikipedia:Page mover">Page movers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reviewing_pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Reviewing pending changes">Pending changes reviewers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Rollback" title="Wikipedia:Rollback">Rollbackers</a></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>619,520</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle3"><abbr class="minoredit" title="This is a minor edit">m</abbr> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses">Reverted edit by <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/75.149.216.229" title="Special:Contributions/75.149.216.229">75.149.216.229</a> (<a href="/wiki/User_talk:75.149.216.229" title="User talk:75.149.216.229">talk</a>) to last version by AusLondonder</span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle5"><span class="mw-tag-markers"><a href="/wiki/Special:Tags" title="Special:Tags">Tag</a>: <span class="mw-tag-marker mw-tag-marker-mw-rollback"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Rollback" title="Wikipedia:Rollback">Rollback</a></span></span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=prev&oldid=1256845214" title="Ancient Rome" id="differences-prevlink">← Previous edit</a></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-ntitle diff-side-added"><div id="mw-diff-ntitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&oldid=1258979664" title="Ancient Rome">Revision as of 18:21, 22 November 2024</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&oldid=1258979664" title="Ancient Rome">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2024-11-22T18:21:00Z"></span> <span class="mw-diff-undo"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&undoafter=1256845214&undo=1258979664" title=""Undo" reverts this edit and opens the edit form in preview mode. It allows adding a reason in the summary.">undo</a></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:GetOverYourWikiSelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new mw-userlink" title="User:GetOverYourWikiSelf (page does not exist)" data-mw-revid="1258979664"><bdi>GetOverYourWikiSelf</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:GetOverYourWikiSelf" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:GetOverYourWikiSelf">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/GetOverYourWikiSelf" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/GetOverYourWikiSelf">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Extended_confirmed_editors" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Extended confirmed editors">Extended confirmed users</a></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>1,334</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle3"> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses"><span class="autocomment"><a href="#Kingdom">→<bdi dir="ltr">Kingdom</bdi></a></span></span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=next&oldid=1258979664" title="Ancient Rome" id="differences-nextlink">Next edit →</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td colspan="4" class="diff-multi" lang="en">(8 intermediate revisions by 7 users not shown)</td></tr><tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 67:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 67:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge {{Circa|1000&nbsp;BC}}.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=519}} Large-scale organisation appears only {{Circa|800&nbsp;BC}}, with the first graves in the [[Esquiline Hill]]'s necropolis, along with a [[murus Romuli|clay and timber wall]] on the bottom of the [[Palatine Hill]] dating to the middle of the 8th century&nbsp;BC. Starting from {{Circa|650&nbsp;BC}}, the Romans started to drain the valley between the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitoline]] and Palatine Hills, where today sits the [[Roman Forum]].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=29}} By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]] on the Capitoline and expanding to the [[Forum Boarium]] located between the Capitoline and [[Aventine Hill]]s.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=31}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge {{Circa|1000&nbsp;BC}}.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=519}} Large-scale organisation appears only {{Circa|800&nbsp;BC}}, with the first graves in the [[Esquiline Hill]]'s necropolis, along with a [[murus Romuli|clay and timber wall]] on the bottom of the [[Palatine Hill]] dating to the middle of the 8th century&nbsp;BC. Starting from {{Circa|650&nbsp;BC}}, the Romans started to drain the valley between the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitoline]] and Palatine Hills, where today sits the [[Roman Forum]].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=29}} By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]] on the Capitoline and expanding to the [[Forum Boarium]] located between the Capitoline and [[Aventine Hill]]s.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=31}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Romans themselves had a [[founding myth]], attributing their city to [[Romulus and Remus]], offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of [[Alba Longa]].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|pp=31–32}} The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as [[Roma Quadrata]] ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century, and the later Roman antiquarian [[Marcus Terentius Varro]] placed the city's foundation to 753&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=32}} Another legend, recorded by Greek historian [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the [[Trojan War]]. They landed on the banks of the [[Tiber River]] and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her.<ref>Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).</ref> The Roman poet [[Virgil]] recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the ''[[Aeneid]]'', where the Trojan prince [[Aeneas]] is destined to found a new Troy.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Romans themselves had a [[founding myth]], attributing their city to [[Romulus and Remus]], offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of [[Alba Longa]].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|pp=31–32}} The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as [[Roma Quadrata]] ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> BC</ins>, and the later Roman antiquarian [[Marcus Terentius Varro]] placed the city's foundation to 753&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=32}} Another legend, recorded by Greek historian [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the [[Trojan War]]. They landed on the banks of the [[Tiber River]] and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her.<ref>Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).</ref> The Roman poet [[Virgil]] recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the ''[[Aeneid]]'', where the Trojan prince [[Aeneas]] is destined to found a new Troy.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div><timeline></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div><timeline></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 109:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 109:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boatwright|2012|p=35|ps=. "{{Lang|la|Rex}}, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], and the other a potsherd found in the [[Regia]]".}}</ref> Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial ''rex sacrorum'' was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boatwright|2012|p=35|ps=. "{{Lang|la|Rex}}, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], and the other a potsherd found in the [[Regia]]".}}</ref> Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial ''rex sacrorum'' was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century&nbsp;BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some {{Convert|780|km2|mi2|abbr=off}} with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} A palace, the [[Regia]], was constructed {{Circa|625&nbsp;BC}};{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] to the regal period as well.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=37}} Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the ''[[Aeneid]]'' asserted that all Latins descended from the<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> titular</del> character [[Aeneas]],{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=39}} a common culture is attested to archaeologically.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=40}} Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the {{Lang|la|[[Jus Latii]]}}—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=42}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century&nbsp;BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some {{Convert|780|km2|mi2|abbr=off}} with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} A palace, the [[Regia]], was constructed {{Circa|625&nbsp;BC}};{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] to the regal period as well.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=37}} Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the ''[[Aeneid]]'' asserted that all Latins descended from the character [[Aeneas]],{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=39}} a common culture is attested to archaeologically.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=40}} Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the {{Lang|la|[[Jus Latii]]}}—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=42}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Republic===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Republic===</div></td> </tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 18:21, 22 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Roman civilisation from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the history of Roman civilisation in antiquity. For the history of the city of Rome, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History of Rome</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ancient Rome (disambiguation)">Ancient Rome (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="ib-country-names"><i>Roma</i></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">753 BC–476/480<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_lifespan"><a href="#endnote_lifespan">1</a></sup> AD</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Senatus Populusque Romanus</a></i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/250px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/375px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/500px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="595" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Territories of the Roman civilisation: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a64; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a6a; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#48a; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bc4; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a><br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(753–509 BC)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a><br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(509–27 BC)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a><br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 BC–476 AD)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> (and others during the late Empire, notably <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Elective <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(753–509 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed</a> diarchic <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">constitutional republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(509 BC–476 AD, only <i>de jure</i> after 27 BC)</span></li> <li>absolute monarchy <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 BC–476 AD, <i>de facto</i>)</span></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">753 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">Overthrow</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarquin_the_Proud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarquin the Proud">Tarquin the Proud</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">509 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Octavian proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Collapse of the Western Roman Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">476/480<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_lifespan"><a href="#endnote_lifespan">1</a></sup> AD</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><ol class="ib-country-fn-num"> <li value="1"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_lifespan"><b><a href="#ref_lifespan">^</a></b> Whilst the deposition of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> during the latter half of the 6th century.</span></li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In modern <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, <b>ancient Rome</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman</a> civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in the 8th century BC to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">collapse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753–509 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509–27 BC), and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Rome began as an <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic</a> settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the <a href="/wiki/River_Tiber" class="mw-redirect" title="River Tiber">River Tiber</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a> culture of southern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magna_Grecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Grecia">Magna Grecia</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscan</a> culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa during Antiquity">North African</a> coast, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, and much of the Middle East, including <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. That empire was among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires</a> in the ancient world, covering around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) in AD 117,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a <a href="/wiki/Classical_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical republic">classical republic</a> and then to an increasingly <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a> during the Empire. </p><p>Ancient Rome is often grouped into <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a></i></span></i>, the inspiration for modern republics such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It achieved impressive <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">technological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">architectural</a> feats, such as the empire-wide construction of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueducts" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman aqueducts">aqueducts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">roads</a>, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome">Early Italy and the founding of Rome</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:412px;max-width:412px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:209px;max-width:209px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:155px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Capitoline Wolf" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/207px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" decoding="async" width="207" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/311px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/414px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf" title="Capitoline Wolf">Capitoline Wolf</a>, now illustrating the legend that a <a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">she-wolf</a> suckled <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a> after <a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">their mother</a>'s imprisonment in <a href="/wiki/Alba_Longa" title="Alba Longa">Alba Longa</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:199px;max-width:199px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:155px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome_in_753_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Rome 753 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/197px-Rome_in_753_BC.png" decoding="async" width="197" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/296px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/394px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="852" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Modern reconstruction of the marshy conditions of early Rome, along with a conjectural placement of the <a href="/wiki/Roma_Quadrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma Quadrata">early settlement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">its fortifications</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large-scale organisation appears only <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>, with the first graves in the <a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Hill" title="Esquiline Hill">Esquiline Hill</a>'s necropolis, along with a <a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">clay and timber wall</a> on the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> dating to the middle of the 8th century BC. Starting from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650 BC</span>, the Romans started to drain the valley between the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline</a> and Palatine Hills, where today sits the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a> on the Capitoline and expanding to the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a> located between the Capitoline and <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine Hills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans themselves had a <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">founding myth</a>, attributing their city to <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a>, offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of <a href="/wiki/Alba_Longa" title="Alba Longa">Alba Longa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231–32_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231–32-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as <a href="/wiki/Roma_Quadrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma Quadrata">Roma Quadrata</a> ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century BC, and the later Roman antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> placed the city's foundation to 753 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another legend, recorded by Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>. They landed on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiber River">Tiber River</a> and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i>, where the Trojan prince <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a> is destined to found a new Troy. </p> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" coords="528,49,641,70" title="Byzantine Empire" alt="Byzantine Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" coords="318,29,388,50" title="Roman Empire" alt="Roman Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" coords="188,29,269,50" title="Roman Republic" alt="Roman Republic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" coords="78,29,153,50" title="Roman Kingdom" alt="Roman Kingdom" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" coords="375,9,488,30" title="Western Roman Empire" alt="Western Roman Empire" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom">Kingdom</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danseurs_et_musiciens,_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/200px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/300px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/400px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1603" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan Civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">painting</a> of dancer and musicians from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards" title="Tomb of the Leopards">Tomb of the Leopards</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial <i>rex sacrorum</i> was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some 780 square kilometres (300 square miles) with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A palace, the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>, was constructed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 625 BC</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> to the regal period as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i> asserted that all Latins descended from the character <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a common culture is attested to archaeologically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Jus_Latii" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus Latii">Jus Latii</a></i></span>—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic">Republic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:412px;max-width:412px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:268px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Capitoline Brutus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/179px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/269px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/358px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1950" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Brutus" title="Capitoline Brutus">Capitoline Brutus</a>, a bust traditionally identified as <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Junius_Brutus" title="Lucius Junius Brutus">L. Junius Brutus</a>, one of the founders of the Republic</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:268px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_400bC_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Italy in 400 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/225px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="225" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/338px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/450px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="890" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Italy in 400 BC, just prior to the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">invasion</a> under <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(leader_of_the_Senones)" title="Brennus (leader of the Senones)">Brennus</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to tradition and later writers such as <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> was established <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 509 BC</span>, <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the last of the seven kings of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Tarquin the Proud</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">deposed</a> and a system based on annually elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_Magistrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Magistrate">magistrates</a> and various representative assemblies was established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343–44_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343–44-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">constitution</a> set a series of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>. The most important magistrates were the two <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>, who together exercised executive authority such as <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i>, or military command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841–42_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841–42-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consuls had to work with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, but grew in size and power.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other magistrates of the Republic include <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aediles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacus_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacus-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magistracies were originally restricted to <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, but were later opened to common people, or <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Republican voting assemblies included the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_centuriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia centuriata">comitia centuriata</a></i> (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_tributa" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia tributa">comitia tributa</a></i> (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(4th_century_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennus (4th century BC)">Brennus</a>, defeated the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a> and marched to Rome. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans had barricaded themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus">Camillus</a> remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Italy">gradually subdued</a> the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last threat to Roman <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in Italy came when <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Tarentum</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> colony, enlisted the aid of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans secured their conquests by founding <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Roman colonies</a> in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Punic_Wars">Punic Wars</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/420px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" decoding="async" width="420" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/630px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Territorial changes over the course of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b4d5b1; color:black;"> </span> Roman possessions and close allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffcb90; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian Empire">Carthaginian Empire</a> and close allies </div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RUSSELL(1854)_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/200px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/300px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/400px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>The Roman siege of the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Numantia" title="Numantia">Numantia</a> in Spain in 133 BC<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a>, the other major power in the Western Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> began in 264 BC, when the city of <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a> asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with <a href="/wiki/Hiero_II_of_Syracuse" title="Hiero II of Syracuse">Hiero II of Syracuse</a>. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, who marched through <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> to the Italian <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> war of attrition, a strategy propounded by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus">Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus</a>. Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy, but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">Battle of Zama</a> in October 202 BC. </p><p>More than a half century after these events, Carthage was left humiliated and the Republic's focus was now directed towards the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> kingdoms of Greece and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">revolts in Hispania</a>. However, Carthage, having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike but could not withstand the attack of <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, who entirely destroyed the city, enslaved all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Republic">Late Republic</h3></div> <p>After defeating the <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empires</a> in the 2nd century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> became the dominant people of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became cosmopolitan. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:155px;max-width:155px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Gaius Marius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/153px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/230px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/306px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="2209" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, a general who dramatically reformed the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Roman military</a> and was repeatedly elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> to handle invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teutones" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutones">Teutones</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:233px;max-width:233px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Q._Pompeius_Rufus,_denarius,_54_BC,_RRC_434-1_(Sulla_only).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="L. Cornelius Sulla" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg/231px-Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg/347px-Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="354" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">L. Cornelius Sulla</a>, leader of the rival <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimate party</a>, who ultimately marched on Rome twice, established himself as <a href="/wiki/Dictator_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictator (Rome)">dictator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_proscription" title="Sulla's proscription">massacring opponents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">attempting to restore the prerogatives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Patricians_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patricians (Rome)">Patricians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a>' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> and the growth of <i><a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">latifundia</a></i> reduced the availability of paid work.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Income from war booty, <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> in the new provinces, and <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a> created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liviuseques_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liviuseques-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Claudia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Claudia">lex Claudia</a></i> forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<sup id="cite_ref-Liviuseques_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liviuseques-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reforms</a> and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. </p><p>Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the <a href="/wiki/Gracchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracchi">Gracchi</a> brothers, a pair of <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a> who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (<a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">populares</a>) and equestrian classes (<a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimates</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Numidicus" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus</a> was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king <a href="/wiki/Jugurtha" title="Jugurtha">Jugurtha</a>. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army. Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Teutones" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutones">Teutones</a>, who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian <i>socii</i> ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Livius_Drusus_(tribune)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune)">Marcus Livius Drusus</a> supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the <i>socii</i> revolted against the Romans in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91-88_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91-88 BC)">Social War</a>. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Julius_Caesar_(consul_90_BC)" title="Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 90 BC)">Lucius Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Cinna" title="Lucius Cornelius Cinna">Lucius Cornelius Cinna</a> and killed the other consul, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Octavius_(consul_87_BC)" title="Gnaeus Octavius (consul 87 BC)">Gnaeus Octavius</a>, achieving his seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">second march on Rome</a> and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla held two <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictatorships</a> and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate">Caesar and the First Triumvirate</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/220px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/330px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/440px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Landing of the Romans in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near <a href="/wiki/Deal,_Kent" title="Deal, Kent">Deal</a>. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's invasions of Britain">invasion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, <i><a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">populares</a></i> (who hoped for the support of the people) and <i><a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimates</a></i> (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">tribune of the plebs</a>) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the <a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a>—a resounding failure since the consul <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a> quickly arrested and executed the main leaders. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a> reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a>, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus">Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus</a> (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married <a href="/wiki/Julia_(daughter_of_Julius_Caesar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)">his daughter</a>. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a> ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53 BC, Crassus invaded <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> and was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">conquered Gaul</a>, obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many <i>optimates</i>. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile. </p><p>To avoid this fate, Caesar <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Rubicon" title="Crossing the Rubicon">crossed the Rubicon</a> River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Battle of Pharsalus</a> was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the <i>optimates</i> leaders: <a href="/wiki/Metellus_Scipio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metellus Scipio">Metellus Scipio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a>, and Pompey's son, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_(son_of_Pompey_the_Great)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)">Gnaeus Pompeius</a>. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the <a href="/wiki/Ides_of_March" title="Ides of March">Ides of March</a> by the <i><a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate">Octavian and the Second Triumvirate</h4></div> <p>Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Marcus Antonius</a>. Soon afterward, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavius</a>, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Roman naming conventions</a>) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a>, Caesar's best friend,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he legally established the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the <i><a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 42 BC, the Senate <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">deified</a> Caesar as <i><a href="/wiki/Divus_Iulius" class="mw-redirect" title="Divus Iulius">Divus Iulius</a></i>; Octavian thus became <i><a href="/wiki/Divi_filius" title="Divi filius">Divi filius</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the <i>Liberatores</i>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Marcus Junius Brutus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Gaius Cassius Longinus</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a>. