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</li> <li id="toc-Network_packet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_packet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Network packet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_packet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_topology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_topology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Network topology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Network_topology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Network topology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Network_topology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overlay_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overlay_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Overlay network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overlay_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Network links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Network_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Network links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Network_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wired" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wired"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Wired</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wired-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wireless" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wireless"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Wireless</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wireless-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_nodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_nodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Network nodes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Network_nodes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Network nodes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Network_nodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Network_interfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_interfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Network interfaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_interfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repeaters_and_hubs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repeaters_and_hubs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Repeaters and hubs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repeaters_and_hubs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bridges_and_switches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bridges_and_switches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Bridges and switches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bridges_and_switches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Routers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Modems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Firewalls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Firewalls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Firewalls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Firewalls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_protocols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_protocols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Communication protocols</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Communication_protocols-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Communication protocols subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Communication_protocols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_protocols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_protocols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Common protocols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_protocols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internet_protocol_suite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_protocol_suite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Internet protocol suite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_protocol_suite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IEEE_802" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IEEE_802"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>IEEE 802</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IEEE_802-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethernet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethernet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.1</span> <span>Ethernet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethernet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wireless_LAN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wireless_LAN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.2</span> <span>Wireless LAN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wireless_LAN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SONET/SDH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SONET/SDH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>SONET/SDH</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SONET/SDH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Asynchronous Transfer Mode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.5</span> <span>Cellular standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Routing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Geographic scale</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geographic_scale-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geographic scale subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geographic_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nanoscale_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanoscale_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Nanoscale network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanoscale_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Personal area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Local area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Home_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Home area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Storage_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storage_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Storage area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storage_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campus_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campus_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Campus area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campus_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backbone_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backbone_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Backbone network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backbone_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metropolitan_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metropolitan_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Metropolitan area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metropolitan_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wide_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wide_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9</span> <span>Wide area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wide_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enterprise_private_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enterprise_private_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.10</span> <span>Enterprise private network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enterprise_private_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtual_private_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtual_private_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.11</span> <span>Virtual private network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtual_private_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_area_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_area_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.12</span> <span>Global area network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_area_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizational_scope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizational_scope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Organizational scope</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organizational_scope-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organizational scope subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organizational_scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intranet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intranet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Intranet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intranet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extranet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extranet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Extranet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extranet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Darknet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Darknet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Darknet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Darknet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Network service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Network performance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Network_performance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Network performance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Network_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bandwidth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bandwidth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bandwidth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bandwidth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_delay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_delay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Network delay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_delay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance_metrics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance_metrics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Performance metrics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance_metrics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_congestion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_congestion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Network congestion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_congestion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Network resilience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Security</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Security-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Security subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Network_security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Network security</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_surveillance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_surveillance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Network surveillance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_surveillance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_to_end_encryption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_to_end_encryption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>End to end encryption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_to_end_encryption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SSL/TLS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SSL/TLS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>SSL/TLS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SSL/TLS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_of_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_of_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Views of networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_of_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer network</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaarnetwerk" title="Rekenaarnetwerk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rekenaarnetwerk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%AE%E1%88%9D%E1%8D%92%E1%8B%A9%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AD_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%8D%E1%89%B3%E1%88%AD" title="የኮምፒዩተር አውታር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የኮምፒዩተር አውታር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="شبكة حاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبكة حاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="কম্পিউটাৰ নেটৱৰ্ক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কম্পিউটাৰ নেটৱৰ্ক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_d%27ordenadores" title="Rede d'ordenadores – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Rede d'ordenadores" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komp%C3%BCter_%C5%9F%C9%99b%C9%99k%C9%99si" title="Kompüter şəbəkəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kompüter şəbəkəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="কম্পিউটার নেটওয়ার্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার নেটওয়ার্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-n%C3%A1u_b%C4%81ng-l%C5%8D%CD%98" title="Tiān-náu bāng-lō͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-náu bāng-lō͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%E2%80%99%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Камп’ютарная сетка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Камп’ютарная сетка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кампутарная сетка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кампутарная сетка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="कंप्यूटर नेटवर्क – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कंप्यूटर नेटवर्क" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Компютърна мрежа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Компютърна мрежа" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Računarska mreža – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Računarska mreža" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouedad_stlennegel" title="Rouedad stlennegel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouedad stlennegel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarxa_inform%C3%A0tica" title="Xarxa informàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xarxa informàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_s%C3%AD%C5%A5" title="Počítačová síť – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Počítačová síť" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpilingizgoli_(MaKompyuta)" title="Mpilingizgoli (MaKompyuta) – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Mpilingizgoli (MaKompyuta)" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datanet" title="Datanet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Datanet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechnernetz" title="Rechnernetz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rechnernetz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvutiv%C3%B5rk" title="Arvutivõrk – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Arvutivõrk" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%85%CE%BF_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Δίκτυο υπολογιστών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δίκτυο υπολογιστών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%91%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Ловиця сёксть – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Ловиця сёксть" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_de_computadoras" title="Red de computadoras – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Red de computadoras" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputila_reto" title="Komputila reto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komputila reto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konputagailu-sare" title="Konputagailu-sare – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Konputagailu-sare" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%DA%A9%D9%87_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="شبکه رایانه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شبکه رایانه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_informatique" title="Réseau informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réseau informatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADonra_r%C3%ADomhair%C3%AD" title="Líonra ríomhairí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Líonra ríomhairí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_de_computadoras" title="Rede de computadoras – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rede de computadoras" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%DB%8A%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A4%D9%86" title="کامپيۊتري لابدؤن – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="کامپيۊتري لابدؤن" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95" title="કમ્પ્યુટર નેટવર્ક – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કમ્પ્યુટર નેટવર્ક" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0_%EB%A7%9D" title="컴퓨터 망 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨터 망" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81" title="Համակարգչային ցանց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համակարգչային ցանց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="कम्प्यूटर नेटवर्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कम्प्यूटर नेटवर्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalne_mre%C5%BEe" title="Računalne mreže – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Računalne mreže" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputerala_reto" title="Komputerala reto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Komputerala reto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaringan_komputer" title="Jaringan komputer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jaringan komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rete_de_computatores" title="Rete de computatores – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Rete de computatores" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhleloxhumano_lesiCikizi" title="Uhleloxhumano lesiCikizi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Uhleloxhumano lesiCikizi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6lvunet" title="Tölvunet – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tölvunet" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rete_di_computer" title="Rete di computer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rete di computer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תקשורת נתונים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקשורת נתונים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="გამოთვლითი ქსელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გამოთვლითი ქსელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Компьютерлік желі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Компьютерлік желі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mtandao_wa_kompyuta" title="Mtandao wa kompyuta – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mtandao wa kompyuta" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_(komputer)" title="Tor (komputer) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tor (komputer)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Компьютердик тармак – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Компьютердик тармак" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticulum_computatrale" title="Reticulum computatrale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Reticulum computatrale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datort%C4%ABkls" title="Datortīkls – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Datortīkls" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computernetzwierk" title="Computernetzwierk – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Computernetzwierk" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiuteri%C5%B3_tinklas" title="Kompiuterių tinklas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kompiuterių tinklas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computern%C3%A8twerk" title="Computernètwerk – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Computernètwerk" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_di_computer" title="Red di computer – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Red di computer" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADt%C3%B3g%C3%A9p-h%C3%A1l%C3%B3zat" title="Számítógép-hálózat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Számítógép-hálózat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Сметачка мрежа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сметачка мрежа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ നെറ്റ്‌വർക്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ നെറ്റ്‌വർക്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="कॉम्‍प्‍युटर नेटवर्क – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कॉम्‍प्‍युटर नेटवर्क" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%B7%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="გჷშაკოროცხალი რშვილი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გჷშაკოროცხალი რშვილი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangkaian_komputer" title="Rangkaian komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rangkaian komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaringan_komputer" title="Jaringan komputer – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Jaringan komputer" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_de_cumputadores" title="Rede de cumputadores – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Rede de cumputadores" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%81%D2%AF%D0%BB%D0%B6%D1%8D%D1%8D" title="Компьютерын сүлжээ – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Компьютерын сүлжээ" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ကွန်ယက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ကွန်ယက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computernetwerk" title="Computernetwerk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Computernetwerk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="कम्प्युटर नेटवर्क – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्प्युटर नेटवर्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF" title="コンピュータネットワーク – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンピュータネットワーク" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datanett" title="Datanett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Datanett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datanett" title="Datanett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Datanett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret_informatica" title="Ret informatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ret informatica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%88" title="Компьютер вапш – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Компьютер вапш" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimdaa_Kompiyuuteraa" title="Cimdaa Kompiyuuteraa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Cimdaa Kompiyuuteraa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter_tarmog%CA%BBi" title="Kompyuter tarmogʻi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kompyuter tarmogʻi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2" title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰੀ ਜਾਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰੀ ਜਾਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9" title="کمپیوٹر نیٹ ورک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کمپیوٹر نیٹ ورک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%BC%D8%B1_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%BC%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9" title="کمپيوټر نيټورک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کمپيوټر نيټورک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reeknernettwark" title="Reeknernettwark – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Reeknernettwark" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sie%C4%87_komputerowa" title="Sieć komputerowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sieć komputerowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_de_computadores" title="Rede de computadores – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rede de computadores" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C8%9Bea_de_calculatoare" title="Rețea de calculatoare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rețea de calculatoare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anta%C3%B1iqiq_llika" title="Antañiqiq llika – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Antañiqiq llika" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Вычислительная сеть – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вычислительная сеть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/tingnaw_wanglu" title="tingnaw wanglu – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="tingnaw wanglu" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8_%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A0" title="ᱠᱚᱢᱯᱤᱭᱩᱴᱟᱨ ᱱᱮᱴᱣᱟᱨᱠ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱚᱢᱯᱤᱭᱩᱴᱟᱨ ