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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Central Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Southern Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Southeast Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History and development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-c._3000_BC_to_c._AD_500" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#c._3000_BC_to_c._AD_500"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>c. 3000<span> </span>BC to c. AD 500<span> </span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-c._3000_BC_to_c._AD_500-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_the_11th_century_to_17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_the_11th_century_to_17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>From the 11th century to 17th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_the_11th_century_to_17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bantu expansion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%88" title="توسع البانتو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توسع البانتو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espansi%C3%B3n_bant%C3%BA" title="Espansión bantú – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espansión bantú" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="বান্টু সম্প্রসারণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বান্টু সম্প্রসারণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3_bantu" title="Expansió bantu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Expansió bantu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kukula_kwa_%C5%B5a_Bantu" title="Kukula kwa ŵa Bantu – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Kukula kwa ŵa Bantu" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3n_bant%C3%BA" title="Expansión bantú – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expansión bantú" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuen_hedapena" title="Bantuen hedapena – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bantuen hedapena" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_bantoue" title="Expansion bantoue – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expansion bantoue" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrasi_Bantu" title="Migrasi Bantu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Migrasi Bantu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_bantu" title="Civiltà bantu – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civiltà bantu" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bant%C5%B3_migracijos" title="Bantų migracijos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bantų migracijos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuekspansjonen" title="Bantuekspansjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bantuekspansjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuekspansjonen" title="Bantuekspansjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bantuekspansjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expans%C3%A3o_banta" title="Expansão banta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Expansão banta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83" title="Миграция банту – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миграция банту" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuekspansio" title="Bantuekspansio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bantuekspansio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuexpansionen" title="Bantuexpansionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bantuexpansionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83" title="Міграція банту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міграція банту" 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Bantu_Phillipson.png/320px-Bantu_Phillipson.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="655" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Bantu_Phillipson.png 1.5x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003):<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /><b>1</b> = 4,000–3,500<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>: origin <br /><b>2</b> = 3,500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BP: initial expansion <br />"early split": <b>2.a</b> = Eastern, <span class="nowrap">  </span> <b>2.b</b> = Western<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /><b>3</b> = 2,000–1,500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BP: <a href="/wiki/Urewe" title="Urewe">Urewe</a> nucleus of Eastern Bantu <br /><b>4</b>–<b>7</b>: southward advance <br /><b>9</b> = 2,500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BP: Congo nucleus <br /><b>10</b> = 2,000–1,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BP: last phase</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png/300px-East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png/450px-East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png/600px-East_and_southern_africa_early_iron_age.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Map indicating the spread of the Early Iron Age across Africa; all numbers are AD dates except for the "250 BC" date.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Bantu expansion</b> was<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-legacy_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-legacy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a major series of migrations of the original <a href="/wiki/Proto-Bantu_language" title="Proto-Bantu language">Proto-Bantu</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">group</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adler_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which spread from an original nucleus around <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a>-<a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>. In the process, the Proto-Bantu-speaking settlers displaced, eliminated or absorbed pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralist</a> groups that they encountered. </p><p>There is linguistic evidence for this expansion – a great many of the languages which are spoken across <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">sub-Equatorial Africa</a> are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic-Congo">Atlantic-Congo language family</a>, was located in the southern regions of <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic evidence also indicates that there was a large human migration from central Africa, with varying levels of admixture with local population.<sup id="cite_ref-legacy_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-legacy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dense_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dense-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expansion is believed to have taken place in at least two waves, between about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago (approximately 2,000 <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BC</a> to <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">AD</a> 1). Linguistic analysis suggests that the expansion proceeded in two directions: the first went across or along the Northern border of the Congo forest region (towards East Africa),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the second – and possibly others – went south along Africa's Atlantic coast into what is now the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, or inland along the many south-to-north flowing rivers of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> system. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as AD 300.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_on_expansion">Theories on expansion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theories on expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bantuists believe that the Bantu expansion most probably began on the highlands between <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 60,000-km<sup>2</sup> <a href="/wiki/Mambilla_Plateau" title="Mambilla Plateau">Mambilla</a> region straddling the borderlands here has been identified as containing remnants of "the Bantu who stayed home" as the bulk of Bantu-speakers moved away from the region. Archaeological evidence from the separate works of Jean Hurault (1979, 1986 and 1988) and Rigobert Tueché (2000) in the region indicates cultural continuity from 3000 BC until today.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the groups of the <a href="/wiki/Western_High_Plateau" title="Western High Plateau">Bamenda highlands</a> (occupied for 2000 years until today), somewhat south and contiguous with the Mambilla region, have an ancient history of descent from the north in the direction of the Mambilla region. </p><p>Initially, archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the region's ancient cultures that the Bantu-speakers were held to have traversed. Linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships, believed they could reconstruct material culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Oliver" title="Roland Oliver">Roland Oliver</a> published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter-forager proto-<a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>, who had formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>-and <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a>-speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did. <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration. Generally, the movements of Bantu language-speaking peoples from the Cameroon/Nigeria border region throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa radically reshaped the genetic structure of the continent and led to extensive admixture between migrants and local populations.<sup id="cite_ref-dense_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dense-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2023 genetic study of 1,487 Bantu speakers sampled from 143 populations across 14 African countries revealed that the expansion occurred ~4,000 years ago in Western Africa. The results showed that Bantu speakers received significant gene-flow from local groups in regions they expanded into.<sup id="cite_ref-legacy_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-legacy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on dental evidence, Irish (2016) concluded that the common ancestors of West African and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Bantu">Proto-Bantu</a> peoples may have originated in the western region of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, amid the <a href="/wiki/Kiffian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiffian">Kiffian</a> period at <a href="/wiki/Gobero" title="Gobero">Gobero</a>, and may have migrated southward, from the Sahara into various parts of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>), as a result of <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">Green Sahara</a> in 7000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Irish_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irish-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Nigeria and Cameroon, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> Proto-Bantu peoples began to <a href="/wiki/Bantu_Migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu Migration">migrate</a>, and amid migration, diverged into East Bantu peoples (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>) and West Bantu peoples (e.g., Congo, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>) between 2500 BC and 1200 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Irish_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irish-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests that <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a> may have admixture from back-migrated Bantu peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Irish_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irish-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atlantic–Congo_languages"><span id="Atlantic.E2.80.93Congo_languages"></span>Atlantic–Congo languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Atlantic–Congo languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic-Congo languages">Atlantic-Congo languages</a></div> <p>The Atlantic-Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Western, Central and Southern Africa. The Benue–Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa. </p><p>A characteristic feature of most Atlantic–Congo languages, including almost all the Bantu languages except Swahili, Sotho-Tswana and Nguni languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (<a href="/wiki/Noun_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun classes">noun classes</a>). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitival</a> is the auxiliary designating the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-expansion-era_demography">Pre-expansion-era demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-expansion-era demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the expansion of Bantu-speaking farmers, Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa were likely populated by <a href="/wiki/Congo_Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo Pygmies">Pygmy</a> foragers, <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>-speaking herders, and <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Pastoralists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoralists">pastoralists</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Africa">Central Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Central Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is thought that <a href="/wiki/Congo_Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo Pygmies">Central African Pygmies</a> and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Batwa_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Batwa peoples">Batwa</a> groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western Batwa (<a href="/wiki/Mbenga_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbenga language">Mbenga</a> or "Baaka") language.