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class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="في المختبر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="في المختبر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%8C" title="برون‌تنی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برون‌تنی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%ED%97%98%EA%B4%80%EB%82%B4" title="시험관내 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시험관내" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95" title="אין ויטרו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אין ויטרו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B" title="ഇൻ വിട്രോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇൻ വിട്രോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="تن‌جه‌دیائی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تن‌جه‌دیائی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%AC%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="دەرو جەستەیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەرو جەستەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="செயற்கைக் கல முறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செயற்கைக் கல முறை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%A6%E7%AE%A1%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="試管實驗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="試管實驗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="In vitro" data-language-autonym="中文" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Latin term meaning outside a natural biological environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the type of scientific experiment. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="In vitro (disambiguation)">In vitro (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg/220px-%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg/330px-%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg/440px-%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloned</a> plants <i>in vitro</i></figcaption></figure> <p><i><b>In vitro</b></i> (meaning <i>in glass</i>, or <i>in the glass</i>) <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">studies</a> are performed with <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Biological_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological molecule">biological molecules</a> outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "<a href="/wiki/Test-tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Test-tube">test-tube</a> experiments", these studies in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and its subdisciplines are traditionally done in labware such as test tubes, flasks, <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">Petri dishes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microtiter_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Microtiter plate">microtiter plates</a>. Studies conducted using components of an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms; however, results obtained from <i>in vitro</i> experiments may not fully or accurately predict the effects on a whole organism. In contrast to <i>in vitro</i> experiments, <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> studies are those conducted in living organisms, including humans, known as <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a>, and whole plants.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>In vitro</i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> for "in glass"; often not italicized in English usage<sup id="cite_ref-MWCD_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWCD-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AMA10section12.1.1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMA10section12.1.1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings, such as microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules. For example, microorganisms or cells can be studied in artificial <a href="/wiki/Culture_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture medium">culture media</a>, and proteins can be examined in <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solutions</a>. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology, medicine, and their subdisciplines are traditionally done in test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They now involve the full range of techniques used in molecular biology, such as the <a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">omics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, studies conducted in living beings (microorganisms, animals, humans, or whole plants) are called <i>in vivo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Examples of <i>in vitro</i> studies include: the isolation, growth and identification of cells derived from <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular organisms">multicellular organisms</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cell</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">tissue culture</a>); subcellular components (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ribosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribosomes">ribosomes</a>); cellular or subcellular extracts (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Wheat_germ" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheat germ">wheat germ</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reticulocyte" title="Reticulocyte">reticulocyte</a> extracts); purified molecules (such as <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, or <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>); and the commercial production of antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viruses, which only replicate in living cells, are studied in the laboratory in cell or tissue culture, and many animal virologists refer to such work as being <i>in vitro</i> to distinguish it from <i>in vivo</i> work in whole animals.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a> is a method for selective replication of specific DNA and RNA sequences in the test tube.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a> involves the isolation of a specific protein of interest from a complex mixture of proteins, often obtained from homogenized cells or tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation"><i>In vitro</i> fertilization</a> is used to allow spermatozoa to fertilize eggs in a culture dish before implanting the resulting embryo or embryos into the uterus of the prospective mother.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_diagnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro diagnostics"><i>In vitro</i> diagnostics</a> refers to a wide range of medical and veterinary laboratory tests that are used to diagnose diseases and monitor the clinical status of patients using samples of blood, cells, or other tissues obtained from a patient.