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">proscriptions</a> of many senators and <i>equites</i>: after a revolt led by Antony's brother <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Antonius_(brother_of_Mark_Antony)" title="Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)">Lucius Antonius</a>, more than 300 senators and <i>equites</i> involved were executed, although Lucius was spared.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in <a href="/wiki/Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italia</a> and controlled <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in <a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Sicily</a>. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, ruled by his lover, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a>. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> for a Roman statesman.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Antony's <a href="/wiki/Donations_of_Alexandria" title="Donations of Alexandria">Donations of Alexandria</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Reign of Cleopatra VII">gave to Cleopatra</a> the title of "<a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of Kings">Queen of Kings</a>", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, <a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">war between Octavian and Antony broke out</a>. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BC. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Cleopatra" title="Death of Cleopatra">Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide</a>. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empire_–_the_Principate"><span id="Empire_.E2.80.93_the_Principate"></span>Empire – the Principate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_(inv._2290).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/170px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/255px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/340px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a>, 1st century AD, depicting <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name <i><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augustus</a></i>. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">reform of the government</a> brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Julio-Claudian_dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> was established by <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Augustus (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 27 BC – AD 14</span>) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, <i><a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a></i>, and diminished the political influence of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">senatorial class</a> by boosting the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian class">equestrian class</a>. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> and his reforms in the military, creating a <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as <i>princeps</i> was very peaceful, which led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His generals were responsible for the field command, gaining such commanders as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" title="Nero Claudius Drusus">Nero Claudius Drusus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a> much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered <a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquitania" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitania">Aquitania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Latin_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Latin Literature">Golden Age of Latin Literature</a>. Poets like <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Varius_Rufus" title="Lucius Varius Rufus">Rufus</a> developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with <a href="/wiki/Maecenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Maecenas">Maecenas</a>, he sponsored patriotic poems, such as Virgil's epic <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i> and historiographical works like those of <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>, and the month of August is named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Augusta</a></i> or <i>Pax Romana</i>. Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/330px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/495px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/660px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a>; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140]_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140]-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Livia_Drusilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Livia Drusilla">Livia Drusilla</a>, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, as his heir.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of <i>princeps</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_patriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pater patriae">Pater patriae</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Civic_Crown" title="Civic Crown">Civic Crown</a>. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to <a href="/wiki/Capri" title="Capri">Capri</a> in 26 AD,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejanus" title="Sejanus">Sejanus</a> (until 31 AD) and <a href="/wiki/Naevius_Sutorius_Macro" title="Naevius Sutorius Macro">Macro</a> (from 31 to 37 AD). </p><p>Tiberius died (or was killed)<sup id="cite_ref-tarver1902_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarver1902-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, his grandson <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gemellus" title="Tiberius Gemellus">Tiberius Gemellus</a> and his grand-nephew <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> as the new emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thrace</a>; his most important deed was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">conquest of Britannia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claudius was poisoned by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Agrippina_the_Younger" title="Agrippina the Younger">Agrippina the Younger</a> in 54 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His heir was <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son <a href="/wiki/Britannicus" title="Britannicus">Britannicus</a> had not reached manhood upon his father's death. </p><p>Nero sent his general, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus" title="Gaius Suetonius Paulinus">Suetonius Paulinus</a>, to invade modern-day <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, where he encountered stiff resistance. The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celts</a> there were independent, tough, resistant to tax collectors, and fought Paulinus as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">Menai Strait</a> to the sacred island of Mona (<a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>), the last stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His soldiers <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">attacked the island</a> and massacred the druids: men, women and children,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> destroyed the shrine and the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred groves</a> and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> staged a revolt led by queen <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boadicea</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iceni" title="Iceni">Iceni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebels sacked and burned <a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>, London and <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a> respectively) before they were <a href="/wiki/Defeat_of_Boudica" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat of Boudica">crushed by Paulinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Boadicea, like <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a>, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Calpurnius_Piso_(conspirator)" title="Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)">Calpurnius Piso</a> failed, but in 68 AD the armies under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Vindex" title="Gaius Julius Vindex">Julius Vindex</a> in Gaul and <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Servius Sulpicius Galba</a> in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Roman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman provinces">Roman provinces</a> were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dominus_(title)" title="Dominus (title)">domina</a> provinciarum</i></span> ("ruler of the provinces"),<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.it_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.it-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and – especially in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">first centuries of imperial stability</a> – <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">rectrix mundi</i></span> ("governor of the world")<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">omnium terrarum parens</i></span> ("parent of all lands").<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flavian_dynasty">Flavian dynasty</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/170px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/255px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/340px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavians</a> were the second dynasty to rule Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-suetonius_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suetonius-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Titus Flavius Vespasianus</a> (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScarre1995_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarre1995-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome's dominion now spanned 5.0 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most significant <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">military campaign</a> undertaken during the Flavian period was the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege and destruction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in 70 AD by <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him <i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a></i> in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 97,000 were captured and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">enslaved</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Giora" title="Simon bar Giora">Simon bar Giora</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_of_Giscala" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Giscala">John of Giscala</a>. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. </p><p>Vespasian was a general under <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> and fought as a commander in the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a>. Following the turmoil of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-Suetonius_Vespasian_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius_Vespasian-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> and the temple of <i><a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Divus Claudius</a></i> ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a> were rebuilt, and he revitalised the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitol</a>. Vespasian started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suetonius_Vespasian_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius_Vespasian-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historians <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his <i><a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></i> to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD. </p><p>Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial combats</a>, horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was murdered following a plot within his own household. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nerva–Antonine_dynasty"><span id="Nerva.E2.80.93Antonine_dynasty"></span>Nerva–Antonine dynasty</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/220px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/330px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/440px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> reached its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> in AD 117</figcaption></figure> <p>Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a> from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were part of Italic families settled in Roman colonies outside of Italy: the families of Trajan and Hadrian had settled in <a href="/wiki/Italica" title="Italica">Italica</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Hispania Baetica</a>), that of Antoninus Pius in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Colonia Agusta Nemausensis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>), and that of Marcus Aurelius in <a href="/wiki/Espejo,_Spain" title="Espejo, Spain">Colonia Claritas Iulia Ucubi</a> (Hispania Baetica). The Nerva-Antonine dynasty came to an end with <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, son of Marcus Aurelius.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nerva abdicated and died in 98 AD, and was succeeded by the general <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trajan fought three <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Dacian wars</a>, winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, with the architect <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a>. He remodelled the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a> and extended the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> appointed a king for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> without consulting Rome, Trajan declared <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">war on Parthia</a> and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suru%C3%A7" title="Suruç">Batnae</a>, organised a province of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a> (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that same year, he captured <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> and the Parthian capital <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a <a href="/wiki/Kitos_War" title="Kitos War">Jewish revolt</a>, he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrians_Wall_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/220px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/330px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/440px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the location of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a> in Scotland and Northern England</figcaption></figure><p> Trajan's successor Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "<a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Provincia Syria Palaestina</a>", after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161 AD. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/220px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/330px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/440px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon, Rome</a>, built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> in the world</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Good_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Good Emperors">Five Good Emperors</a>. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations">Meditations</a></i>. He defeated barbarian tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dio_LXXII_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dio_LXXII-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His co-emperor, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>, died in 169 AD, probably from the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a>, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman <a href="/wiki/Decadence" title="Decadence">decadence</a>: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<sup id="cite_ref-Dio_LXXII_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dio_LXXII-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Severan_dynasty">Severan dynasty</h4></div> <p>Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aemilius_Laetus" title="Quintus Aemilius Laetus">Quintus Aemilius Laetus</a> and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a>, during which <a href="/wiki/Helvius_Pertinax" class="mw-redirect" title="Helvius Pertinax">Helvius Pertinax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECary1967704_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECary1967704-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—<a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Superior" title="Pannonia Superior">Pannonia Superior</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>—resented being excluded from the "<a href="/wiki/Donativum" title="Donativum">donative</a>" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Septimusseverustondo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/200px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/300px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/400px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Severan_Tondo" title="Severan Tondo">Severan Tondo</a>, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased</figcaption></figure> <p>Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having <a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a> killed. Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> invaded Roman territory, Severus successfully waged war against that country. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he <a href="/wiki/Roman_invasion_of_Caledonia_208%E2%80%93210" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210">waged war</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a>. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/170px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/255px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/340px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="3675" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>Upon the death of Severus, his sons <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Geta</a> were made emperors. Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. Knowing that the citizens of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 212, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Edict of Caracalla</a>, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the <i>dediticii</i>, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-dediticii_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dediticii-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a> points to the edict as a fundamental turning point, after which <i>Rome</i> was "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD. Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a>, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage376_376]–393_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage376_376]–393-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a></i> give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and also the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crisis_of_the_Third_Century">Crisis of the Third Century</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/350px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/525px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/700px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasions</a>, political chaos, <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">pandemics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">economic depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The old Roman values had fallen, and <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a> and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. </p><p>There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a> was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a>. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered: massive military expenditures from the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severi</a> caused a devaluation of Roman coins. <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a> came at this time as well. The <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibbon10_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbon10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 260 AD, the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus (Roman province)">Egypt</a> separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, ruled by Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> and centered on <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>. In that same year the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> was created by <a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a>, retaining Britannia and Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibbon10_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbon10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crisis began to recede during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a> (268–270), who <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">defeated</a> the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> invaders, and <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crisis was overcome during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empire_–_The_Tetrarchy"><span id="Empire_.E2.80.93_The_Tetrarchy"></span>Empire – The Tetrarchy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diocletian">Diocletian</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png/220px-DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png 1.5x" data-file-width="253" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>A Roman <a href="/wiki/Follis" title="Follis">follis</a> depicting the profile of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> (in the West), and two junior emperors, <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> (in the East) and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Flavius Constantius</a> (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practised in Rome before.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> had done.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1994_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1994-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a>) and started the Tetrarchy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/220px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/330px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/440px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5468" data-file-height="3824" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aula_Palatina" title="Aula Palatina">Aula Palatina</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, Germany (then part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>), a <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (r. 306–337 AD)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantine_and_Christianity">Constantine and Christianity</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> in 312. In 313, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. He was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a> during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a>, and controlled all the empire, as it was before <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> ("City of Constantine").<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a>, who under the influence of his adviser <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(philosopher)" title="Mardonius (philosopher)">Mardonius</a> attempted to restore <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Classical Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—<a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> was made capital, in the 5th century.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium, as Constantinopolis Nova Roma, changed the high period of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">ancient world</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <p>In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage155_155]_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage155_155]-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the last emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>, Rome lost decisive battles against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarians</a>: in 363, emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian the Apostate</a> was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a>, against the Persians and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> cost the life of emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (364–378); the victorious <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next emperor, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, ruled by <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, both of which were Theodosius' sons.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:493px;max-width:493px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:253px;max-width:253px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/251px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="251" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/377px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/502px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/130px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/195px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/260px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/100px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/150px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/200px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="1498" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Ending <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">invasions</a> on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> entering <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. <i>The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410</i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph-No%C3%ABl_Sylvestre" title="Joseph-Noël Sylvestre">Joseph-Noël Sylvestre</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a> saw the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Visigoths sack Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">North Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> claimed the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a> was taken by the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>, chief of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(father_of_Romulus_Augustulus)" title="Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)">Orestes</a> refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> defeated and killed Orestes, invaded <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> and dethroned <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustus</a>, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> and beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman noble and former emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> continued to rule as emperor from <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a> even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1944670_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1944670-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilisations experience. The Eastern Empire survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western counterpart</a> and became the most stable Christian <a href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">realm</a> during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> reconquered the Italian peninsula <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">from the Ostrogoths</a>, North Africa <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">from the Vandals</a>, and southern Hispania <a href="/wiki/Spania#Conquest_and_foundation" title="Spania">from the Visigoths</a>. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Eastern Roman (Byzantine) possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> who settled in the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage347_347]_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage347_347]-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> as well as a series of mutually destructive wars against the Persian Sassanian Empire, the Byzantine Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of the Levant">conquest of the Levant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">conquest of Armenia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">conquest of Egypt</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, and soon presented a direct <a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">threat to Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following century, the Arabs <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">captured southern Italy and Sicily</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the west, Slavic populations penetrated deep into the Balkans. </p><p>The Byzantine Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage349_349]_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage349_349]-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> reconquered <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> invasions ultimately led Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The West responded with the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, eventually resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (1204)">Sack of Constantinople</a> by participants of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> coast. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire collapsed when <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquered Constantinople</a> on 29 May 1453.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/170px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/255px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/340px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 20 per cent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several <a href="/wiki/Military_settlement" title="Military settlement">military settlements</a>, a very high rate of urbanisation by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a>, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. The average life expectancy in the Middle Empire was about 26–28 years.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></div> <p>The roots of the legal principles and practices of the <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a> may be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Law of the Twelve Tables</a> promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> around 530 AD (see <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a>). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Roman Empire</a>, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. </p><p>The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of <i>Jus civile</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_gentium" title="Jus gentium">Jus gentium</a></i>, and <i>Jus naturale</i>. The <i>Jus civile</i> ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Praetor_urbanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetor urbanus"><i>praetores urbani</i></a> (<i>sg. Praetor Urbanus</i>) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The <i>Jus gentium</i> ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Praetor_peregrinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetor peregrinus"><i>praetores peregrini</i></a> (<i>sg. Praetor Peregrinus</i>) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. <i>Jus naturale</i> encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_structure">Class structure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Social class in ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status in Roman legal system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arringatore_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/170px-Arringatore_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/255px-Arringatore_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/340px-Arringatore_04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="2389" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Orator" title="The Orator">The Orator</a></i>, c. 100 BC, from the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Florence">National Archaeological Museum of Florence</a>, Italy, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> while engaged in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>; the statue features an inscription in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Roman society is largely viewed as <a href="/wiki/Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">hierarchical</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> (<i>servi</i>) at the bottom, <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a> (<i>liberti</i>) above them, and free-born citizens (<i>cives</i>) at the top. Free citizens were subdivided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">patriarchs</a> at the founding of the city, and the <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a>, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble</a> (<i>nobilis</i>); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marius</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, was known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Novus_homo" title="Novus homo">novus homo</a></i> ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Class_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Class division">class division</a> originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a>, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrians</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i>, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the <i>proletarii</i>, citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige. </p><p>Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the <i>proletarii</i> being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women in ancient Rome</a> shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a>) and women reached freedom from <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a></i>, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allied foreign cities were often given the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Rights">Latin Rights</a>, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (<i>peregrini</i>), which gave their citizens rights under <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those <i>cum suffragio</i> ("with vote"; enrolled in a <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe#The_Servian_tribes" title="Roman tribe">Roman tribe</a> and able to take part in the <i>comitia tributa</i>) and <i>sine suffragio</i> ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91–88 BC)">Social War</a> of 91–88 BC, and full <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in 212, with the exception of the <i>dediticii</i>, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-dediticii_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dediticii-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_maschile.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/220px-Busto_maschile.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/330px-Busto_maschile.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/440px-Busto_maschile.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="1663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a> fresco of a young man with a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated <a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">slaves</a>, called <i><a href="/wiki/Paedagogi" class="mw-redirect" title="Paedagogi">paedagogi</a></i>, usually of Greek origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Lecture_13_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lecture_13-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Roman traditions</a>, and public affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Lecture_13_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lecture_13-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">political figure</a> at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143]_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143]-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ludus" class="extiw" title="wikt:ludus">ludus</a></i>, where a teacher (called a <i>litterator</i> or a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/magister" class="extiw" title="wikt:magister"><i>magister ludi</i></a>, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TexEd_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a <i>grammaticus</i>) taught them about <a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Roman literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TexEd_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the age of 16, some students went on to <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhetor" class="extiw" title="wikt:rhetor">rhetor</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TexEd_148-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorise the laws of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Roman Constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History of the Roman Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_citizenship#Roman_conceptions_of_citizenship" title="History of citizenship">History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship</a></div> <p>Initially, Rome was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">kings</a>, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316–42_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316–42-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may have merely been the chief executive of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Senate and the people</a>. In military matters, the king's authority (<i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></i>) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">state religion</a>. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the <a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Comitia Curiata</a>, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Comitia Calata</a>, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the <a href="/wiki/Festival" title="Festival">feast</a> and holiday schedule for the next month. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/250px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/375px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/500px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>Representation of a sitting of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> attacks <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catilina</a>, from a 19th-century fresco by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Maccari" title="Cesare Maccari">Cesare Maccari</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Madama,_Rome" title="Palazzo Madama, Rome">Palazzo Madama</a>, home to Italy's Senate</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggles</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. The word republic comes from the Latin <i><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a></i>, which literally translates to "public business". <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Roman laws</a> traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (<a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Comitia Tributa</a>). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. </p><p>In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (<i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">auctoritas</a></i>), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> by <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a> (<i>Censura</i>), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a>, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a> were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive. </p><p>The Republic had no fixed <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, and collected taxes through the practice of <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a>. Government positions such as quaestor, <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedile</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">praefect</a> were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a> were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> was portrayed as only a <i><a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a></i>, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a>, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned <a href="/wiki/Budget" title="Budget">budget</a>. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history of the Roman military</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/100px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/150px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/200px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="234" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Category:Military of ancient Rome">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military of ancient Rome</a> <div style="font-size:70%;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">753 BC</a> – <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">AD 476</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_army_unit_types" title="List of Roman army unit types">Unit types and ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy#Fleets" title="Roman navy">Fleets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_admirals" title="Category:Ancient Roman admirals">Admirals</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaign history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_wars_and_battles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman wars and battles">Wars and battles</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technological history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Military engineering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">Triumphal arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="font-size:50%;line-height:0.5em;"> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy and tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">Walls</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Britannicus" title="Limes Britannicus">Limes Britannicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alb_Limes" title="Alb Limes">Alb Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautertal_Limes" title="Lautertal Limes">Lauter Valley Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Germanic_Limes" title="Lower Germanic Limes">Lower Germanic Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Limes" title="Main Limes">Main Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neckar-Odenwald_Limes" title="Neckar-Odenwald Limes">Neckar-Odenwald Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Rhaetian_Limes" title="Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes">Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetterau_Limes" title="Wetterau Limes">Wetterau Limes</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danube%E2%80%93Iller%E2%80%93Rhine_Limes" title="Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes">Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norican_Limes" class="mw-redirect" title="Norican Limes">Norican Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Claustra_Alpium_Iuliarum" title="Claustra Alpium Iuliarum">Claustra Alpium Iuliarum</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Limes" title="Pannonian Limes">Pannonian Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Alutanus" title="Limes Alutanus">Limes Alutanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Moesiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Limes Moesiae">Limes Moesiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Wall" title="Trajan's Wall">Trajan's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasian_Wall" title="Anastasian Wall">Anastasian Wall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Dykes" title="Devil's Dykes">Limes Sarmatiae</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Mauretaniae" title="Limes Mauretaniae">Limes Mauretaniae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/220px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/330px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/440px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus" title="Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus">Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus</a>, c. 122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long <i><a href="/wiki/Scutum_(shield)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scutum (shield)">scuta</a></i> and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain mail</a> armour.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%C3%B6merturm,_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/170px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/255px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/340px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3684" data-file-height="3791" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">tower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(architecture)" title="Reconstruction (architecture)">reconstruction</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Rhaetian_Limes" title="Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes">Limes</a> – <a href="/wiki/Taunus" title="Taunus">Taunus</a> / Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>The early <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BC</span>) was, like those of other contemporary <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> influenced by Greek civilisation, a citizen <i><a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a></i> that practised <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> tactics. It was small and organised in five classes (in parallel to the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">comitia centuriata</a></i>, the body of citizens organised politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-potter_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potter-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favour of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called <i><a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">maniples</a></i> could manoeuvre more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legion</a>, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-potter_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potter-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Republican legion consisted of five sections: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (<i><a href="/wiki/Hastati" title="Hastati">hastati</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Principes" title="Principes">principes</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Triarii" title="Triarii">triarii</a>)</i>, a force of light infantry (<i><a href="/wiki/Velites" title="Velites">velites</a></i>), and the cavalry (<i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i>). With the new organisation came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-potter_151-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potter-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199633_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199633-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an <i>adsiduus</i>) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and who supplied his own equipment. After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a> (<i>stipendium</i>). By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Final_War_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Final War of the Roman Republic">Civil War</a>, Augustus reorganised Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, the tactical organisation of the Army continued to evolve. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">auxilia</i></span> remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the <i>cohortes equitatae</i>, combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636–37_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636–37-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (253–268 AD) began a reorganisation that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">comitatenses</a></i> or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (<i><a href="/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei">limitanei</a></i>) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defence. The basic units of the field army were regimental; <i>legiones</i> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">auxilia</i></span> for infantry and <i><a href="/wiki/Vexillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vexillation">vexillationes</a></i> for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower—800 infantry and 400 cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a <i><a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">comes</a></i>. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a></i>. By 400 AD, <i>foederati</i> regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i>, would have served first as <i><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestor</a></i> (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as <i><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-bcorrey_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bcorrey-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121–125_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121–125-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate"><i>propraetor</i></a> or <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate"><i>proconsul</i></a> (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a <i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legatus</a></i> (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (<i><a href="/wiki/Legatus_legionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus legionis">legatus legionis</a></i>) and served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245–252_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245–252-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (<a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux"><i>duces</i></a>) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighbouring barbarian peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_navy">Roman navy</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/220px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/330px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/440px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption>A Roman naval <a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">bireme</a> depicted in a relief from the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Fortuna_Primigenia" title="Temple of Fortuna Primigenia">Temple of Fortuna Primigenia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Praeneste" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeneste">Praeneste</a> (<a href="/wiki/Palestrina" title="Palestrina">Palastrina</a>), <sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was built <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 120 BC</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (<a href="/wiki/Museo_Pio-Clementino" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo Pio-Clementino">Museo Pio-Clementino</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Less is known about the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a> than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as <i>duumviri navales</i> commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">First Punic War</a> required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The <a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">quinquereme</a> was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more manoeuvrable vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As compared with a <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a>, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser manoeuvrability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvus (weapon)">boarding tactics</a> using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Galleys" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys">ram</a>. Ships were commanded by a <i><a href="/wiki/Navarch" title="Navarch">navarch</a></i>, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (<i>classes</i>) were part of the <i>limitanei</i> (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbours along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199699–101_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199699–101-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Roman commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Roman finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman currency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Roman metallurgy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/440px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2162" data-file-height="2005" /></a><figcaption>Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the <i><a href="/wiki/Fullonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullonica">fullonica</a></i> of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on <a href="/wiki/Farming_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming in ancient Rome">farming</a> and trade. Agricultural <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> estates had supplanted the <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Sicily and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">wine</a> were Italy's main exports. Two-tier <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> was practised, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare. </p><p>Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and <a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">quarrying</a> of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers. </p><p>The economy of the early Republic was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholding</a> and paid labour. However, foreign wars and conquests made <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave labour</a> for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labour become more economical than slave ownership. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercati_di_Traiano,_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/220px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/330px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/440px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> system, with <a href="/wiki/Brass_instrument" title="Brass instrument">brass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metal</a> coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across <a href="/wiki/Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">central Italy</a>. The original <a href="/wiki/British_coinage" class="mw-redirect" title="British coinage">copper coins</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">as</a></i>) had a face value of one <a href="/wiki/Pound_(weight)#Origins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pound (weight)">Roman pound</a> of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> began debasing the silver <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal</a> value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value. </p><p>Horses were expensive and other <a href="/wiki/Pack_animal" title="Pack animal">pack animals</a> were slower. Mass trade on the <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a> connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These roads were designed for wheels.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, there was transport of <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a> between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Roman maritime trade</a> in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Gades</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> via <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, spanning the entire length of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScarre1995_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarre1995-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. </p><p>Some economists consider the Roman Empire a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Family_in_ancient_Rome" title="Family in ancient Rome">Family in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galla_Placidia_(rechts)_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/220px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/330px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/440px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1407" data-file-height="1438" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gold_glass" title="Gold glass">gold glass</a> portrait of a family from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">The Greek inscription</a> on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a></i> who is absent in the portrait.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii,_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/220px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/330px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/440px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1866" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>A funerary relief with members of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Vibia_gens" title="Vibia gens">Vibia</a>, late 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The basic units of Roman society were households and families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family (<i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a></i>), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adoption</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, some powerful families, or <i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gentes Maiores</a></i>, came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a></i> (father of the family), who held lawful authority (<i>patria potestas</i>, "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extreme expressions of this power—the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offences, including simple disobedience—were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A <i>pater familias</i> had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic <i>pater familias</i> was expected to consult senior members of his household and <i>gens</i> over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to <a href="/wiki/Infant_exposure" title="Infant exposure">infant exposure</a> (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the <i>pater familias</i>. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his <i>potestas</i> over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called <i><a href="/wiki/Nexum" title="Nexum">nexum</a></i>, but this was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">be lawfully freed</a>, with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">client-patron relationship</a>, one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11],_24–32_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11],_24–32-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In law, a <i>pater familias</i> held <i>potestas</i> over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a <i>pater familias</i>, nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11,_24–32]_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11,_24–32]-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (<i>manus</i>) of their husbands' <i>pater familias</i>. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839–40_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839–40-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, <i>gens</i>, and the state. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many <i>gentes</i>; <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> tried to address this through state intervention, offering rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_and_dates">Time and dates</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_timekeeping" title="Roman timekeeping">Roman timekeeping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul#Consular_dating" title="Roman consul">Roman consul § Consular dating</a></div> <p>Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour". Midday was called <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meridies" class="extiw" title="wikt:meridies">meridies</a></i> and it is from this word that the terms <i>am</i> (<i>ante meridiem</i>) and <i>pm</i> (<i>post meridiem</i>) stem. The English word "noon" comes from <i>nona</i> ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in ancient Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans had clocks (<i>horologia</i>), which included giant public <a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundials</a> (<i>solaria</i>) and water clocks (<i><a href="/wiki/Water_clock#Greco-Roman_world" title="Water clock">clepsydrae</a></i>). </p><p>The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the <a href="/wiki/Nundinae" title="Nundinae">nundinum</a> or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The <a href="/wiki/Seven-day_week" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven-day week">seven-day week</a>, first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>. Romans <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_days_of_the_week" title="Names of the days of the week">named week days</a> after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD. Roman months had three important days: the <a href="/wiki/Kalends" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalends">calends</a> (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, i.e. 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days. </p><p>The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>, the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Caesar">Augustus Caesar</a>. </p><p>The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul#Consular_dating" title="Roman consul">consular dating</a>, which identified years by the two <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> who ruled each year. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the <a href="/wiki/Indiction" title="Indiction"><i>indictio</i></a>, a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to present day, was <i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">ab urbe condita</a></i>, which counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/290px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/435px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/580px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">seven hills of Rome</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on <a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">seven hills</a>. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>. It had <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasiums</a>, marketplaces, functional sewers, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">bath complexes</a> complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">country villas</a>. </p><p>In the capital city of Rome, there were <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial</a> <a href="/wiki/House" title="House">residences</a> on the elegant <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>, from which the word <i>palace</i> derives. The low <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeian</a> and middle <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian</a> classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or <a href="/wiki/Insulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulae">insulae</a>, which were almost like modern <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taberna" title="Taberna">taberna</a>. These people, provided with a <a href="/wiki/Grain_supply_to_the_city_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain supply to the city of Rome">free supply of grain</a>, and entertained by <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial games</a>, were enrolled as <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">clients of patrons</a> among the upper class <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div> <p>The native <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> of the Romans was <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic language</a> the <a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">grammar of which</a> relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> attached to <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a> was based on the <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Italic alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a>, which was in turn based on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although surviving <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> consists almost entirely of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, an artificial and highly stylised and polished <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a> from the 1st century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> of the Roman Empire was <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, and eventually in pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the <a href="/wiki/Punic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic wars">punic wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,268Rochette2018114-115,118_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,268Rochette2018114-115,118-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the eastern part of the Roman Empire (and later the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>), Latin was never able to replace Greek, a legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2018108_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justinian would be the last emperor to use Latin in government and marks when Greek officially took over.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998203Kaldellis2023289Rochette2011562Rochette2023283_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998203Kaldellis2023289Rochette2011562Rochette2023283-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into many distinct <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine the Great and Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/440px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2458" data-file-height="2680" /></a><figcaption>Punishment of <a href="/wiki/Ixion" title="Ixion">Ixion</a>: in the center is <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a> holding the <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> and on the right <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a> sits on her throne. Behind her <a href="/wiki/Iris_(mythology)" title="Iris (mythology)">Iris</a> stands and gestures. On the left is <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a> (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. <a href="/wiki/Nephele" title="Nephele">Nephele</a> sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a> in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vettii" title="House of the Vettii">House of the Vettii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Fourth Style</a> (60–79 AD).</figcaption></figure> <p>Archaic <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a>, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200324_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200324-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called <i><a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">numina</a></i>. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own <i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">genius</a></i>, or divine soul. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a> was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the <i><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a></i>, was the head of the state religion. <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamens</a> took care of the cults of various gods, while <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> were trusted with taking the <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspices</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">sacred king</a> took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the formalised <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">imperial cult</a> became increasingly prominent. </p><p>As contact with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> increased, the old <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman gods</a> became increasingly associated with <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">Greek gods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis2000166–168_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000166–168-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis2000_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">persecution of Christians</a> reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>, with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_and_morality">Ethics and morality</h3></div> <p>Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.<sup id="cite_ref-HuffPo:_Bread_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HuffPo:_Bread-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas modern societies consider <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HuffPo:_Bread_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HuffPo:_Bread-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (<i>virtus</i>), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (<i>moderatio</i>), forgiveness and understanding (<i>clementia</i>), fairness (<i>severitas</i>), and loyalty (<i><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">pietas</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (<i>univira</i>), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (<i>pudicitia</i>). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, prostitution was an accepted and regulated practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Dillon_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dillon-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art,_music_and_literature"><span id="Art.2C_music_and_literature"></span>Art, music and literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre of ancient Rome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art_collection_in_ancient_Rome" title="Art collection in ancient Rome">Art collection in ancient Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_(painting)" title="Ancient Rome (painting)">Ancient Rome (painting)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_of_the_Mysteries_(Pompeii)_-_frescos_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/220px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/330px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/440px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2922" data-file-height="3004" /></a><figcaption>Frescoes from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, Italy, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman artwork</a> dated to the mid-1st century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/220px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/330px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/440px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2712" data-file-height="2670" /></a><figcaption>Woman playing a <i><a href="/wiki/Kithara" title="Kithara">kithara</a></i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Boscoreale" title="Villa Boscoreale">Villa Boscoreale</a>, Italy, circa 40–30 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman painting styles show <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> influences, and surviving examples are primarily <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a> used to adorn the walls and ceilings of <a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">country villas</a>, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, and other materials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MetstuffonRpaint_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MetstuffonRpaint-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">four periods</a>. </p><p>The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a>, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the <a href="/wiki/Realism_(visual_arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism (visual arts)">realism</a> of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a <a href="/wiki/Monochrome" title="Monochrome">monochrome</a> background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns. </p><p>Portrait sculpture used youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Antonines" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonines">Antonine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a> periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief sculptures</a>, usually depicting Roman victories. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Roman music</a> was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Greek music</a>, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<sup id="cite_ref-iClassics_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iClassics-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Roman military</a>, musical instruments such as the <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tuba#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:tuba">tuba</a></i> (a long trumpet) or the <i><a href="/wiki/Cornu_(horn)" title="Cornu (horn)">cornu</a></i> were used to give various commands, while the <i><a href="/wiki/Buccina" title="Buccina">buccina</a></i> (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Lituus" title="Lituus">lituus</a></i> (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199889_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199889-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Music was used in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Roman amphitheatres</a> between fights and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)" title="Odeon (building)">odea</a></i>, and in these settings is known to have featured the <i>cornu</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Hydraulis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulis">hydraulis</a></i> (a type of water organ).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998349–350_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998349–350-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most religious rituals featured musical performances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998300_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998300-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-iClassics_202-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iClassics-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a>, paintings, and sculptures found in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant2005130–134_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2005130–134-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature_and_Libraries">Literature and Libraries</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a> telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>. </p><p>Ancient Rome's literary contributions are still recognized today and the works by ancient Roman authors were available in bookshops as well as in public and private libraries. Many scholars and statesmen of ancient Rome cultivated private libraries that were used both as demonstrations of knowledge and displays of wealth and power.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private libraries were so commonly encountered that Vitruvius wrote about where libraries should be situated within a villa.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to numerous private libraries, the Roman Empire saw the establishment of early public libraries. </p><p>Although Julius Caesar had intended to establish public libraries to further establish Rome as a great cultural center like Athens and Alexandria, he died before this was accomplished. Caesar's former lieutenant, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Asinius_Pollio" title="Gaius Asinius Pollio">Gaius Asinius Pollio</a>, took up the project and opened the first public library in Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Atrium_Libertatis" title="Atrium Libertatis">Atrium Libertatis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, Domitian, and Trajan also founded or expanded public libraries in Rome during their reigns.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included the <a href="/wiki/Ulpian_Library" title="Ulpian Library">Ulpian Library</a> in Trajan's Forum and libraries in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Palatinus" title="Temple of Apollo Palatinus">Temple of Apollo Palatinus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a> in the Roman Forum, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Divus_Augustus" title="Temple of Divus Augustus">Temple of Divus Augustus</a>, which was dedicated to Minerva when it was  rebuilt under Emperor Domitian's orders.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these, including the library at the Temple of Divus Augustus also served as archives.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_213-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Rome had more than two dozen public libraries.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome was not the only city to benefit from such institutions. As the Roman Empire spread, public libraries were established in other major cities and cultural centers including Ephesos, Athens, and <a href="/wiki/Timgad" title="Timgad">Timgad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most public libraries of this time were not built expressly for that purpose, instead sharing space in temples, baths, and other community buildings. In addition to serving as repositories for books, public libraries hosted orations by authors.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_207-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These recitations served as social gatherings and allowed those who may not be literate to be entertained by poetry, epics, philosophical treatises, and other works. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Ancient Roman cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Ancient Rome and wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Food_and_dining_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and dining in the Roman Empire">Food and dining in the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno,_III_secolo_dc..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/220px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/330px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/440px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="1647" /></a><figcaption>A boy with a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a>, on the June panel from a 3rd-century mosaic depicting the months, in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/St_Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St Petersburg">St Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of <a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">modern Italian cooking</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> discussed more than 30 varieties of <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a>, 40 kinds of pear, <a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">figs</a> (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) as well as <a href="/wiki/Celery" title="Celery">celery</a>, garlic, some <a href="/wiki/Flower_bulb" class="mw-redirect" title="Flower bulb">flower bulbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Brassica" title="Brassica">brassicas</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Kale" title="Kale">kale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broccoli" title="Broccoli">broccoli</a>), lettuce, <a href="/wiki/Endive" title="Endive">endive</a>, onion, <a href="/wiki/Leek" title="Leek">leek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asparagus" title="Asparagus">asparagus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radish" title="Radish">radishes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parsnip" title="Parsnip">parsnips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beet">beets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Green peas">green peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chard" title="Chard">chard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardoon" title="Cardoon">cardoons</a>, olives, and <a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PatrickFaas_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PatrickFaas-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.<sup id="cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, <a href="/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">spinach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplant</a> (aubergine) were introduced later from the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, and tomatoes, potatoes, <a href="/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">capsicum</a> peppers, and maize (the modern source of <a href="/wiki/Polenta" title="Polenta">polenta</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-PatrickFaas_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PatrickFaas-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> fruits.<sup id="cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially <a href="/wiki/Sausage" title="Sausage">sausages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MaguelonneToussaintSamat_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaguelonneToussaintSamat-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> and large-scale industries devoted to <a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">oyster farming</a>. The Romans also engaged in <a href="/wiki/Heliciculture" title="Heliciculture">snail farming</a> and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as <a href="/wiki/Mullet_(fish)" title="Mullet (fish)">mullet</a> raised in the fishery at <a href="/wiki/Cosa" title="Cosa">Cosa</a>, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".<sup id="cite_ref-John_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, a breakfast called <i>ientaculum</i><sup id="cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate <i><a href="/wiki/Cena" title="Cena">cena</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called <i>vesperna</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Artman,_John_page_26_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artman,_John_page_26-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the increased importation of foreign foods, the <i>cena</i> grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the <i>vesperna</i><sup id="cite_ref-Artman,_John_page_26_225-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artman,_John_page_26-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal <i>prandium</i> became a light meal to hold one over until <i>cena</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede,_410_dc_ca._06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/400px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/600px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/800px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Detail of a <a href="/wiki/Paleochristian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleochristian">Paleochristian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a> from the basilica of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">Santa Pudenziana</a> in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint <a href="/wiki/Pudentiana" title="Pudentiana">Pudentiana</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a>, a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events. At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Paenula" title="Paenula">paenula</a></i> (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> was the <i><a href="/wiki/Pallium_(Roman_cloak)" title="Pallium (Roman cloak)">pallium</a></i>, which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunics</a> very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the <a href="/wiki/Pileus_(hat)" title="Pileus (hat)"><i>pileus pannonicus</i></a>. At the Late Empire the <i><a href="/wiki/Paludamentum" title="Paludamentum">paludamentum</a></i> (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the first emperor) while the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatic" title="Dalmatic">dalmatic</a> (also used by the Christian clergy) began to spread throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Games_and_recreation">Games and recreation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_physical_training_and_fitness" title="History of physical training and fitness">History of physical training and fitness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/220px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/330px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/440px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3654" data-file-height="2904" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">Gladiator</a> combat was strictly a spectator sport. This <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">mosaic</a> shows combatants and referee, from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villa</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nennig" title="Nennig">Nennig</a>, Germany, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2nd</span>–3rd century AD.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/220px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/330px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/440px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4227" data-file-height="2747" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Bikini" title="Bikini">bikini</a> girls" <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>, showing women playing sports, from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Romana_del_Casale" title="Villa Romana del Casale">Villa Romana del Casale</a>, Italy, Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a>, 4th century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">jumping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wrestling" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">boxing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racing" title="Racing">racing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-SPQRonline_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPQRonline-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling <a href="/wiki/American_handball" title="American handball">handball</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dice_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Dice game">Dice games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gamble games</a> were popular pastimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising <a href="/wiki/Tavern" title="Tavern">taverns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as <a href="/wiki/Leapfrog" title="Leapfrog">leapfrog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SPQRonline_228-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPQRonline-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's <a href="/wiki/Colisseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Colisseum">Colisseum</a> was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial</a> combats. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to public death. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">Chariot racing</a> was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It could seat around 150,000 people;<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours; some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Ancient Roman technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/330px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/440px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in France is a <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a> built in c. 19 BC. It is a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and not rivalled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">insulated glazing</a>, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. <a href="/wiki/Trade_(profession)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade (profession)">Artisans</a> guarded technologies as <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Roman civil engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">military engineering</a> constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">arenas</a>. Many monuments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. </p><p>The Romans were renowned for their <a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">architecture</a>, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "<a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical architecture</a>". Although there were many differences from <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Greece">Greek architecture</a>, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">orders</a> of columns, <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">composite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan</a>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>, which was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. </p><p>In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> widely. Concrete was <a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">invented</a> in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a>, and soon supplanted <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in the 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> wrote <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i></span>, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">glassblowing</a> soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a>'s campaigns in Greece. </p><p>The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between AD 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles (1,700 km) away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 metres (13 ft) long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne" title="Saône">Saône</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> rivers in what is now the city of <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a> in present-day France.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/220px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/330px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/440px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a> (<i>Via Appia</i>), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today</figcaption></figure> <p>With solid foundations and good drainage,<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a> were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303]_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303]-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_publicus" title="Cursus publicus">cursus publicus</a></i>, and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to 80 km (50 mi) a day. </p><p>The Romans constructed numerous <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a> to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">their agriculture</a>. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">11 aqueducts</a> with a combined length of 450 km (280 mi). The Romans also made major advancements in <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>. Romans were particularly famous for their public <a href="/wiki/Bathing" title="Bathing">baths</a>, called <i><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a></i>, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses had <a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">flush toilets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tap_water" title="Tap water">indoor plumbing</a>, and a complex <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a> system, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a></i>, was used to drain the local <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a> and carry waste into the Tiber. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>, which contributed to <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">fall of Rome</a>; however, lead content would have been minimised.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grout2011_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grout2011-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a></div> <p>Ancient Rome is the progenitor of <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western civilisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Ancient Rome">political system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">military</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a>, government and many factors and aspects of western civilisation are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalised Western civilisation, playing a role in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_and_secondary_sources">Primary and secondary sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman historiography</a></div> <p>The two longest ancient accounts of the Roman history, the histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years later than the date for the founding of the republic and 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a></i> and other books from obscure authors. Historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs, and to flatter their patrons.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> wrote his own accounts of his military campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Civil War</a> in part to impress his contemporaries.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a></i> of Suetonius, and Plutarch's <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Bellum Catilinae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Bellum Jugurthinum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Gallico">De Bello Gallico</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Civili" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Civili">De Bello Civili</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> – <i>Roman Antiquities</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a></i> (<i>De Vita Caesarum</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annales</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Histories</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i> (a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> – <i>Historia Romana</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> – <i>History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> – <i>Res Gestae</i></li></ul> <p>Interest in studying, and idealising, ancient Rome became prevalent during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i> "began the modern study of Roman history in the English-speaking world".<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Barthold Georg Niebuhr</a> was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote <i>The Roman History</i>, tracing the period until the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic war</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleonic</a>, <i>The History of Romans</i> by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Duruy" title="Victor Duruy">Victor Duruy</a> highlighted the <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesarean</a> period popular at the time. <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome_(Mommsen)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Rome (Mommsen)">History of Rome</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman constitutional law">Roman constitutional law</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i>, all by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-kirjasto_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kirjasto-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> became milestones. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bagnall_Bury" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bagnall Bury">John Bagnall Bury</a> – <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Michael Grant</a> – <i>The Roman World</i><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Levick" title="Barbara Levick">Barbara Levick</a> – <i>Claudius</i><sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Barthold Georg Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hayes_Scullard" title="Howard Hayes Scullard">Howard Hayes Scullard</a> – <i>The History of the Roman World</i><sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Ronald Syme</a> – <i>The Roman Revolution</i><sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a> – <i>Caesar: The Life of a Colossus</i> and <i>How Rome fell</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a> - <a href="/wiki/SPQR:_A_History_of_Ancient_Rome" title="SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome">SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_classical_studies" title="Outline of classical studies">Outline of classical studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline of Roman history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectivals_and_demonyms_for_regions_in_Greco-Roman_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectivals and demonyms for regions in Greco-Roman antiquity">Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Romans" title="List of ancient Romans">List of ancient Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">List of Roman civil wars and revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region" title="List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region">List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The specific dates vary, depending on whether one follows Roman tradition, modern archaeology, or competing views of which particular events mark endpoints.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire. <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007">Scheidel, Saller & Morris 2007</a>, p. 2 estimates 60 million.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1">Goldsmith, Raymond W. (September 1984). "An Estimate of the Size And Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire". <i>Review of Income and Wealth</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x">10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Income+and+Wealth&rft.atitle=An+Estimate+of+the+Size+And+Structure+of+the+National+Product+of+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263&rft.date=1984-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x&rft.aulast=Goldsmith&rft.aufirst=Raymond+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> estimates 55.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beloch, Karl Julius (1886). <i>Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt</i> (in German). Duncker. p. 507.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bev%C3%B6lkerung+der+griechisch-r%C3%B6mischen+Welt&rft.pages=507&rft.pub=Duncker&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Beloch&rft.aufirst=Karl+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> estimates 54.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2007). <i>Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 51, 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-2721-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-2721-1"><bdi>978-0-1992-2721-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contours+of+the+World+Economy%2C+1%E2%80%932030+AD.+Essays+in+Macro-Economic+History&rft.pages=51%2C+120&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-2721-1&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> estimates 48.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-population.php">Roman Empire Population</a> estimates 65 (while mentioning several other estimates between 55 and 120).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xvcAhdF-VlgC&pg=PA3"><i>Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor</i></a>. Random House. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4933-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4933-2"><bdi>978-1-4464-4933-2</bdi></a>. <q>[T]he most likely estimate for the reign of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marcus+Aurelius%3A+Warrior%2C+Philosopher%2C+Emperor&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4464-4933-2&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxvcAhdF-VlgC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard (1978). <i>Atlas of world population history</i>. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1405-1076-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-1405-1076-1"><bdi>0-1405-1076-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4150954">4150954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4292284M">4292284M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+world+population+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4150954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4292284M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-1405-1076-1&rft.aulast=McEvedy&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Jones%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>an average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html">Historical Estimates of World Population</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131013110506/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html">Archived</a> 13 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kremer" title="Michael Kremer">Kremer, Michael</a> (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990" in <i>The Quarterly Journal of Economics</i> 108(3): 681–716.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought in every year but five.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Later in Christian liturgy, "noon" came to describe the <a href="/wiki/Nones_(liturgy)" title="Nones (liturgy)">nones</a>, a time of prayer originally at 3 pm but later at midday, so "noon" became synonymous with midday.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome">"ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, & History"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ancient+Rome+%7C+Facts%2C+Maps%2C+%26+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2Fancient-Rome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". <i>Social Science History</i>. <b>3</b> (3/4): 125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532">0145-5532</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Size+and+Duration+of+Empires%3A+Growth-Decline+Curves%2C+600+B.C.+to+600+A.D.&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=125&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0145-5532&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1170959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1170959&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369">10.5195/JWSR.2006.369</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5195%252FJWSR.2006.369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuretOzouf1989" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC"><i>A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 793. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4"><bdi>978-0-6741-7728-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Dictionary+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=793&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-6741-7728-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbGxiE6jvzOcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuckhamWhite1996" class="citation book cs1">Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RMDnAAAAIAAJ"><i>Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4942-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4942-2"><bdi>978-0-7190-4942-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democratization+in+the+South%3A+The+Jagged+Wave&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4942-2&rft.aulast=Luckham&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=White%2C+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRMDnAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellers1994" class="citation book cs1">Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7lgzjettgC"><i>American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution</i></a>. NYU Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8005-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8005-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-8005-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Republicanism%3A+Roman+Ideology+in+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-8005-3&rft.aulast=Sellers&rft.aufirst=Mortimer+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzN7lgzjettgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 519.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231–32-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231–32_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, <i>The Ancient Roman World</i> p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 35. "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Rex</i></span>, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a>, and the other a potsherd found in the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCornell1995">Cornell 1995</a>, pp. 215 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343–44-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343–44_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatyszak2003">Matyszak 2003</a>, pp. 43–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841–42-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841–42_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker1999" class="citation web cs1">Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514025151/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM">"Rome: The Roman Republic"</a>. Washington State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM">the original</a> on 14 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+The+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Washington+State+University&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FROME%2FREPUBLIC.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacus-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lacus_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Magistratus.html">Magistratus</a> by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of <i>A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivius1998" class="citation book cs1">Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy">"Book II"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy"><i>The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5</i></a></span>. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford World's Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-2296-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-2296-3"><bdi>978-0-1928-2296-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+II&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Rome%2C+Books+1%E2%80%935&rft.pub=Oxford+World%27s+Classics&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-2296-3&rft.aulast=Livius&rft.aufirst=Titus+%28Livy%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofromebookso00livy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These are literally Roman <i>librae</i>, from which the pound is derived.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Camillus*.html">[1]</a> Plutarch, <i>Parallel Lives</i>, <i>Life of Camillus</i>, XXIX, 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaywood1971">Haywood 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/350">350</a>–358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus02.html">Pyrrhus of Epirus (2)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414161122/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus02.html">Archived</a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus03.html">Pyrrhus of Epirus (3)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193524/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus03.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettDawsonFieldHawthornwaite2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (2016). <i>The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War</i>. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Warfare%3A+The+Ultimate+Visual+Guide+to+the+History+of+Warfare+from+the+Ancient+World+to+the+American+Civil+War&rft.pages=61&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Doyne&rft.au=Field%2C+Ron&rft.au=Hawthornwaite%2C+Philip&rft.au=Loades%2C+Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 25–26; <a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, pp. 175–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/11*.html">"Cassius Dio – Fragments of Book 11"</a>. <i>penelope.uchicago.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Cassius+Dio+%E2%80%93+Fragments+of+Book+11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCassius_Dio%2F11%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabberton" class="citation book cs1">Labberton, Robert Henlopen. <i>New historical atlas and general history</i>. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+historical+atlas+and+general+history&rft.pages=35&rft.aulast=Labberton&rft.aufirst=Robert+Henlopen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaspari1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Punic Wars"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Punic_Wars">"Punic Wars § The Interval between the First and Second Wars" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 850.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Punic+Wars+%C2%A7+The+Interval+between+the+First+and+Second+Wars&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=850&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Caspari&rft.aufirst=Maximilian+Otto+Bismarck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaywood1971">Haywood 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/376">376</a>–393; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker1999" class="citation web cs1">Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/PUNICWAR.HTM">"Rome: The Punic Wars"</a>. <i>Washington State University</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+State+University&rft.atitle=Rome%3A+The+Punic+Wars&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FROME%2FPUNICWAR.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury1889" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">Bury, John Bagnell</a> (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/home.html"><i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i></a>. MacMillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=John+Bagnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2Fe%2Froman%2Ftexts%2Fsecondary%2Fburlat%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM">Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115720/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM">Archived</a> 1 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/136">136–137</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/fall_of_republic.htm">Fall of the Roman Republic, 133–27 BC</a>. <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liviuseques-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liviuseques_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liviuseques_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html">Eques (Knight)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140807190312/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html">Archived</a> 7 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuma1965" class="citation book cs1">Tuma, Elias H. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZHKOHgvFQC"><i>Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twenty-six+Centuries+of+Agrarian+Reform%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Tuma&rft.aufirst=Elias+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmZHKOHgvFQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Harrison_De_Puy1893" class="citation book cs1">William Harrison De Puy (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nGxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA760"><i>The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles</i></a>. Werner Co. p. 760.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+britannica%3A+a+dictionary+of+arts%2C+sciences%2C+and+general+literature%3B+the+R.S.+Peale+reprint%2C+with+new+maps+and+original+American+articles&rft.pages=760&rft.pub=Werner+Co.&rft.date=1893&rft.au=William+Harrison+De+Puy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnGxJAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_George_Liddell1855" class="citation book cs1">Henry George Liddell (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8mQBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305"><i>A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire</i></a>. p. 305.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Rome%2C+to+the+establishment+of+the+empire&rft.pages=305&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Henry+George+Liddell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8mQBAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml">Julius Caesar (100–44 BC)</a>. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html">[2]</a> Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm">Augustus (31 BC – 14 AD)</a> by Garrett G. Fagan. <i>De Imperatoribus Romanis</i>. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html">Coins of the Emperor Augustus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090525075317/http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html">Archived</a> 25 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; examples are a coin of 38 BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31 BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf"><i>Auguste vu par lui-même et par les autres</i> by Juliette Reid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319090301/http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf">Archived</a> 19 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#ref53">[3]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Augustus</i>, XV.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57">[4]</a> Plutarch, <i>Parallel Lives</i>, <i>Life of Antony</i>, LXXI, 3–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/augustus.shtml">Augustus (63 BC – AD 14)</a> from <a href="/wiki/BBC_Online" title="BBC Online">bbc.co.uk</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangleySouza1996" class="citation book cs1">Langley, Andrew; Souza, de Philip (1996). <i>The Roman Times</i>. Candle Wick Press. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Times&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Candle+Wick+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Langley&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Souza%2C+de+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jucl/hd_jucl.htm">The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD)</a>. by the Department of Greek and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman Art</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. October 2000. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr1915" class="citation book cs1">Orr, James (1915). <i>The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia</i>. Howard-Severance Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2598">2598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopaedia&rft.pages=2598&rft.pub=Howard-Severance+Company&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherman1917" class="citation book cs1">Sherman, Charles Phineas (1917). <i>Roman law in the modern world</i>. The Boston book company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1iuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50">50</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+law+in+the+modern+world&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=The+Boston+book+company&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Charles+Phineas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner Eck, <i>The Age of Augustus</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelham1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Francis_Pelham" title="Henry Francis Pelham">Pelham, Henry Francis</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Augustus"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Augustus">"Augustus" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 912.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Augustus&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=912&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Pelham&rft.aufirst=Henry+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[5]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Augustus</i>, XXI, 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[6]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Augustus</i>, XXI.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140]-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140]_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/140">140</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[7]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Augustus</i>, LXIII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#ref4">[8]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LVII, 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tarver1902-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tarver1902_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Charles_Tarver1902" class="citation book cs1">John Charles Tarver (1902). <i>Tiberius, the tyrant</i>. A. Constable. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3MHPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA342">342–428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tiberius%2C+the+tyrant&rft.pages=342-428&rft.pub=A.+Constable&rft.date=1902&rft.au=John+Charles+Tarver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohann_Jakob_HerzogJohn_Henry_Augustus_Bomberger1858" class="citation book cs1">Johann Jakob Herzog; John Henry Augustus Bomberger (1858). <i>The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia</i>. Lindsay & Blakiston. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VOkXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99">99</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Protestant+Theological+and+Ecclesiastical+Encyclopedia%3A+Being+a+Condensed+Translation+of+Herzog%27s+Real+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Lindsay+%26+Blakiston&rft.date=1858&rft.au=Johann+Jakob+Herzog&rft.au=John+Henry+Augustus+Bomberger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Chautauquan</i>. M. Bailey. 1881. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g8fmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445">445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chautauquan&rft.pages=445&rft.pub=M.+Bailey&rft.date=1881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompendium1858" class="citation book cs1">Compendium (1858). <i>A compendium of universal history. Ancient and modern, by the author of 'Two thousand questions on the Old and New Testaments'<span></span></i>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d4ADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA109">109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+compendium+of+universal+history.+Ancient+and+modern%2C+by+the+author+of+%27Two+thousand+questions+on+the+Old+and+New+Testaments%27&rft.pages=109&rft.date=1858&rft.au=Compendium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSir_William_Smith1890" class="citation book cs1">Sir William Smith (1890). <i>Abaeus-Dysponteus</i>. J. Murray. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ok4pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA776">776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abaeus-Dysponteus&rft.pages=776&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1890&rft.au=Sir+William+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#ref74">[9]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Claudius</i>, XVII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claudius By Barbara Levick. p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Brief History: Brief History of Great Britain</i>. Infobase Publishing. 2009. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brief+History%3A+Brief+History+of+Great+Britain&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>England Invaded</i>. Amberley Publishing Limited. 2014. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+Invaded&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire</i>. Hachette UK. 2010. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Name+of+Rome%3A+The+Men+Who+Won+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Hachette+UK&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102217/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/09/27/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/">"Gaius Suetonius Paulinus"</a>. 27 September 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/">the original</a> on 13 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gaius+Suetonius+Paulinus&rft.date=2016-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfarehistorynetwork.com%2Fdaily%2Fmilitary-history%2Fgaius-suetonius-paulinus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Making Europe: The Story of the West, Volume I to 1790</i>. 2013. p. 162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Europe%3A+The+Story+of+the+West%2C+Volume+I+to+1790&rft.pages=162&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#note119">[10]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Nero</i>, XVI.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/15B*.html#38">[11]</a> Tacitus, <i>Annales</i>, XXXVIII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/nero.htm">Nero (54–68 AD)</a> by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._FearP._Liddel2010" class="citation book cs1">A. Fear; P. Liddel, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/362374">"The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika"</a>. <i>Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History</i>. London: Duckworth. pp. 87–101<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Glory+of+Italy+and+Rome%27s+Universal+Destiny+in+Strabo%27s+Geographika&rft.btitle=Historiae+Mundi.+Studies+in+Universal+History&rft.place=London&rft.pages=87-101&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F362374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.it-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.it_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeaveney1987" class="citation book cs1">Keaveney, Arthur (January 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ojoOAAAAQAAJ"><i>Arthur Keaveney: </i>Rome and the Unification of Italy<i><span></span></i></a>. Croom Helm. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780709931218" title="Special:BookSources/9780709931218"><bdi>9780709931218</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arthur+Keaveney%3A+Rome+and+the+Unification+of+Italy&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1987-01&rft.isbn=9780709931218&rft.aulast=Keaveney&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DojoOAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillanovich2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Billanovich, Giuseppe (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fVylk1KUS84C&dq=Italia+domina+provinciarum&pg=PR13"><i>Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: </i>Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum<i>, Feltrinelli, p.363</i></a> (in Italian). Roberto Pesce. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788896543092" title="Special:BookSources/9788896543092"><bdi>9788896543092</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Libreria+Universitaria+Hoepli%2C+Lezioni+di+filologia%2C+Giuseppe+Billanovich+e+Roberto+Pesce%3A+Corpus+Iuris+Civilis%2C+Italia+non+erat+provincia%2C+sed+domina+provinciarum%2C+Feltrinelli%2C+p.363&rft.pub=Roberto+Pesce&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9788896543092&rft.aulast=Billanovich&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfVylk1KUS84C%26dq%3DItalia%2Bdomina%2Bprovinciarum%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBleicken2015" class="citation book cs1">Bleicken, Jochen (15 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OXqfCgAAQBAJ&dq=Italia+roman+homeland&pg=PT375"><i>Italy: the absolute center of the Republic and the Roman Empire</i></a>. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241003909" title="Special:BookSources/9780241003909"><bdi>9780241003909</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy%3A+the+absolute+center+of+the+Republic+and+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2015-10-15&rft.isbn=9780241003909&rft.aulast=Bleicken&rft.aufirst=Jochen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOXqfCgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DItalia%2Broman%2Bhomeland%26pg%3DPT375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorcillo2010" class="citation book cs1">Morcillo, Martha García (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97">"The Roman Italy: <i>Rectrix Mundi</i> and <i>Omnium Terrarum Parens</i>"</a>. In A. Fear; P. Liddel (eds.). <i>Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472519801" title="Special:BookSources/9781472519801"><bdi>9781472519801</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Italy%3A+Rectrix+Mundi+and+Omnium+Terrarum+Parens&rft.btitle=Historiae+Mundi.+Studies+in+Universal+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781472519801&rft.aulast=Morcillo&rft.aufirst=Martha+Garc%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhb6OAQAAQBAJ%26dq%3DRectrix%2Bmundi%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97"><i>Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana</i></a> (in Italian). Bloomsbury. 20 November 2013. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472519801" title="Special:BookSources/9781472519801"><bdi>9781472519801</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altri+nomi+e+appellativi+relazionati+allo+status+dell%27Italia+in+epoca+romana&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2013-11-20&rft.isbn=9781472519801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhb6OAQAAQBAJ%26dq%3DRectrix%2Bmundi%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1">"Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: <i>Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens</i>"</a> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antico+appellativo+dell%27Italia+romana%3A+Italia+Omnium+Terrarum+Parens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abebooks.it%2Fservlet%2FBookDetailsPL%3Fbi%3D22910180903%26searchurl%3Dsortby%253D20%2526tn%253Ditalia%252Bomnium%252Bterrarum%252Bparens%26cm_sp%3Dsnippet-_-srp1-_-title1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-suetonius-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-suetonius_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Connell1989">O'Connell 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon/page/81">81</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreis" class="citation web cs1">Kreis, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html">"Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana"</a>. <i>The History Guide</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+History+Guide&rft.atitle=Augustus+Caesar+and+the+Pax+Romana&rft.aulast=Kreis&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fancient%2Flecture12b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarre1995-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScarre1995_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScarre1995_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScarre1995">Scarre 1995</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suetonius_Vespasian-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_Vespasian_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_Vespasian_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html"><i>The Twelve Caesars: Vespasian</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twelve+Caesars%3A+Vespasian&rft.au=Suetonius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FSuetonius%2F12Caesars%2FVespasian%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#ref7">[12]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXVI.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#ref9">[13]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Titus</i>, VII, 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#ref53">[14]</a> Suetonius, <i>The Twelve Caesars</i>, <i>Domitian</i>, X.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/domitian-index.html">Titus Flavius Domitianus</a>. Retrieved 29 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html">"Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 68"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cassius+Dio+%E2%80%94+Epitome+of+Book+68&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCassius_Dio%2F68%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXVIII, 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Encyclopedia of European Peoples</i>. Infobase Publishing. 2006. p. 406.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+European+Peoples&rft.pages=406&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html">[15]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXVIII, 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html">[16]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXVIII, 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html">[17]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXVIII, 17–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor</i>. Hachette UK. 2014. p. 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperors+of+Rome%3A+The+Story+of+Imperial+Rome+from+Julius+Caesar+to+the+Last+Emperor&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Hachette+UK&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15"><i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4</i></a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2005. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5"><bdi>978-0-8028-2416-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity%2C+Volume+4&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2%2Fpage%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html">[18]</a> Historia Augusta, <i>Life of Hadrian</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Antoninus_Pius*.html#ref34">[19]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>Life of Antoninus Pius</i>, V, 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dio_LXXII-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dio_LXXII_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dio_LXXII_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassius_Dio" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36">"Epitome of Book LXXII"</a>, <i>Roman History</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epitome+of+Book+LXXII&rft.btitle=Roman+History&rft.au=Cassius+Dio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCassius_Dio%2F72%2A.html%2336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm">Past pandemics that ravaged Europe</a> by Verity Murphy. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 7 November 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731">"Chapter I"</a>. In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+I&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unrv.com/early-empire/five-good-emperors.php">Five Good Emperors</a> from UNRV History. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECary1967704-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECary1967704_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCary1967">Cary 1967</a>, p. 704.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html">[20]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXXVI, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html">[21]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXXVI, 9–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/78*.html">[22]</a> Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, LXXVIII, 22–23.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Caracalla*.html#ref35">[23]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>The Life of Caracalla</i>, VI.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dediticii-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dediticii_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dediticii_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Giessen Papyrus, 40, 7–9 "I grant to all the inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard2015" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary (20 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ"><i>SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</i></a>. Profile. pp. 529–530. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0"><bdi>978-1-8476-5441-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPQR%3A+A+History+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=529-530&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.isbn=978-1-8476-5441-0&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx795CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage376_376]–393-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage376_376]–393_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaywood1971">Haywood 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/376">376</a>–393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Severus_Alexander/3*.html#ref239">[24]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>The Life of Alexander Severus</i>, LIX.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkip_Knox" class="citation web cs1">Skip Knox, E.L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070503114611/http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml">"Crisis of the Third Century (235–285)"</a>. <i>History of Western Civilization</i>. Boise State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml">the original</a> on 3 May 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Western+Civilization&rft.atitle=Crisis+of+the+Third+Century+%28235%E2%80%93285%29&rft.aulast=Skip+Knox&rft.aufirst=E.L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.boisestate.edu%2Fwestciv%2Fempire%2F15.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFHaywood1971">Haywood 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/376">376</a>–393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibbon10-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibbon10_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibbon10_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/731/731-h/731-h.htm#link102HCH0001">"Chapter X"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Online version)</span>. In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+X&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F731%2F731-h%2F731-h.htm%23link102HCH0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Tyranni_XXX*.html">[25]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders</i>, III et XXX.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aurelian/2*.html">[26]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>The Life of Aurelian</i>, XXXII.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html">[27]</a> <i>Historia Augusta</i>, <i>The Life of Claudius</i>, I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLactantius" class="citation cs2">Lactantius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#VII">"VII"</a>, <i>De Mortibus Persecutorum</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VII&rft.btitle=De+Mortibus+Persecutorum&rft.au=Lactantius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.ucalgary.ca%2F~vandersp%2FCourses%2Ftexts%2Flactant%2Flactpers.html%23VII&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joannes Zonaras, <i>Epitome: From Diocletian to the death of Galerius</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm">Diocletian (284–305 AD)</a> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 17 March 1997. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1994-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1994_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWard-Perkins1994">Ward-Perkins 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLactantius" class="citation cs2">Lactantius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#X">"X–XVI"</a>, <i>De Mortibus Persecutorum</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=X%E2%80%93XVI&rft.btitle=De+Mortibus+Persecutorum&rft.au=Lactantius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.ucalgary.ca%2F~vandersp%2FCourses%2Ftexts%2Flactant%2Flactpers.html%23X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). "Chapter XX". In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XX&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink182HCH0001">"Chapter XVII"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Online version)</span>. In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XVII&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F25717%2F25717-h%2F25717-h.htm%23Blink182HCH0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm">Constantine I (306–337 AD)</a> by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/honorius.htm">Honorius (395–423 AD)</a> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 June 1999. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage155_155]-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage155_155]_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/155">155</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink262HCH0001">"Chapter XXVI"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Online version)</span>. In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XXVI&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F25717%2F25717-h%2F25717-h.htm%23Blink262HCH0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/un-dittico-imperiale-oriente-e-occidente-dopo-il-395_%28Storia-della-civilt%C3%A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%29/">"Un dittico imperiale: Oriente e Occidente dopo il 395"</a> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Un+dittico+imperiale%3A+Oriente+e+Occidente+dopo+il+395&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fun-dittico-imperiale-oriente-e-occidente-dopo-il-395_%2528Storia-della-civilt%25C3%25A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lapham, Lewis (1997). <i>The End of the World.</i> New York: Thomas Dunne Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3122-5264-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-3122-5264-1">0-3122-5264-1</a>. pp. 47–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/8*.html#ref16">[28]</a> Bury, J.B.: <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i>, 8, §2.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/6*.html#ref82">[29]</a> Bury, J.B.: <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i>, 6, §4.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/6*.html#3">[30]</a> Bury, J.B.: <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i>, 6, §3.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/9*.html">[31]</a> Bury, J.B.: <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i>, 9.; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html">"The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe"</a>. <i>University of Calgary</i>. August 1996. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html">the original</a> on 12 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Calgary&rft.atitle=The+Germanic+Invasions+of+Western+Europe&rft.date=1996-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fapplied_history%2Ftutor%2Ffirsteuro%2Finvas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/157">157</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm">"Roman Emperors – DIR Romulus Augustulus"</a>. <i>www.roman-emperors.org</i>. 23 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Roman+Emperors+%E2%80%93+DIR+Romulus+Augustulus&rft.date=2022-07-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fauggiero.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm">Romulus Augustulus (475–476 AD) – Two Views</a> by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathisen1998" class="citation web cs1">Mathisen, Ralph A. (8 February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/nepos.htm">"Roman Emperors – DIR Nepos"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roman+Emperors+%E2%80%93+DIR+Nepos&rft.date=1998-02-08&rft.aulast=Mathisen&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fnepos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1944670-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1944670_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1944">Durant & Durant 1944</a>, p. 670.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage347_347]-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage347_347]_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/347">347</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooker'sByzantinepage_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker1999" class="citation web cs1">Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990224072609/http://www.wsu.edu/%7Edee/MA/BYZ.HTM">"The Byzantine Empire"</a>. <i>Washington State University</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MA/BYZ.HTM">the original</a> on 24 February 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+State+University&rft.atitle=The+Byzantine+Empire&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FMA%2FBYZ.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray,_R.S.2004" class="citation book cs1">Bray, R.S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=djPWGnvBm08C&pg=PA26"><i>Armies of Pestilence</i></a>. James Clarke & Co. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2271-7240-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2271-7240-7"><bdi>978-0-2271-7240-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armies+of+Pestilence&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Co&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-2271-7240-7&rft.au=Bray%2C+R.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdjPWGnvBm08C%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreutz,_Barbara_M.1996" class="citation book cs1">Kreutz, Barbara M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qamIQbPLMqgC"><i>Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1587-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1587-8"><bdi>978-0-8122-1587-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Normans%3A+Southern+Italy+in+the+Ninth+and+Tenth+Centuries&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1587-8&rft.au=Kreutz%2C+Barbara+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqamIQbPLMqgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage349_349]-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage349_349]_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/349">349</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/basilii.htm">Basil II (AD 976–1025)</a> by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Flink612HCH0001">"Chapter LXI"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Online version)</span>. In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+LXI&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F25717%2F25717-h%2F25717-h.htm%23Flink612HCH0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/mehmet2.asp">Mehmet II</a> by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/149">149</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501052229/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-20586744.html"><i>Abstract of</i> The population of ancient Rome.</a> by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. 1 December 1997. Retrieved 22 April 2007.; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/journals/CP/29/2/Population_of_Rome*.html#note6">The Population of Rome</a> by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in <i>Classical Philology</i>. Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp. 101–116. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.Morley, <i>Metropolis and Hinterland</i> (Cambridge, 1996) 174–183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawande2014" class="citation book cs1">Gawande, Atul (2014). <i>Being Mortal</i>. Profile Books. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8582-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8582-8"><bdi>978-1-8466-8582-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Mortal&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-8466-8582-8&rft.aulast=Gawande&rft.aufirst=Atul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossi1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rossi, Lino (1981). <i>Rotocalchi di pietra. Segni e disegni dei tempi sui monumenti trionfali dell'Impero romano</i> (in Italian). Jaca Book. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-8164-0071-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-8164-0071-9"><bdi>978-8-8164-0071-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rotocalchi+di+pietra.+Segni+e+disegni+dei+tempi+sui+monumenti+trionfali+dell%27Impero+romano&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Jaca+Book&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-8-8164-0071-9&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=Lino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]_142-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/146">146</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Frost Abbott, <i>Society and Politics in Ancient Rome</i>, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lecture_13-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lecture_13_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lecture_13_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture13b.html">Lecture 13: A Brief Social History of the Roman Empire</a> by Steven Kreis. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_145-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWerner1978">Werner 1978</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143]-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143]_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/143">143</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TexEd-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_148-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225125840/http://www.txclassics.org/exceteducation.htm">Roman Education</a>. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association, by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 27 March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316–42-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316–42_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatyszak2003">Matyszak 2003</a>, pp. 16–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]_150-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeegan1993">Keegan 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/263">263–264</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-potter-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-potter_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-potter_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-potter_151-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2004" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David (2004). <i>The Roman Army and Navy</i>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/67">67–70</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army+and+Navy&rft.pages=67-70&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (1989). <i>The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3945-7188-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-3945-7188-6"><bdi>0-3945-7188-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War%3A+Infantry+Battle+in+Classical+Greece&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-3945-7188-6&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199633-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199633_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy1996">Goldsworthy 1996</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShelton1998" class="citation book cs1">Shelton, Jo-Ann, ed. (1998). <i>As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 245–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1950-8974-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-1950-8974-X"><bdi>0-1950-8974-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=As+the+Romans+Did%3A+A+Sourcebook+in+Roman+Social+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=245-249&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-1950-8974-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakley2004" class="citation book cs1">Oakley, Stephen P. (2004). <i>The Early Republic</i>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/27">27</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Republic&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Oakley&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 249–250 Mackay points out that the number of legions grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a> period (200–235 AD).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636–37-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636–37_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy1996">Goldsworthy 1996</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, pp. 89–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bcorrey-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bcorrey_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrennan2004" class="citation book cs1">Brennan, Correy T. (2004). <i>Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'<span></span></i>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/66">66–68</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Process+Under+the+Republican+%27Constitution%27&rft.pages=66-68&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Brennan&rft.aufirst=Correy+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121–125-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121–125_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy1996">Goldsworthy 1996</a>, pp. 121–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245–252-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245–252_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 245–252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 295–296 Also chapters 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaddington2011" class="citation book cs1">Saddington, D.B. (2011) [2007]. "Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Roman Army</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 201–217 (Plate 12.2 on p. 204). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-2153-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classes%3A+the+Evolution+of+the+Roman+Imperial+Fleets&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.pages=201-217+%28Plate+12.2+on+p.+204%29&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8&rft.aulast=Saddington&rft.aufirst=D.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coarelli, Filippo (1987), <i>I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana</i>. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">This paragraph is based upon <a href="#CITEREFPotter2004">Potter 2004</a>, pp. 76–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199699–101-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199699–101_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, pp. 99–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007" class="citation book cs1">Sabin, Philip; van Wees, Hans; Whitby, Michael, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4aX-W6AVNv8C&pg=PA231"><i>The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6"><bdi>978-0-5217-8274-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Greek+and+Roman+Warfare&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-8274-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4aX-W6AVNv8C%26pg%3DPA231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeseltine2005" class="citation book cs1">Heseltine, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5l000EmoAC"><i>Roads to Rome</i></a>. J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2552-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2552-7"><bdi>978-0-7112-2552-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roads+to+Rome&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7112-2552-7&rft.aulast=Heseltine&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFm5l000EmoAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemin2001" class="citation web cs1">Temin, Peter (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615223139/http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php">"A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire"</a>. <i>Abstract Archives</i>. Economy History Services. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php">the original</a> on 15 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abstract+Archives&rft.atitle=A+Market+Economy+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Temin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Fabstracts%2Farchive%2F0370.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019100706/https://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces.+Desiderius%27+Cross">"Masterpieces. Desiderius' Cross"</a>. <i>Fondazione Brescia Musei</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces%2E+Desiderius%27+Cross">the original</a> on 19 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fondazione+Brescia+Musei&rft.atitle=Masterpieces.+Desiderius%27+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bresciamusei.com%2Fnsantagiulia.asp%3Fnm%3D14%26t%3DMasterpieces%252E%2BDesiderius%2527%2BCross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>. For a description of scholarly research on the Brescia Medallion, see Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Late_Antique_Gold_Glass_online.pdf">A Catalogue of the Late Antique Gold Glass in the British Museum (PDF).</a>" London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council), p. 7. Accessed 2 October 2016. <a href="/wiki/List_of_gold-glass_portraits" class="mw-redirect" title="List of gold-glass portraits">gold glass portrait</a> (most likely by an <a href="/wiki/History_of_Alexandria" title="History of Alexandria">Alexandrian Greek</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">the Egyptian dialect of the inscription</a>), dated 3rd century AD; Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1405-6033-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-1405-6033-5">0-1405-6033-5</a>, p. 25; Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1981-4386-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-1981-4386-9">0-1981-4386-9</a>, pp. 338–340; Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, Vol. 72, (2004), pp. 203–230, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40311081">40311081</a>, p. 207; Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style", in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), <i>Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World</i>, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2071-5">978-1-4051-2071-5</a>, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, <i>Roman Social History, a Sourcebook,</i> Routledge, 2007, p. 72. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-2675-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-2675-6">978-0-4154-2675-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boswell, John Eastburn, "Expositio and Oblatio: The Abandonment of Children and the Ancient and Medieval Family", <i>American Historical Review</i>, <b>89</b>, 1984, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11],_24–32-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11],_24–32_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1998">Casson 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/10">10–11</a>, 24–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11,_24–32]-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11,_24–32]_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1998">Casson 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/10">10–11, 24–32</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777121908/">Family Values in Ancient Rome</a> by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. 2001. Visited 14 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839–40-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839–40_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1987" class="citation book cs1">Rawson, Beryl (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PP7"><i>The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9460-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9460-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-9460-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Family+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9460-4&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Beryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D85Gdul_43DEC%26pg%3DPP7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frier, Bruce W., and McGinn, Thomas A.J. <i>A Casebook on Roman Family Law</i>, Oxford University Press: American Philological Association, 2004, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawson, Beryl, "The Roman Family", in <i>The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives</i>, Cornell University Press, 1986, pp. 30, 40–41.; Galinsky, Karl, <i>Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction</i>, Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 130–132, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-5890-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-5890-0">978-0-6910-5890-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/latol-0-X.html">Latin Online: Series Introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150429221355/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/latol-0-X.html">Archived</a> 29 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvert1999" class="citation web cs1">Calvert, J.B. (8 August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070403040205/http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm">"The Latin Alphabet"</a>. <i>University of Denver</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm">the original</a> on 3 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Denver&rft.atitle=The+Latin+Alphabet&rft.date=1999-08-08&rft.aulast=Calvert&rft.aufirst=J.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.du.edu%2F~etuttle%2Fclassics%2Flatalph.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070810033726/http://classics.lss.wisc.edu/courses/Classical_Latin_Supplement.pdf">Classical Latin Supplement</a>. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">József Herman, <i>Vulgar Latin</i>, English translation 2000, pp. 109–114 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-2001-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-2001-3">978-0-2710-2001-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,268Rochette2018114-115,118-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,268Rochette2018114-115,118_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochette2023">Rochette 2023</a>, p. 263,268; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette 2018</a>, p. 114-115,118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2018108_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette 2018</a>, pp. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998203Kaldellis2023289Rochette2011562Rochette2023283-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998203Kaldellis2023289Rochette2011562Rochette2023283_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 203; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 289; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2011">Rochette 2011</a>, p. 562; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2023">Rochette 2023</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200324-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200324_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatyszak2003">Matyszak 2003</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Gibbon1787" class="citation book cs1">Edward Gibbon (1787). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIbFyM1s54C&pg=PA91"><i>The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. printed for J.J. Tourneisen. p. 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+decline+and+fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=printed+for+J.J.+Tourneisen&rft.date=1787&rft.au=Edward+Gibbon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvIbFyM1s54C%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a75PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA644"><i>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge</i></a>. Encyclopedia Americana Corporation. 1919. p. 644.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+Americana%3A+A+Library+of+Universal+Knowledge&rft.pages=644&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Americana+Corporation&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da75PAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000166–168-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis2000166–168_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillis2000">Willis 2000</a>, pp. 166–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis2000_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillis2000">Willis 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo1.htm">Theodosius I (379–395 AD)</a> by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 February 1999. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HuffPo:_Bread-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HuffPo:_Bread_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HuffPo:_Bread_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstore,_William" class="citation news cs1">Astore, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/william-astore/bread-and-circuses-in-rom_b_3414248.html">"Bread and Circuses in Rome and America"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bread+and+Circuses+in+Rome+and+America&rft.au=Astore%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fwilliam-astore%2Fbread-and-circuses-in-rom_b_3414248.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87_ImL1ryQ8C"><i>Annual Editions: Western Civilization</i></a>. Vol. 1 (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. 2002. p. 68. <q>... where compassion was regarded as a moral defect ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Editions%3A+Western+Civilization&rft.pages=68&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FDushkin&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D87_ImL1ryQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Michael_Anthony2004" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Michael Anthony (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkU9IuW1IuAC"><i>Look Back to Get Ahead: Life Lessons from History's Heroes</i></a>. Arcade Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5597-0727-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5597-0727-5"><bdi>978-1-5597-0727-5</bdi></a>. <q>Gladatorial games were popular because the Romans actually believed that compassion was a vice and a weakness</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Look+Back+to+Get+Ahead%3A+Life+Lessons+from+History%27s+Heroes&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Arcade+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-5597-0727-5&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Michael+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZkU9IuW1IuAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey,_Brian_K.2016" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Brian K., ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=agyhCwAAQBAJ"><i>Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook</i></a>. Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 21–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5851-0796-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5851-0796-4"><bdi>978-1-5851-0796-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=21-28&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5851-0796-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DagyhCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanglands,_Rebecca2006" class="citation book cs1">Langlands, Rebecca (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GBLnttutuOMC"><i>Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-5943-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-5943-1"><bdi>978-0-5218-5943-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+Morality+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=3-20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-5943-1&rft.au=Langlands%2C+Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGBLnttutuOMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dillon-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dillon_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew_DillonLynda_Garland2005" class="citation book cs1">Mathew Dillon; <a href="/wiki/Lynda_Garland" title="Lynda Garland">Lynda Garland</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMNL0jqhygoC"><i>Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 382. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2459-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2459-8"><bdi>978-0-4152-2459-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+From+the+Early+Republic+to+the+Assassination+of+Julius+Caesar&rft.pages=382&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-2459-8&rft.au=Mathew+Dillon&rft.au=Lynda+Garland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMNL0jqhygoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350–352_200-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 350–352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MetstuffonRpaint-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MetstuffonRpaint_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropt/hd_ropt.htm">Roman Painting</a> from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004–10. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iClassics-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iClassics_202-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iClassics_202-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroutPalisca1988" class="citation book cs1">Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ise5AAAAIAAJ"><i>A history of western music</i></a>. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3939-5627-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3939-5627-6"><bdi>978-0-3939-5627-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+western+music&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-3939-5627-6&rft.aulast=Grout&rft.aufirst=Donald+Jay&rft.au=Palisca%2C+Claude+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dise5AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199889-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199889_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998349–350-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998349–350_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 349–350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998300-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998300_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2005130–134-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant2005130–134_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrant2005">Grant 2005</a>, pp. 130–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_207-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_207-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDix1994" class="citation journal cs1">Dix, T. Keith (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25542662">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Public Libraries" in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality"</a>. <i>Libraries & Culture</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 282–296. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0894-8631">0894-8631</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25542662">25542662</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Libraries+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=%22Public+Libraries%22+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+Ideology+and+Reality&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=282-296&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25542662%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0894-8631&rft.aulast=Dix&rft.aufirst=T.+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25542662&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073:book=6:chapter=4:section=1">"Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture, BOOK VI, CHAPTER IV: THE PROPER EXPOSURES OF THE DIFFERENT ROOMS, section 1"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Vitruvius+Pollio%2C+The+Ten+Books+on+Architecture%2C+BOOK+VI%2C+CHAPTER+IV%3A+THE+PROPER+EXPOSURES+OF+THE+DIFFERENT+ROOMS%2C+section+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext.jsp%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0073%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+35.2&redirect=true">"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXV. AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS., CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAITS"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder%2C+The+Natural+History%2C+BOOK+XXXV.+AN+ACCOUNT+OF+PAINTINGS+AND+COLOURS.%2C+CHAP.+2.+%282.%29%E2%80%94THE+HONOUR+ATTACHED+TO+PORTRAITS.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPlin.%2BNat.%2B35.2%26redirect%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/library/Rome">"Library - Ancient Rome, Collections, Archives | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Library+-+Ancient+Rome%2C+Collections%2C+Archives+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Flibrary%2FRome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2008" class="citation journal cs1">Houston, George W. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/15/article/247571">"Tiberius and the Libraries: Public Book Collections and Library Buildings in the Early Roman Empire"</a>. <i>Libraries & the Cultural Record</i>. <b>43</b> (3): 247–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flac.0.0032">10.1353/lac.0.0032</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2166-3033">2166-3033</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161471143">161471143</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Libraries+%26+the+Cultural+Record&rft.atitle=Tiberius+and+the+Libraries%3A+Public+Book+Collections+and+Library+Buildings+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=247-269&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161471143%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2166-3033&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flac.0.0032&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F15%2Farticle%2F247571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaikos2021" class="citation cs2">Staikos, Konstantinos Sp (25 October 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/title/26053">"The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II: From Cicero to Hadrian: The Roman World from the Beginnings of Latin Literature to the Monumental and Private Libraries of the Empire"</a>, <i>The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004473508">10.1163/9789004473508</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-7350-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-7350-8"><bdi>978-9-0044-7350-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+of+the+Library+in+Western+Civilization%2C+Volume+II&rft.atitle=The+History+of+the+Library+in+Western+Civilization%2C+Volume+II%3A+From+Cicero+to+Hadrian%3A+The+Roman+World+from+the+Beginnings+of+Latin+Literature+to+the+Monumental+and+Private+Libraries+of+the+Empire&rft.date=2021-10-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004473508&rft.isbn=978-9-0044-7350-8&rft.aulast=Staikos&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos+Sp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Ftitle%2F26053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_213-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_213-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19">"The Roman forum: its history and its monuments / Ch. Huelsen ; translated by Jesse Benedict Carter"</a>. <i>HathiTrust</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fnjp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19">2027/njp.32101076187390</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HathiTrust&rft.atitle=The+Roman+forum%3A+its+history+and+its+monuments+%2F+Ch.+Huelsen+%3B+translated+by+Jesse+Benedict+Carter.&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fnjp.32101076187390%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fnjp.32101076187390%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd1915" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, C. E. (1915). <i>Public Libraries and Literary Culture in Ancient Rome</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1648-3397-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1648-3397-0"><bdi>978-1-1648-3397-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Libraries+and+Literary+Culture+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1915&rft.isbn=978-1-1648-3397-0&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwright" class="citation web cs1">Cartwright, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1428/libraries-in-the-ancient-world/">"Libraries in the Ancient World"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Libraries+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1428%2Flibraries-in-the-ancient-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeiffer1931" class="citation journal cs1">Pfeiffer, Homer F. (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238558">"The Roman Library at Timgad"</a>. <i>Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome</i>. <b>9</b>: 157–165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4238558">10.2307/4238558</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0065-6801">0065-6801</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238558">4238558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+in+Rome&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Library+at+Timgad&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=157-165&rft.date=1931&rft.issn=0065-6801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4238558%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4238558&rft.aulast=Pfeiffer&rft.aufirst=Homer+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4238558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Carson Webster, <i>The Labors of the Months in Antique and Mediaeval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century,</i> Studies in the Humanities 4 (Northwestern University Press, 1938), p. 128. In the collections of the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCivitello2011" class="citation book cs1">Civitello, Linda (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uaRl9ZUtBYkC&q=cuisine%20of%20ancient%20rome&pg=PR8"><i>Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4704-0371-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4704-0371-6"><bdi>978-0-4704-0371-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuisine+and+Culture%3A+A+History+of+Food+and+People&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-4704-0371-6&rft.aulast=Civitello&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuaRl9ZUtBYkC%26q%3Dcuisine%2520of%2520ancient%2520rome%26pg%3DPR8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phyllis Pray Bober, <i>Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy</i>, University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PatrickFaas-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PatrickFaas_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PatrickFaas_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Faas, <i>Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome</i>, University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhyllisPray-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhyllisPray_221-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Phyllis Pray Bober, <i>Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy</i>, University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MaguelonneToussaintSamat-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MaguelonneToussaintSamat_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, <i>A History of Food</i>, John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John E. Stambaugh, <i>The Ancient Roman City</i>, JHU Press (1988), p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ArtmanJohnAncient_224-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Artman,_John_page_26-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Artman,_John_page_26_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Artman,_John_page_26_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", p. 26, Good Apple,1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/dalmatica/">"Dalmatica"</a> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dalmatica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fvocabolario%2Fdalmatica%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98–108]_227-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1998">Casson 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/98">98–108</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SPQRonline-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SPQRonline_228-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPQRonline_228-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025620/http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm">"Daily Life: Entertainment"</a>. <i>SPQR Online</i>. 1998. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm#leisure">the original</a> on 30 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SPQR+Online&rft.atitle=Daily+Life%3A+Entertainment&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2F26602%2Fentertainment.htm%23leisure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/circusmaximus/circusmaximus.html">Circus Maximus</a>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Humphrey, <i>Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing</i>, University of California Press, 1986, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ancient Roman laws protected against a person corrupting slaves to obtain secrets about the master's arts. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeidman2011" class="citation book cs1">Zeidman, Bob (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/softwareipdetect00zeid_321"><i>The Software IP Detective's Handbook: : Measurement, Comparison, and Infringement Detection</i></a></span>. Prentice Hall. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/softwareipdetect00zeid_321/page/n129">103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1370-3533-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1370-3533-5"><bdi>978-0-1370-3533-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Software+IP+Detective%27s+Handbook%3A+%3A+Measurement%2C+Comparison%2C+and+Infringement+Detection&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-1370-3533-5&rft.aulast=Zeidman&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoftwareipdetect00zeid_321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter1979" class="citation journal cs1">Winter, Thomas Nelson (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/1">"Roman Concrete: The Ascent, Summit, and Decline of an Art"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>7</b>: 137–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Nebraska+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Roman+Concrete%3A+The+Ascent%2C+Summit%2C+and+Decline+of+an+Art&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=137-143&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Nelson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fclassicsfacpub%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Choi, Charles Q. (4 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidescience.org/news/muddy-find-shows-how-foreign-timber-helped-build-ancient-rome">"Muddy Find Shows How Foreign Timber Helped Build Ancient Rome."</a> <i>InsideScience.org</i>. Retrieved 22 May 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Roman-road-system">"Roman road system"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i>. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica.com&rft.atitle=Roman+road+system&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2FRoman-road-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303]-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303]_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeegan1993">Keegan 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/303">303</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge1992" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, A.T. (1992). <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>. Duckworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780715621943" title="Special:BookSources/9780715621943"><bdi>9780715621943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Aqueducts+and+Water+Supply&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780715621943&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grout2011-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grout2011_237-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrout" class="citation web cs1">Grout, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html">"Lead Poisoning and Rome"</a>. University of Chicago. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120526104339/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lead+Poisoning+and+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.aulast=Grout&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2F~grout%2Fencyclopaedia_romana%2Fwine%2Fleadpoisoning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob_Dorsey_Forrest1906" class="citation book cs1">Jacob Dorsey Forrest (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnJDAAAAIAAJ"><i>The development of western civilization: a study in ethical, economic and political evolution</i></a>. The University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+western+civilization%3A+a+study+in+ethical%2C+economic+and+political+evolution&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1906&rft.au=Jacob+Dorsey+Forrest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnJDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Cunningham1900" class="citation book cs1">William Cunningham (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C3kqAAAAYAAJ"><i>An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Mediaeval and modern times</i></a>. University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+Western+Civilization+in+Its+Economic+Aspects%3A+Mediaeval+and+modern+times&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1900&rft.au=William+Cunningham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC3kqAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fleming_West" title="Andrew Fleming West">Andrew Fleming West</a>, <i>Value of the classics</i>. 1917. p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuno_Fischer1887" class="citation book cs1">Kuno Fischer (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnRYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85"><i>History of modern philosophy</i></a>. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+modern+philosophy&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=C.+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1887&rft.au=Kuno+Fischer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnRYAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Burger2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael Burger (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&pg=PA203"><i>The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1432-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1432-3"><bdi>978-1-5511-1432-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shaping+of+Western+Civilization%3A+From+Antiquity+To+the+Enlightenment&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-5511-1432-3&rft.au=Michael+Burger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMQUs2QnC2F4C%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinley2008" class="citation book cs1">Finley, M.I. (2008). <i>Ancient History: Evidence and Models</i>. ACLS History. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5974-0534-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5974-0534-8"><bdi>978-1-5974-0534-8</bdi></a>. <q>Unfortunately, the two longest ancient accounts of Roman Republican history, the area in which the problems are currently the most acute and the most widely discussed, the histories of Livy and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years (in very round numbers) later than the traditional date for the founding of the Republic, 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+History%3A+Evidence+and+Models&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=ACLS+History&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-5974-0534-8&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=M.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html">[32]</a> Plutarch, <i>Parallel Lives</i>, <i>Life of Marius</i>, XI, 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandford1951" class="citation book cs1">Handford, S.A. (1951). <i>Caesar: The Conquest of Gaul</i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+The+Conquest+of+Gaul&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Handford&rft.aufirst=S.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard2015" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary (20 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ"><i>SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</i></a>. Profile. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0"><bdi>978-1-8476-5441-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPQR%3A+A+History+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.isbn=978-1-8476-5441-0&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx795CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kirjasto-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kirjasto_244-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiukkonen" class="citation web cs1">Liukkonen, Petri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140824083420/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm">"Theodor Mommsen"</a>. <i>Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Kuusankoski" title="Kuusankoski">Kuusankoski</a> Public Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm">the original</a> on 24 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Books+and+Writers+%28kirjasto.sci.fi%29&rft.atitle=Theodor+Mommsen&rft.aulast=Liukkonen&rft.aufirst=Petri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirjasto.sci.fi%2Fmommsen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1987" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1987). <i>The World of Rome</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780452008496" title="Special:BookSources/9780452008496"><bdi>9780452008496</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Rome&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780452008496&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevick1993" class="citation book cs1">Levick, Barbara (1993). <i>Claudius</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5831-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5831-4"><bdi>978-0-3000-5831-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Claudius&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-5831-4&rft.aulast=Levick&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129204740/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88132230">online edition</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme2002" class="citation book cs1">Syme, Ronald (2002). <i>The Roman Revolution</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0320-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0320-7"><bdi>978-0-1928-0320-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Revolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-0320-7&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_and_Lesley_Adkins" title="Roy and Lesley Adkins">Adkins, Lesley</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roy_and_Lesley_Adkins" title="Roy and Lesley Adkins">Adkins, Roy A.</a> (1998). <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-2332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-2332-6"><bdi>978-0-1951-2332-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-2332-6&rft.aulast=Adkins&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft.au=Adkins%2C+Roy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoatwright2012" class="citation book cs1">Boatwright, Mary T.; et al. (2012). <i>The Romans: From Village to Empire</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3057-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3057-5"><bdi>978-0-1997-3057-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25033142M">25033142M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romans%3A+From+Village+to+Empire&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL25033142M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-3057-5&rft.aulast=Boatwright&rft.aufirst=Mary+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCary1967" class="citation book cs1">Cary, Max (1967). <i>A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine</i> (2nd ed.). St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Rome+Down+to+the+Reign+of+Constantine&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Cary&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasson1998" class="citation book cs1">Casson, Lionel (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass"><i>Everyday Life in Ancient Rome</i></a></span>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5992-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-5992-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5992-2&rft.aulast=Casson&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feverydaylifeinan00cass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Cornell" title="Tim Cornell">Cornell, Tim J.</a> (1995). <i>The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31515793">31515793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Rome%3A+Italy+and+Rome+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Punic+Wars+%28c.+1000%E2%80%93264+BC%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31515793&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Tim+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Duiker" title="William J. Duiker">Duiker, William</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jackson_J._Spielvogel" title="Jackson J. Spielvogel">Spielvogel, Jackson</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik"><i>World History</i></a> (3rd ed.). Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5345-7168-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5345-7168-9"><bdi>978-0-5345-7168-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6786176M">6786176M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6786176M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5345-7168-9&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Spielvogel%2C+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldhistoryto1500duik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1944" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1944). <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization" title="The Story of Civilization"><i>The Story of Civilization</i></a>. Vol. III: Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5673-1023-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5673-1023-8"><bdi>978-1-5673-1023-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1944&rft.isbn=978-1-5673-1023-8&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton1996" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (1996). <i>Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5241-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5241-5"><bdi>978-0-1981-5241-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Roman+Europe+AD+350%E2%80%93425&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-1981-5241-5&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlower2004" class="citation book cs1">Flower, Harriet I., ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2"><i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0390-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0390-2"><bdi>978-0-5210-0390-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-5210-0390-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (1996). <i>The Roman Army at War: 100 BC – AD 200</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5057-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5057-2"><bdi>978-0-1981-5057-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army+at+War%3A+100+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+200&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-1981-5057-2&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2006). <i>The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC</i>. Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3043-6642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3043-6642-2"><bdi>978-0-3043-6642-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Carthage%3A+The+Punic+Wars+265%E2%80%93146+BC&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-3043-6642-2&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2005" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (2005). <i>Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum</i>. Phoenix Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8988-0045-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8988-0045-3"><bdi>978-1-8988-0045-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cities+of+Vesuvius%3A+Pompeii+and+Herculaneum&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-8988-0045-3&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood1971" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, Richard (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse"><i>The Ancient World</i></a></span>. David McKay Company, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+World&rft.pub=David+McKay+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientworld0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a> (2023). <i>The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549322.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197549322.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1975-4932-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1975-4932-2"><bdi>978-0-1975-4932-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Roman+Empire%3A+A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549322.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-1975-4932-2&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1993" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg"><i>A History of Warfare</i></a>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3945-8801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3945-8801-8"><bdi>978-0-3945-8801-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Warfare&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-3945-8801-8&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofwarfare00keeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. <i>The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5,</i> translated from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1928-2296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-1928-2296-9">0-1928-2296-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay2004" class="citation book cs1">Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). <i>Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0918-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0918-4"><bdi>978-0-5218-0918-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Military+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-0918-4&rft.aulast=Mackay&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatyszak2003" class="citation book cs1">Matyszak, Philip (2003). <i>Chronicle of the Roman Republic</i>. Thames & Hudson, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5121-4"><bdi>978-0-5000-5121-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5121-4&rft.aulast=Matyszak&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Miles_(historian)" title="Richard Miles (historian)">Miles, Richard</a> (2011). <i>Carthage Must be Destroyed</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1809-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1809-6"><bdi>978-0-1410-1809-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage+Must+be+Destroyed&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-1410-1809-6&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell1989" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Robert (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon"><i>Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-5359-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-5359-3"><bdi>978-0-1950-5359-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+Arms+and+Men%3A+A+History+of+War%2C+Weapons%2C+and+Aggression&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-1950-5359-3&rft.aulast=O%27Connell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fofarmsmenhisto00ocon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444343397.ch30">"Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire"</a>. <i>A Companion to the Latin Language</i>: 549–563. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30">10.1002/9781444343397.ch30</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2268%2F35932">2268/35932</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8605-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-8605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+Companion+to+the+Latin+Language&rft.atitle=Language+Policies+in+the+Roman+Republic+and+Empire&rft.pages=549-563&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2268%2F35932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8605-6&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426">"Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate?"</a>. <i>Lingue e Linguaggio</i> (1/2018): 107–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1418%2F90426">10.1418/90426</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1720-9331">1720-9331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingue+e+Linguaggio&rft.atitle=Was+there+a+Roman+linguistic+imperialism+during+the+Republic+and+the+early+Principate%3F&rft.issue=1%2F2018&rft.pages=107-128&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rft.issn=1720-9331&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rivisteweb.it%2Fdoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2023" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2023). Mullen, Alex (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545">"The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices"</a>. <i>Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West</i> (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academic: 258–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012">10.1093/oso/9780198887294.003.0012</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4"><bdi>978-0-1988-8729-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Factors+in+the+Latinization+of+the+Roman+West&rft.atitle=The+Attitude+of+the+Roman+Emperors+towards+Language+Practices&rft.pages=258-285&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-8729-4&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F55330%2Fchapter%2F428805545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarre1995" class="citation book cs1">Scarre, Chris (1995). <i>The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1405-1329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1405-1329-5"><bdi>978-0-1405-1329-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-1405-1329-5&rft.aulast=Scarre&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a>; Saller, Richard P.; Morris, Ian (2007). <i>The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8053-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8053-7"><bdi>978-0-5217-8053-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL16929915W">16929915W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+the+Greco-Roman+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL16929915W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-8053-7&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Saller%2C+Richard+P.&rft.au=Morris%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard-Perkins1994" class="citation book cs1">Ward-Perkins, John Bryan (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa"><i>Roman Imperial Architecture</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5292-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5292-3"><bdi>978-0-3000-5292-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Imperial+Architecture&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-5292-3&rft.aulast=Ward-Perkins&rft.aufirst=John+Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanimperialarc00jbwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner1978" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Paul (1978). <i>Life in Rome in Ancient Times</i>. translated by David Macrae. Editions Minerva S.A.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+Rome+in+Ancient+Times&rft.pub=Editions+Minerva+S.A.&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis2000" class="citation book cs1">Willis, Roy (2000). <i>World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide</i>. Ken Fin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8645-8089-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8645-8089-1"><bdi>978-1-8645-8089-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Mythology%3A+The+Illustrated+Guide&rft.pub=Ken+Fin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-8645-8089-1&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Antonio, Margaret L.; et al. (8 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">"Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>366</b> (6466). <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 708–714. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..708A">2019Sci...366..708A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826">10.1126/science.aay6826</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">7093155</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699931">31699931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+genetic+crossroads+of+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=708-714&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..708A&rft.aulast=Antonio&rft.aufirst=Margaret+L.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Ziyue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassius_Dio2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> (January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10890/10890-h/10890-h.htm"><i>Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61–76 (AD 54–211)</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dio%27s+Rome%2C+Volume+V.%2C+Books+61%E2%80%9376+%28AD+54%E2%80%93211%29&rft.date=2004-01&rft.au=Cassius+Dio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F10890%2F10890-h%2F10890-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoarelli2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Coarelli" title="Filippo Coarelli">Coarelli, Filippo</a> (2007). <i>Rome and environs: An archaeological guide</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+environs%3A+An+archaeological+guide&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Coarelli&rft.aufirst=Filippo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulstonDodge2000" class="citation book cs1">Coulston, J. C.; Dodge, Hazel, eds. (2000). <i>Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city</i>. Oxford University School of Archaeology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+The+archaeology+of+the+eternal+city&rft.pub=Oxford+University+School+of+Archaeology&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsythe2005" class="citation book cs1">Forsythe, Gary (2005). <i>A critical history of early Rome</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+critical+history+of+early+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Forsythe&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1996" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Matthew (1996). <i>Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+historical+myths%3A+The+regal+period+in+Augustan+literature&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabba1991" class="citation book cs1">Gabba, Emilio (1991). <i>Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dionysius+and+the+history+of+Archaic+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gabba&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1776–1789" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon, Edward</a> (1776–1789). <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.date=1776%2F1789&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2003). <i>The Complete Roman Army</i>. Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5"><bdi>978-0-5000-5124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5124-5&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2008). <i>Caesar: Life of a Colossus</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2689-1"><bdi>978-0-3001-2689-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+Life+of+a+Colossus&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-2689-1&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolloway1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._Ross_Holloway" title="R. Ross Holloway">Holloway, R. Ross</a> (1994). <i>The archaeology of early Rome and Latium</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+archaeology+of+early+Rome+and+Latium&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Holloway&rft.aufirst=R.+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeaveney2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Keaveney" title="Arthur Keaveney">Keaveney, Arthur</a> (2005). <i>Rome and the unification of Italy</i> (2nd ed.). Bristol Phoenix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+unification+of+Italy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bristol+Phoenix&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Keaveney&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrausWoodman1997" class="citation book cs1">Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth; Woodman, A.J. (1997). <i>Latin historians</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+historians&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Christina+Shuttleworth&rft.au=Woodman%2C+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mitchell" title="Richard Mitchell">Mitchell, Richard E.</a> (1990). <i>Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state</i>. Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patricians+and+plebeians%3A+The+origin+of+the+Roman+state&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1987" class="citation book cs1">Potter, T.W. (1987). <i>Roman Italy</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Italy&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=T.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaaflaub2004" class="citation book cs1">Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. (2004). <i>Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders</i> (2nd ed.). Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+struggles+in+Archaic+Rome%3A+New+perspectives+on+the+conflict+of+the+orders&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006" class="citation book cs1">Rosenstein, Nathan S.; Morstein-Marx, Robert, eds. (2006). <i>A companion to the Roman Republic</i>. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullard1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hayes_Scullard" title="Howard Hayes Scullard">Scullard, H.H.</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul"><i>From the Gracchi to Nero</i></a> (5th ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2527-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2527-0"><bdi>978-0-4150-2527-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Gracchi+to+Nero&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-2527-0&rft.aulast=Scullard&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromgracchitoner00scul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1996" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Christopher J. (1996). <i>Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c. 1000–500 BC</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Rome+and+Latium%3A+Economy+and+society+c.+1000%E2%80%93500+BC&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1998" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Roberta (1998). <i>Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice</i>. University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+office+in+early+Rome%3A+Ritual+procedure+and+political+practice&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wade, Lizzie (8 November 2019). "Immigrants from the Middle East shaped Rome". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>366</b> (6466). <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 673. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..673W">2019Sci...366..673W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.366.6466.673">10.1126/science.366.6466.673</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699914">31699914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207965960">207965960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Immigrants+from+the+Middle+East+shaped+Rome&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=673&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.366.6466.673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207965960%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699914&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..673W&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Lizzie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolf2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Woolf" title="Greg Woolf">Woolf, Greg</a> (2012). <i>Rome: An Empire's Story</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+An+Empire%27s+Story&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyke1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Wyke" title="Maria Wyke">Wyke, Maria</a> (1997). <i>Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Projecting+the+Past%3A+Ancient+Rome%2C+Cinema%2C+and+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wyke&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Rome" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Ancient Rome</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Rome&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Rome">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Rome&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080613173831/http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/courtmid/Library/subject_resources/socials/ancient_rome.htm">Ancient Rome</a> resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204081729/http://ocw.nd.edu/classics/history-of-ancient-rome">History of ancient Rome</a> OpenCourseWare from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a> providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments, and exams.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?ds=-800&de=500&st=1">Gallery of the Ancient Art: Ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #F0ACAC;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_religion" title="Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_religion" title="Template talk:Roman religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Ancient Roman religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a><br />(<i><a href="/wiki/Dii_Consentes" title="Dii Consentes">Dii Consentes</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenoria_(mythology)" title="Agenoria (mythology)">Agenoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angerona" title="Angerona">Angerona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Perenna" title="Anna Perenna">Anna Perenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_(mythology)" title="Aurora (mythology)">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellona_(goddess)" title="Bellona (goddess)">Bellona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Dea" title="Bona Dea">Bona Dea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmenta" title="Carmenta">Carmenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloacina" title="Cloacina">Cloacina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid">Cupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dea_Dia" title="Dea Dia">Dea Dia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dies_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dies (deity)">Dies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABs_Pater" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīs Pater">Dīs Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egeria_(mythology)" title="Egeria (mythology)">Egeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_(deity)" title="Fauna (deity)">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunus" title="Faunus">Faunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (deity)">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_in_ancient_Rome" title="Hercules in ancient Rome">Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus" title="Janus">Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lares" title="Lares">Lares</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lares_Familiares" title="Lares Familiares">Lares Familiares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber" title="Liber">Liber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">Libertas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nox_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nox (goddess)">Nox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ops" title="Ops">Ops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus" title="Orcus">Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_Penates" title="Di Penates">Penates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona_(mythology)" title="Pomona (mythology)">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapus" title="Priapus">Priapus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proserpina" title="Proserpina">Proserpina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinus" title="Quirinus">Quirinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salacia" title="Salacia">Salacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summanus" title="Summanus">Summanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertumnus" title="Vertumnus">Vertumnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #F0ACAC;">Abstract deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundantia" title="Abundantia">Abundantia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aequitas" title="Aequitas">Aequitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeternitas" title="Aeternitas">Aeternitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(goddess)" title="Africa (goddess)">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annona_(mythology)" title="Annona (mythology)">Annona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averruncus" title="Averruncus">Averruncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelus" title="Caelus">Caelus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_(mythology)" title="Concordia (mythology)">Concordia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feronia_(mythology)" title="Feronia (mythology)">Feronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontus" title="Fontus">Fontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laverna" title="Laverna">Laverna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_(goddess)" title="Pax (goddess)">Pax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitas" title="Securitas">Securitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spes" title="Spes">Spes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillitas" title="Tranquillitas">Tranquillitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_(mythology)" title="Terra (mythology)">Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lupa_Capitolina,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/100px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/150px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/200px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7489" data-file-height="4876" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">Rhea Silvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancus_Marcius" title="Ancus Marcius">Ancus Marcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Alba_Longa" title="Kings of Alba Longa">Kings of Alba Longa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersilia" title="Hersilia">Hersilia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">She-wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose_myth" title="Barnacle goose myth">Barnacle goose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiquitates_rerum_humanarum_et_divinarum" title="Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum">Res divinae</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Concepts<br />and practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Interpretatio graeca</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Charity" title="Roman Charity">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium_(classical_antiquity)" title="Palladium (classical antiquity)">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theology_of_victory" title="Roman theology of victory">Theology of victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">Pomerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitolium" title="Capitolium">Capitolium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">Cella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Celtic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripateticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Bough_(mythology)" title="Golden Bough (mythology)">Golden Bough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Sabine Women">Rape of the Sabine Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lacus_Curtius" title="Battle of Lacus Curtius">Battle of Lacus Curtius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gubernaculum_(classical)" title="Gubernaculum (classical)">Gubernaculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabiago_Plate" title="Parabiago Plate">Parabiago Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pignora_imperii" title="Pignora imperii">Pignora imperii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Classical mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_Constitution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_Constitution" title="Template:Roman Constitution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_Constitution" title="Template talk:Roman Constitution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_Constitution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman Constitution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_Constitution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Roman Constitution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_assembly" title="Curiate assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_assembly" title="Centuriate assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_assembly" title="Tribal assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_council" title="Plebeian council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Magistrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Magistrates">Magistrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Senate of the Roman Kingdom">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assemblies_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom">Assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrates_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom">Magistrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">reforms of Sulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar">reforms of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">reforms of Augustus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Senate of the Roman Republic">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assemblies_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic">Assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Magistrates_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic">Magistrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">(post Diocletian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">(post Diocletian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assemblies_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire">Assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrates_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Magistrates of the Roman Empire">Magistrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Obligations_in_Roman_law" title="Template:Obligations in Roman law">Obligation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_and_Byzantine_emperors_and_empresses_regnant" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_emperors" title="Template:Roman emperors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_emperors" title="Template talk:Roman emperors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_emperors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman emperors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_and_Byzantine_emperors_and_empresses_regnant" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a> and empresses regnant</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a><br />27 BC – AD 235</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis</a><br />235–285</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Volusianus" title="Volusianus">Volusianus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Silbannacus</a></u> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a><br />284–610</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans I</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a></u></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a></u></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/wiki/Victor_(emperor)" title="Victor (emperor)">Victor</a></u></i>)</li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a></u></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a><br />395–480</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/wiki/Constans_II_(son_of_Constantine_III)" title="Constans II (son of Constantine III)">Constans II</a></u></i>)</li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a></u></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Libius_Severus" title="Libius Severus">Severus III</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a></u></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a></u></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Empire</a><br />395–610</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_II_(emperor)" title="Leo II (emperor)">Leo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Marcus_(son_of_Basiliscus)" title="Marcus (son of Basiliscus)">Marcus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_(son_of_Maurice)" title="Theodosius (son of Maurice)">Theodosius</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern/<br />Byzantine Empire</a><br />610–1453</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclius_Constantine" title="Heraclius Constantine">Constantine III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclonas" title="Heraclonas">Heraclonas</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/David_(son_of_Heraclius)" title="David (son of Heraclius)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Heraclius (son of Constans II)">Heraclius</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Constans II)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontius" title="Leontius">Leontius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_(son_of_Justinian_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Justinian II)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippicus" title="Philippicus">Philippicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_II_(emperor)" title="Anastasius II (emperor)">Anastasius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_III" title="Theodosius III">Theodosius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a></li> <li><u><a href="/wiki/Artabasdos" title="Artabasdos">Artabasdos</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_(son_of_Artabasdos)" title="Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)">Nikephoros</a></u></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staurakios" title="Staurakios">Staurakios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Theophylact_(son_of_Michael_I)" title="Theophylact (son of Michael I)">Theophylact</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Staurakios_(son_of_Michael_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Staurakios (son of Michael I)">Staurakios</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Leo_V)" title="Constantine (son of Leo V)">Constantine</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Theophilos)" title="Constantine (son of Theophilos)">Constantine</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora (II)</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Thekla_(daughter_of_Theophilos)" title="Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)">Thekla</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Basil_I)" title="Constantine (son of Basil I)">Constantine</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_(Byzantine_emperor)" title="Alexander (Byzantine emperor)">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanos I Lekapenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lekapenos" title="Christopher Lekapenos">Christopher</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Lekapenos" title="Stephen Lekapenos">Stephen</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Lekapenos" title="Constantine Lekapenos">Constantine Lekapenos</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_III_Argyros" title="Romanos III Argyros">Romanos III Argyros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_V_Kalaphates" title="Michael V Kalaphates">Michael V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_Porphyrogenita" title="Theodora Porphyrogenita">Theodora (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VI_Bringas" title="Michael VI Bringas">Michael VI Bringas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_I_Komnenos" title="Isaac I Komnenos">Isaac I Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X Doukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudokia_Makrembolitissa" title="Eudokia Makrembolitissa">Eudokia Makrembolitissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Leo_Diogenes" title="Leo Diogenes">Leo</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Diogenes" title="Nikephoros Diogenes">Nikephoros</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)">Andronikos</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Konstantios_Doukas" title="Konstantios Doukas">Konstantios</a></i> & <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Alexios_Komnenos_(co-emperor)" title="Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)">Alexios</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/John_Komnenos_(son_of_Andronikos_I)" title="John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)">John</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_III_Angelos" title="Alexios III Angelos">Alexios III Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_V_Doukas" title="Alexios V Doukas">Alexios V Doukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_I_Laskaris" title="Theodore I Laskaris">Theodore I Laskaris</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Laskaris_(son_of_Theodore_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)">Nicholas</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_III_Vatatzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John III Vatatzes">John III Vatatzes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_II_Laskaris" title="Theodore II Laskaris">Theodore II Laskaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_IV_Laskaris" title="John IV Laskaris">John IV Laskaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_IX_Palaiologos" title="Michael IX Palaiologos">Michael IX Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Kantakouzenos" title="Matthew Kantakouzenos">Matthew</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_IV_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos IV Palaiologos">Andronikos IV Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VII_Palaiologos" title="John VII Palaiologos">John VII Palaiologos</a> (w. <i><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_V_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos V Palaiologos">Andronikos V</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic emperors</a> (260–274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene emperors</a> (267–273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Britannic emperors</a> (286–296)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">Trapezuntine emperors</a> (1204–1461)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonian emperors</a> (1224–1242)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">Augustae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Usurpers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_usurpers" title="List of Byzantine usurpers">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_wars" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">Ancient Roman wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Aequian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Aequian wars">Roman-Aequian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Latin_wars" title="Roman–Latin wars">Roman–Latin wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Hernici" title="Roman conquest of the Hernici">Roman–Hernician wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Volscian_wars" title="Roman–Volscian wars">Roman–Volscian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sabine_wars" title="Roman–Sabine wars">Roman–Sabine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars" title="Illyro-Roman Wars">Illyro-Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_war" title="Roman–Seleucid war">Roman–Seleucid war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numantine_War" title="Numantine War">Numantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">Sertorian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Servile_War" title="First Servile War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Servile_War" title="Second Servile War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">Bellum Octavianum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">War of Mutina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusine_War" title="Perusine War">Perusine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Germanic wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Civil war of 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian%27s_Dacian_War" title="Domitian's Dacian War">Domitian's Dacian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Civil wars of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colonies_of_Ancient_Rome" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Colonies_of_Ancient_Rome" title="Template:Colonies of Ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Colonies_of_Ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Colonies of Ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Colonies_of_Ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Colonies of Ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colonies_of_Ancient_Rome" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">Colonies</a> of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>With correspondence to modern geography</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Superior" title="Britannia Superior">Britannia Superior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum Colonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Inferior" title="Britannia Inferior">Britannia Inferior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Roman Dacia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulpia_Traiana_Sarmizegetusa" title="Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa">Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narbo_Martius" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbo Martius">Narbo Martius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Claudia_Ara_Agrippinensium" title="Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium">Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mogontiacum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augusta_Emerita" title="Augusta Emerita">Augusta Emerita</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeclanum" title="Aeclanum">Aelia Augusta Aeclanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Castra Taurinorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piacenza" title="Piacenza">Placentia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Singidunum" title="Singidunum">Singidunum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Romancoloniae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Romancoloniae.jpg/200px-Romancoloniae.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Romancoloniae.jpg/300px-Romancoloniae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Romancoloniae.jpg/400px-Romancoloniae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="452" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg/200px-Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg/300px-Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg/400px-Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of legion veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina" title="Aelia Capitolina">Aelia Capitolina</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_in_Phoenicia" title="Ptolemais in Phoenicia">Ptolemais</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of late Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laodicea_in_Syria" title="Laodicea in Syria">Laodicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucia_Pieria" title="Seleucia Pieria">Seleucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopolis_of_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopolis of Phoenicia">Heliopolis</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arca Caesarea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyrus</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastia,_Nablus" title="Sebastia, Nablus">Sebaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bostra">Bostra</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Neapolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavia Neapolis">Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahba" title="Shahba">Philippopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Possible colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerasa">Gerasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadara" title="Gadara">Gadara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmaus_Nicopolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmaus Nicopolis">Emmaus Nicopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Philippi" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesarea Philippi">Neronias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations with<br />modern names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the<br /><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>: Aelia Capitolina</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>: Ptolemais</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imwas" title="Imwas">Imwas</a>: Emmaus Nicopolis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banias" title="Banias">Banias</a>: Neronias</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qais" title="Umm Qais">Umm Qais</a>: Gadara</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerash" title="Jerash">Jerash</a>: Gerasa</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a>: Arca Caesarea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>: Berytus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a>: Heliopolis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saida,_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saida, Lebanon">Saida</a>: Sidon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>: Tyrus</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a>: Bostra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>: Emesa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a>: Laodicea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahba" title="Shahba">Shahba</a>: Philippopolis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadmur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadmur">Tadmur</a>: Palmyra</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antakya" title="Antakya">Antakya</a>: Antioch</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanda%C4%9F" title="Samandağ">Samandağ</a>: Seleucia</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Sites">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a>; <sup><small>2</small></sup> Proposed; <sup><small>3</small></sup> in Danger</li> <li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template talk:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">List of historic states of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Roman period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygians" title="Iapygians">Iapygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–395 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval<br />and<br />Early Modern<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Barbarian kingdoms<br />(476–774)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Odoacer's rule</a> (476–493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a> (493–553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal rule</a> (435–534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard rule</a> (568–774) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Friuli" title="Duchy of Friuli">Duchy of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tridentum" title="Duchy of Tridentum">Duchy of Tridentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tuscia" title="Duchy of Tuscia">Duchy of Tuscia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (584–751)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a> (584–751) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Duchy of Rome</a> (533–751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Perugia" title="Duchy of Perugia">Duchy of Perugia</a> (554–752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Pentapolis" title="Duchy of the Pentapolis">Duchy of the Pentapolis</a> (554–752)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> (585–698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a><br />(754–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campagna_e_Marittima_Province" title="Campagna e Marittima Province">Campagna e Marittima Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Castro" title="Duchy of Castro">Duchy of Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ferrara" title="Duchy of Ferrara">Duchy of Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><br />and other<br />independent<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brixen" title="Prince-Bishopric of Brixen">Bishopric of Bressanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)" title="Corpus separatum (Fiume)">City of Fiume and its District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Gorizia" title="County of Gorizia">County of Gorizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_County_of_Gorizia_and_Gradisca" title="Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca">Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Guastalla" title="County of Guastalla">County of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Santa_Fiora" title="County of Santa Fiora">County of Santa Fiora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Duchy of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ancona" title="March of Ancona">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Ceva" title="Marquisate of Ceva">Ceva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Finale" title="Marquisate of Finale">Finale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Friuli" title="March of Friuli">March of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_del_Friuli" title="Patria del Friuli">Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ivrea" title="March of Ivrea">Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Istria" title="March of Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraviate of Mantua">Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Milan" title="Lordship of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Montferrat" title="March of Montferrat">March of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Duchy of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City_of_Trieste" title="Imperial Free City of Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Turin" title="March of Turin">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Tuscany" title="March of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Verona" title="March of Verona">Verona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Merania" title="Duchy of Merania">Duchy of Merania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mirandola" title="Duchy of Mirandola">Duchy of Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino" title="Principality of Piombino">Principality of Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Reggio" title="Duchy of Reggio">Duchy of Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Saluzzo" title="Marquisate of Saluzzo">Marquisate of Saluzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise" title="Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise">Bishopric of Tarantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Trent" title="Prince-Bishopric of Trent">Prince-Bishopric of Trento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoyard state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">County of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Piedmont" title="Prince of Piedmont">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aosta" title="Duchy of Aosta">Duchy of Aosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tende" title="Tende">County of Tenda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a><br />(697–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogado" title="Dogado">Dogado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domini_di_Terraferma" title="Domini di Terraferma">Domini di Terraferma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Stato da Màr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other Republics<br />(c. 1000–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cospaia" title="Republic of Cospaia">Republic of Cospaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Republic of Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Massa" title="Republic of Massa">Republic of Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Noli" title="Republic of Noli">Republic of Noli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Republic of Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Republic of Ancona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_south_Italian_principalities" title="List of south Italian principalities">Southern Italy</a><br />(774–1139)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Duchy of Amalfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gaeta" title="Duchy of Gaeta">Duchy of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catepanate_of_Italy" title="Catepanate of Italy">Catepanate of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longobardia" title="Longobardia">Longobardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_(theme)" title="Lucania (theme)">Theme of Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Theme of Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Byzantine Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sorrento" title="Duchy of Sorrento">Duchy of Sorrento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lombard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Principality of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Principality of Capua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Aversa">County of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> <br />(from the 9th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">Judicates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agugliastra" title="Agugliastra">Agugliastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Arborea" title="Judicate of Arborea">Arborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Cagliari" title="Judicate of Cagliari">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Gallura" title="Judicate of Gallura">Gallura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Logudoro" title="Judicate of Logudoro">Logudoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Oristano" title="Marquisate of Oristano">Oristano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sassari" title="Republic of Sassari">Republic of Sassari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1324%E2%80%931720)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1324–1861)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a><br />(1130–1816) and<br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a><br />(1282–1816)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Presidi" title="State of the Presidi">State of the Presidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_San_Donato" title="Duke of San Donato">Duke of San Donato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sora" title="Duchy of Sora">Duchy of Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bari" title="Duchy of Bari">Duchy of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sancti_Benedicti" title="Terra Sancti Benedicti">Terra Sancti Benedicti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647%E2%80%931648)" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)">Neapolitan Republic</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Gozo (1798–1800)">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Crown Colony of Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Revolutionary</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleonic</a> eras<br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Republics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic" title="Piedmontese Republic">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1798%E2%80%931799)" title="Roman Republic (1798–1799)">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine_Republic" title="Subalpine Republic">Subalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpadane_Republic" title="Transpadane Republic">Transpadania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Monarchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Etruria" title="Kingdom of Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lucca_and_Piombino" title="Principality of Lucca and Piombino">Lucca and Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Pontecorvo" title="Principality of Pontecorvo">Pontecorvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Benevento" title="Principality of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Post-Napoleonic<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Genoa" title="Duchy of Genoa">Duchy of Genoa</a> (1815–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lucca" title="Duchy of Lucca">Duchy of Lucca</a> (1815–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a> (1814–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> (1815–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> (1848–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Roman Republic (1849–1850)">Roman Republic</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a> (1859–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1814–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> (1816–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Italian_unification" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (1814–1870)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Post-unification" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-<a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (1861–1946) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> (1920–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> (1947–1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1747689#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1747689#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1747689#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/244992873">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/145348938">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rome (Empire)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1204885/">FAST</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rome"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1754964/">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJckTx6xBdhCmCxBTJTfv3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4076778-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rome"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79039816">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119328036">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119328036">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569665">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="starověký Řím"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge131512&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX450599">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000195596&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/dbqsrrsx1l8h7mq">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810569243105606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007559656005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027243001">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008248">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&oldid=1258979664">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&oldid=1258979664</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Rome" title="Category:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history" title="Category:Ancient history">Ancient history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th-century_BC_establishments_in_Italy" title="Category:8th-century BC establishments in Italy">8th-century BC establishments in Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:5th-century_disestablishments" title="Category:5th-century disestablishments">5th-century disestablishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Classical_civilizations" title="Category:Classical civilizations">Classical civilizations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_5th_century" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in the 5th century">States and territories disestablished in the 5th century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_empires" title="Category:Former empires">Former empires</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_EasyTimeline_extension" title="Category:Pages using the EasyTimeline extension">Pages using the EasyTimeline extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Italian-language_sources_(it)" title="Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)">CS1 Italian-language sources (it)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_October_2022" title="Category:EngvarB from October 2022">EngvarB from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2022">Use dmy dates from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_which_contain_graphical_timelines" title="Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines">Articles which contain graphical timelines</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 18:21<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright"><span class="nowraplinks">This version of the page has been <a href="/wiki/Help:Page_history" title="Help:Page history">revised</a>. Besides normal editing, the reason for revision may have been that this version contains factual inaccuracies, vandalism, or material not compatible with the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>.</span></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&diff=1258979664&oldid=1256845214&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-669b4ddb54-b25jn","wgBackendResponseTime":4044,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.233","walltime":"3.764","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22390,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":687870,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":26286,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":70,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":811138,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2817.162 1 -total"," 26.50% 746.426 2 Template:Reflist"," 21.41% 603.272 123 Template:Cite_book"," 11.87% 334.522 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 8.73% 246.001 4 Template:Efn"," 8.52% 240.013 77 Template:Sfn"," 5.05% 142.389 16 Template:Harvnb"," 5.04% 141.935 12 Template:Cite_journal"," 4.47% 125.860 1 Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar"," 4.35% 122.558 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.781","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21033561,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA._FearP._Liddel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAstore,_William\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeard2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBennettDawsonFieldHawthornwaite2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillanovich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBleicken2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoatwright2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyd1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBray,_R.S.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrennan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBury1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalvert1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartwright\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCary1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaspari1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassius_Dio\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassius_Dio2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCivitello2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoarelli2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCompendium1858\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornell1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulstonDodge2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDix1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurantDurant1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Gibbon1787\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlower2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForsythe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuretOzouf1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabba1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawande2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1776–1789\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1906\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrout\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroutPalisca1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHandford1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey,_Brian_K.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywood1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_George_Liddell1855\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeseltine2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodge1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolloway1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooker1999\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFHouston2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson,_Michael_Anthony2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob_Dorsey_Forrest1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohann_Jakob_HerzogJohn_Henry_Augustus_Bomberger1858\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Charles_Tarver1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeaveney1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeaveney2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeegan1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrausWoodman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKreis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKreutz,_Barbara_M.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuno_Fischer1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabberton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLactantius\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLanglands,_Rebecca2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangleySouza1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevick1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiukkonen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivius1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuckhamWhite1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathew_DillonLynda_Garland2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathisen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatyszak2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Burger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiles2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorcillo2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connell1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelham1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeiffer1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaaflaub2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaddington2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScarre1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScullard1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSellers1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShelton1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherman1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSir_William_Smith1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkip_Knox\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaikos2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuetonius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyme2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuma1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard-Perkins1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Cunningham1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Harrison_De_Puy1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinter1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyke1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeidman2011\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Roman Wars\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome military sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 123,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 26,\n [\"Colonies of Ancient Rome\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 7,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Former monarchies Italian peninsula\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 8,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Italy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 10,\n [\"Legend\"] = 6,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 22,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman Constitution\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman Emperors\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman religion\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 77,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 6,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 8,\n [\"Western world\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","480","25.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","15.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","200","10.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","7.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","7.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","2.1"],["test \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:1508\u003E","40","2.1"],["\u003Cmw.language.lua:62\u003E","40","2.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.1"],["[others]","440","22.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-669b4ddb54-b25jn","timestamp":"20241127110741","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ancient Rome","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_Rome","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1747689","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1747689","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-03-12T11:42:33Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T18:21:00Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ea\/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif","headline":"country that began growing on the Italian Peninsula from the 8th century BC"}</script> </body> </html>