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Africa">Southern Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Southern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the Bantu expansion, <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a>-speaking peoples inhabited Southern Africa. Their descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and adopted other languages. A few still live by foraging, often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the <a href="/wiki/Kalahari" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalahari">Kalahari</a> desert, while a larger number of <a href="/wiki/Nama_people" title="Nama people">Nama</a> continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Africa">Southeast Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Southeast Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the arrival of Bantus in Southeast Africa, <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>-speaking peoples had migrated into the region from the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a> and other more northerly areas. The first waves consisted of Southern Cushitic speakers, who settled around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Turkana" title="Lake Turkana">Lake Turkana</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> beginning around 5,000 years ago. Many centuries later, around AD 1000, some Eastern Cushitic speakers also settled in northern and coastal <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Map_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Map-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a>-speaking hunter-gatherers also inhabited Southeast Africa before the Bantu expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-AmbroseSG_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmbroseSG-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>-speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-EhretHRSC_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EhretHRSC-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EhretCHS_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EhretCHS-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmbroseALR_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmbroseALR-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion">Expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg/220px-Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg/330px-Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg/440px-Rock_painting_of_men_with_sheilds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2511" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> depicting a shield-carrying Bantu warrior. The movement of Bantu settlers, who migrated southwards and settled in the summer rainfall regions of Southern Africa within the last 2000 years, established a range of relationships with the indigenous San people from bitter conflict to ritual interaction and intermarriage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="You need evidence (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, "independent waves of migration of western African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some places, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was largely a result of substantial population replacement.<sup id="cite_ref-plosgenetics.org_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plosgenetics.org-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are African <a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">Pygmies</a> or are in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-plosgenetics.org_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plosgenetics.org-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language-speaking <a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="c._3000_BC_to_c._AD_500">c. 3000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC to c. AD 500<span class="nowrap"> </span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: c. 3000 BC to c. AD 500 "><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It seems likely that the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu-speaking people</a> from their core region in West Africa began around 4000–3500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron-using and agricultural, definitive archaeological evidence that they used iron does not appear until as late as 400<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, though they were agricultural.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Christopher Ehret</a>, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and <a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">pygmies</a> are their closest living relatives. However, <a href="/wiki/MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> genetic research from <a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Province" title="Cabinda Province">Cabinda</a> suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L<sub>0</sub> of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further east, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a> to the south, in what are now the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>. </p><p>Another stream of migration, having moved east by 3,000 years ago (1000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC), was creating a major new population center near the <a href="/wiki/Great_lakes_(Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great lakes (Africa)">Great Lakes</a> of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. The <a href="/wiki/Urewe" title="Urewe">Urewe culture</a> dominated the Great Lakes region between 650BC and 550BC. It was one of Africa's oldest iron-smelting centres.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively difficult farming conditions in areas farther from water. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BC to 300 AD, Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kwale_County" title="Kwale County">Kwale</a> in Kenya. These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present at the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade route</a>, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders, leading to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_culture" title="Swahili culture">Swahili culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kusimba_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kusimba-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by AD 300 along the coast, and the modern <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Limpopo Province">Limpopo Province</a> (formerly Northern <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvaal Province">Transvaal</a>) by AD 500.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="From_the_11th_century_to_17th_century">From the 11th century to 17th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: From the 11th century to 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between the 11th and 16th centuries, powerful Bantu-speaking states on a scale larger than local <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">chiefdoms</a> began to emerge. Notable early kingdoms include the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of the Kongo</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bunyoro#Bunyoro-Kitara_Kingdom_(Uganda)" title="Bunyoro">Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom</a> in the Great Lakes region, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a> (c.1075–c.1220) in present-day <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, and the Zambezi River, where the <a href="/wiki/Monomatapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Monomatapa">Monomatapa</a> kings built the <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> complex.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Swahili city-states were also established early in this period. These include <a href="/wiki/Sultanates" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanates">sultanates</a> based at <a href="/wiki/Lamu" title="Lamu">Lamu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kilwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilwa">Kilwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pate_sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pate sultanate">Pate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> traded with the inland kingdoms, including Great Zimbabwe.<sup id="cite_ref-Kusimba_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kusimba-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They likely resulted from denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making outmigration more effortful. Other factors promoting state-formation were increased trade among African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological innovations in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShillington2005_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShillington2005-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other inland centres established during this phase of expansion include <a href="/wiki/Bigo_bya_Mugenyi" title="Bigo bya Mugenyi">Bigo bya Mugenyi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thimlich_Ohinga" title="Thimlich Ohinga">Thimlich Ohinga</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kweneng%27_Ruins" title="Kweneng' Ruins">Kweneng' Ruins</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Manfred K. H. Eggert stated that "the current archaeological record in the Central African rainforest is extremely spotty and consequently far from convincing so as to be taken as a reflection of a steady influx of Bantu speakers into the forest, let alone movement on a larger scale."<sup id="cite_ref-Eggert_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seidensticker (2024) indicates that the prevalent paradigm for the Bantu expansion has a forced connection between Central African <a href="/wiki/African_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="African pottery">ceramics</a> and Central African <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">languages</a>, where the geographic location of speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> are treated as synonymous with the geographic location of ceramic remnants; the popular approach of attempting to correlate <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">linguistic reconstructions</a> with <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> data has resulted in propagation of the <a href="/wiki/False_premise" title="False premise">faulty presumption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> that the earliest ceramic manufacturing in a given area is evidence for the earliest presence of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu-speakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seidensticker_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seidensticker-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a "profound conceptual trend in which a "purely technical [term] without any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into a designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race"."<sup id="cite_ref-Seidensticker_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seidensticker-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineal_belt" title="Matrilineal belt">Matrilineal belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-modern_human_migration" title="Pre-modern human migration">Pre-modern human migration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNursePhilippson2003" class="citation book cs1">Nurse, Derek; Philippson, Gérard (2003). <i>The Bantu Languages</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1134-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1134-5"><bdi>978-0-7007-1134-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bantu+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1134-5&rft.aulast=Nurse&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft.au=Philippson%2C+G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatinLopezGrollemundVerdu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Patin, Etienne; et al. 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"The Rise and Fall of Swahili States". <i>The International Journal of African Historical Studies</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F220701">10.2307/220701</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/220701">220701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Swahili+States&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=437&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F220701&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F220701%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pouwels&rft.aufirst=Randall+L.&rft.au=Kusimba%2C+Chapurukha+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret1998" class="citation book cs1">Ehret, Christopher (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1i-IBmCeNhUC"><i>An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 BC to AD 400</i></a>. London: James Currey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2057-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2057-3"><bdi>978-0-8139-2057-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+African+Classical+Age%3A+Eastern+and+Southern+Africa+in+World+History%2C+1000+BC+to+AD+400&rft.place=London&rft.pub=James+Currey&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-2057-3&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1i-IBmCeNhUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman1995" class="citation book cs1">Newman, James L. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplingofafrica00newmrich"><i>The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation</i></a></span>. 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(September 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2005" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2005). <i>History of Africa</i> (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1977" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John (October 1977). "Demography and History in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1550–1750". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 507–530. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700015693">10.1017/s0021853700015693</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162627912">162627912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Demography+and+History+in+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo%2C+1550%E2%80%931750&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=507-530&rft.date=1977-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853700015693&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162627912%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2016" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, Shane (2016). 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January 1998. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00672709809511464">10.1080/00672709809511464</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Azania%3A+Archaeological+Research+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Farmers%2C+cattle-herders+and+rulers+in+western+Uganda%2C+AD+1000%E2%80%931500&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-72&rft.date=1998-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00672709809511464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadr2019" class="citation journal cs1">Sadr, Karim (9 July 2019). "Kweneng: A Newly Discovered Pre-Colonial Capital Near Johannesburg". <i>Journal of African Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F21915784-20190001">10.1163/21915784-20190001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166283404">166283404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Kweneng%3A+A+Newly+Discovered+Pre-Colonial+Capital+Near+Johannesburg&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F21915784-20190001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166283404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sadr&rft.aufirst=Karim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eggert-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eggert_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggert2016" class="citation journal cs1">Eggert, Manfred K. H. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1553%2Fmedievalworlds_no4_2016s79">"Genetizing Bantu: Historical Insight or Historical Trilemma?"</a>. <i>Medieval Worlds</i> (4): 79–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1553%2Fmedievalworlds_no4_2016s79">10.1553/medievalworlds_no4_2016s79</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Worlds&rft.atitle=Genetizing+Bantu%3A+Historical+Insight+or+Historical+Trilemma%3F&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=79-90&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1553%2Fmedievalworlds_no4_2016s79&rft.aulast=Eggert&rft.aufirst=Manfred+K.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1553%252Fmedievalworlds_no4_2016s79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seidensticker-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seidensticker_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seidensticker_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidensticker2024" class="citation journal cs1">Seidensticker, Dirk (28 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-024-09576-7">"Pikunda-Munda and Batalimo-Maluba Archaeological Investigations of the Iron Age Settlement History of the Western and Northern Congo Basin"</a>. <i>African Archaeological Review</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 5–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-024-09576-7">10.1007/s10437-024-09576-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0263-0338">0263-0338</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10194943180">10194943180</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:268802330">268802330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Pikunda-Munda+and+Batalimo-Maluba+Archaeological+Investigations+of+the+Iron+Age+Settlement+History+of+the+Western+and+Northern+Congo+Basin&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=5-6&rft.date=2024-03-28&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10194943180&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A268802330%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0263-0338&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-024-09576-7&rft.aulast=Seidensticker&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-024-09576-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bantu_expansion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBostoenClistDoumengeGrollemund2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bostoen, Koen; Clist, Bernard; Doumenge, Charles; Grollemund, Rebecca; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Muluwa, Joseph Koni; Maley, Jean (June 2015). 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(1 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsp069">"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"</a>. <i>Molecular Biology and Evolution</i>. <b>26</b> (7): 1581–1589. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsp069">10.1093/molbev/msp069</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19369595">19369595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Genetic+and+Demographic+Implications+of+the+Bantu+Expansion%3A+Insights+from+Human+Paternal+Lineages&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1581-1589&rft.date=2009-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsp069&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19369595&rft.aulast=Berniell-Lee&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Calafell%2C+F.&rft.au=Bosch%2C+E.&rft.au=Heyer%2C+E.&rft.au=Sica%2C+L.&rft.au=Mouguiama-Daouda%2C+P.&rft.au=van+der+Veen%2C+L.&rft.au=Hombert%2C+J.-M.&rft.au=Quintana-Murci%2C+L.&rft.au=Comas%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmolbev%252Fmsp069&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/fulltext/hombert/Hombert_2009_Bantu_Hunter_Gatherers.pdf">Bantu Expansion and Hunter-gatherers</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatinLopezGrollemundVerdu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Patin, Etienne; Lopez, Marie; Grollemund, Rebecca; Verdu, Paul; Harmant, Christine; Quach, Hélène; Laval, Guillaume; Perry, George H.; Barreiro, Luis B.; Froment, Alain; Heyer, Evelyne; Massougbodji, Achille; Fortes-Lima, Cesar; Migot-Nabias, Florence; Bellis, Gil; Dugoujon, Jean-Michel; Pereira, Joana B.; Fernandes, Verónica; Pereira, Luisa; Van der Veen, Lolke; Mouguiama-Daouda, Patrick; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Quintana-Murci, Lluís (5 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02277558">"Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>356</b> (6337): 543–546. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Sci...356..543P">2017Sci...356..543P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aal1988">10.1126/science.aal1988</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10216%2F109265">10216/109265</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28473590">28473590</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3094410">3094410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Dispersals+and+genetic+adaptation+of+Bantu-speaking+populations+in+Africa+and+North+America&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=6337&rft.pages=543-546&rft.date=2017-05-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10216%2F109265&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3094410%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Sci...356..543P&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28473590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aal1988&rft.aulast=Patin&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft.au=Lopez%2C+Marie&rft.au=Grollemund%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Verdu%2C+Paul&rft.au=Harmant%2C+Christine&rft.au=Quach%2C+H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft.au=Laval%2C+Guillaume&rft.au=Perry%2C+George+H.