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>In vitro</i> testing has been used to characterize specific adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion processes of drugs or general chemicals inside a living organism; for example, Caco-2 cell experiments can be performed to estimate the absorption of compounds through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The partitioning of the compounds between organs can be determined to study distribution mechanisms;<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suspension or plated cultures of primary hepatocytes or hepatocyte-like cell lines (Hep G2, <a href="/wiki/HepaRG" title="HepaRG">HepaRG</a>) can be used to study and quantify metabolism of chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ADME process parameters can then be integrated into so called "physiologically based pharmacokinetic models" or <a href="/wiki/PBPK" class="mw-redirect" title="PBPK">PBPK</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>In vitro</i> studies permit a species-specific, simpler, more convenient, and more detailed analysis than can be done with the whole organism. Just as studies in whole animals more and more replace human trials, so are <i>in vitro</i> studies replacing studies in whole animals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simplicity">Simplicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Simplicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Living organisms are extremely complex functional systems that are made up of, at a minimum, many tens of thousands of genes, protein molecules, RNA molecules, small organic compounds, inorganic ions, and complexes in an environment that is spatially organized by membranes, and in the case of multicellular organisms, organ systems.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These myriad components interact with each other and with their environment in a way that processes food, removes waste, moves components to the correct location, and is responsive to signalling molecules, other organisms, light, sound, heat, taste, touch, and balance. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg/220px-Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg/330px-Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg/440px-Vitrocell_mammalian_exposure_module-smoking_robot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Top view of a Vitrocell mammalian exposure module "smoking robot", (lid removed) view of four separated wells for cell culture inserts to be exposed to tobacco smoke or an <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosol</a> for an <i>in vitro</i> study of the effects</figcaption></figure> <p>This complexity makes it difficult to identify the interactions between individual components and to explore their basic biological functions. <i>In vitro</i> work simplifies the system under study, so the investigator can focus on a small number of components.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, the identity of proteins of the immune system (e.g. antibodies), and the mechanism by which they recognize and bind to foreign antigens would remain very obscure if not for the extensive use of <i>in vitro</i> work to isolate the proteins, identify the cells and genes that produce them, study the physical properties of their interaction with antigens, and identify how those interactions lead to cellular signals that activate other components of the immune system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Species_specificity">Species specificity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Species specificity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another advantage of <i>in vitro</i> methods is that human cells can be studied without "extrapolation" from an experimental animal's cellular response.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convenience,_automation"><span id="Convenience.2C_automation"></span>Convenience, automation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Convenience, automation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>In vitro</i> methods can be miniaturized and automated, yielding high-throughput screening methods for testing molecules in pharmacology or toxicology.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary disadvantage of <i>in vitro</i> experimental studies is that it may be challenging to extrapolate from the results of <i>in vitro</i> work back to the biology of the intact organism. Investigators doing <i>in vitro</i> work must be careful to avoid over-interpretation of their results, which can lead to erroneous conclusions about organismal and systems biology.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus (e.g., HIV-1) may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an <i>in vitro</i> setting (typically cell culture). However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of <i>in vivo</i> trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms (typically small animals, primates, and humans in succession). Typically, most candidate drugs that are effective <i>in vitro</i> prove to be ineffective <i>in vivo</i> because of issues associated with delivery of the drug to the affected tissues, toxicity towards essential parts of the organism that were not represented in the initial <i>in vitro</i> studies, or other issues.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_vitro_test_batteries"><i>In vitro</i> test batteries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In vitro test batteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A method which could help decrease animal testing is the use of <i>in vitro</i> batteries, where several <i>in vitro</i> assays are compiled to cover multiple endpoints. Within developmental <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a> and reproductive toxicity there are hopes for test batteries to become easy screening methods for prioritization for which chemicals to be risk assessed and in which order.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within ecotoxicology <i>in vitro</i> test batteries are already in use for regulatory purpose and for toxicological evaluation of chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>In vitro</i> tests can also be combined with <i>in vivo</i> testing to make a <i>in vitro in vivo</i> test battery, for example for pharmaceutical testing.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_vitro_to_in_vivo_extrapolation"><i>In vitro</i> to <i>in vivo</i> extrapolation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In vitro to in vivo extrapolation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_to_in_vivo_extrapolation" title="In vitro to in vivo extrapolation">In vitro to in vivo extrapolation</a></div> <p>Results obtained from <i>in vitro</i> experiments cannot usually be transposed, as is, to predict the reaction of an entire organism <i>in vivo</i>. Building a consistent and reliable extrapolation procedure from <i>in vitro</i> results to <i>in vivo</i> is therefore extremely important. Solutions include: </p> <ul><li>Increasing the complexity of <i>in vitro</i> systems to reproduce tissues and interactions between them (as in "human on chip" systems)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Using mathematical modeling to numerically simulate the behavior of the complex system, where the <i>in vitro</i> data provide model parameter values<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These two approaches are not incompatible; better <i>in vitro</i> systems provide better data to mathematical models. However, increasingly sophisticated <i>in vitro</i> experiments collect increasingly numerous, complex, and challenging data to integrate. Mathematical models, such as <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a> models, are much needed here.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extrapolating_in_pharmacology">Extrapolating in pharmacology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Extrapolating in pharmacology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In pharmacology, IVIVE can be used to approximate <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetics</a> (PK) or <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">pharmacodynamics</a> (PD).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since the timing and intensity of effects on a given target depend on the concentration time course of candidate drug (parent molecule or metabolites) at that target site, <i>in vivo</i> tissue and organ sensitivities can be completely different or even inverse of those observed on cells cultured and exposed <i>in vitro</i>. That indicates that extrapolating effects observed <i>in vitro</i> needs a quantitative model of <i>in vivo</i> PK. Physiologically based PK (<a href="/wiki/PBPK" class="mw-redirect" title="PBPK">PBPK</a>) models are generally accepted to be central to the extrapolations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of early effects or those without intercellular communications, the same cellular exposure concentration is assumed to cause the same effects, both qualitatively and quantitatively, <i>in vitro</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i>. In these conditions, developing a simple PD model of the <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">dose–response relationship</a> observed <i>in vitro</i>, and transposing it without changes to predict <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> effects is not enough.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_vivo" title="Ex vivo">Ex vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">In situ</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">In utero</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">In vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">In silico</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_papyro" title="In papyro">In papyro</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/In_natura" title="In natura">In natura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Vitro_Cellular_%26_Developmental_Biology_-_Animal" class="mw-redirect" title="In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Animal">Animal <i>in vitro</i> cellular and developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Vitro_Cellular_%26_Developmental_Biology_-_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant">Plant <i>in vitro</i> cellular and developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology"><i>In vitro</i> toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_to_in_vivo_extrapolation" title="In vitro to in vivo extrapolation">In vitro to in vivo extrapolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slice_preparation" title="Slice preparation">Slice preparation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_vitro&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echa.europa.eu/support/registration/how-to-avoid-unnecessary-testing-on-animals/in-vitro-methods">"In vitro methods - 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_research_studies" title="Template talk:Medical research studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_research_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical research studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Clinical_research_and_experimental_design505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">Trial protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic clinical trials">Academic clinical trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">Clinical study design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_world_evidence" title="Real world evidence">Real world evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement" title="Patient and public involvement">Patient and public involvement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Controlled study</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM I to II-1</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Scientific experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-label_trial" title="Open-label trial">Open-label trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platform_trial" title="Platform trial">Platform trial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM II-2 to II-3</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_study" title="Ecological study">Ecological study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_series" title="Case series">Case series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outcome_measure" title="Outcome measure">Measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_occurrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Occurrence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">Cumulative incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Point prevalence">Point prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">Period prevalence</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Association</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Risk_difference" title="Risk difference">Risk difference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">Number needed to treat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_harm" title="Number needed to harm">Number needed to harm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Risk ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relative_risk_reduction" title="Relative risk reduction">Relative risk reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazard ratio</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_impact_measure" title="Population impact measure">Population impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_among_the_exposed" title="Attributable fraction among the exposed">Attributable fraction among the exposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Attributable fraction for the population">Attributable fraction for the population</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_among_the_unexposed" title="Preventable fraction among the unexposed">Preventable fraction among the unexposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Preventable fraction for the population">Preventable fraction for the population</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Other_measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_endpoint" title="Clinical endpoint">Clinical endpoint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specificity_and_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity and sensitivity">Specificity and sensitivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing">Likelihood-ratios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trial/test types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">In vitro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">In vivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-in-man_study" class="mw-redirect" title="First-in-man study">First-in-man study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicenter_trial" title="Multicenter trial">Multicenter trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeding_trial" title="Seeding trial">Seeding trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_clinical_trials" title="Analysis of clinical trials">Analysis of clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk%E2%80%93benefit_ratio" title="Risk–benefit ratio">Risk–benefit ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention-to-treat_analysis" title="Intention-to-treat analysis">Intention-to-treat analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation of results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">Null result</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Clinical_research" title="Category:Clinical research">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a 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