&rft.au=Barreiro%2C+Luis+B.&rft.au=Froment%2C+Alain&rft.au=Heyer%2C+Evelyne&rft.au=Massougbodji%2C+Achille&rft.au=Fortes-Lima%2C+Cesar&rft.au=Migot-Nabias%2C+Florence&rft.au=Bellis%2C+Gil&rft.au=Dugoujon%2C+Jean-Michel&rft.au=Pereira%2C+Joana+B.&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+Ver%C3%B3nica&rft.au=Pereira%2C+Luisa&rft.au=Van+der+Veen%2C+Lolke&rft.au=Mouguiama-Daouda%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Bustamante%2C+Carlos+D.&rft.au=Hombert%2C+Jean-Marie&rft.au=Quintana-Murci%2C+Llu%C3%ADs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-02277558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABantu+expansion" 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bantu" title="Template:Bantu"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bantu" title="Template talk:Bantu"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bantu" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bantu"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bantu_religion_and_folklore" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Bantu religion and folklore</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #bdfdfb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu peoples</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Bantu_language" title="Proto-Bantu language">Proto-Bantu language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #bdfdfb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_religion" title="Bantu religion">Bantu religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badimo" title="Badimo">Badimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dini_Ya_Msambwa" title="Dini Ya Msambwa">Dini Ya Msambwa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Luhya_people" title="Luhya people">Luhya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyau" title="Nyau">Nyau</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chewa_people" title="Chewa people">Chewa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwean</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_people" title="Northern Ndebele people">Ndebele</a> & <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akongo" title="Akongo">Akongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunzi" title="Bunzi">Bunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalumba" title="Kalumba">Kalumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kianda" title="Kianda">Kianda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibuka_(deity)" title="Kibuka (deity)">Kibuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mebege" title="Mebege">Mebege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukasa_(deity)" title="Mukasa (deity)">Mukasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisa" title="Muisa">Muisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwari" title="Mwari">Mwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njambe_(god)" title="Njambe (god)">Njambe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyambe" title="Nyambe">Nyambe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nzambi_a_Mpungu" title="Nzambi a Mpungu">Nzambi Mpungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nzambici" title="Nzambici">Nzambici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nzame" title="Nzame">Nzame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Spirits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jengu" title="Jengu">Jengu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mami_Wata" title="Mami Wata">Mami Wata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkondi" title="Nkondi">Nkondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetani" title="Shetani">Shetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simbi" title="Simbi">Simbi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kal%C3%BBnga_Line" title="Kalûnga Line">Kalûnga Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_cosmogram" title="Kongo cosmogram">Kongo cosmogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkondi" title="Nkondi">Nkondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nganga" title="Nganga">Nganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okuyi" title="Okuyi">Okuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebola" title="Zebola">Zebola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #bdfdfb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Legendary beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kimanaueze" title="Kimanaueze">Kimanaueze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwindo_epic" title="Mwindo epic">Mwindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwuetsi" title="Mwuetsi">Mwuetsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambi_(mythology)" title="Nambi (mythology)">Nambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyongo_society" title="Nyongo society">Nyongo society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudika-mbambi" title="Sudika-mbambi">Sudika-mbambi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Legendary creatures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abada_(unicorn)" title="Abada (unicorn)">Abada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloko" title="Eloko">Eloko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koolakamba" title="Koolakamba">Koolakamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbwiri" title="Mbwiri">Mbwiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokele-mbembe" title="Mokele-mbembe">Mokele-mbembe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obambo" title="Obambo">Obambo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #bdfdfb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Bantu diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African diaspora religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cat_bone" title="Black cat bone">Black cat bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Candomblé Bantu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afro-Brazilians" title="Afro-Brazilians">Brazil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a> (<a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">USA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_foot_powder" title="Hot foot powder">Hot foot powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">Kumbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_shout" title="Ring shout">Ring shout</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d6fefd;;width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boo_hag" title="Boo hag">Boo hag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Square" title="Congo Square">Congo Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_Jack" title="Gullah Jack">Gullah Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Conqueror" title="John the Conqueror">John the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #bdfdfb;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Bantu_peoples" title="Category:Bantu peoples">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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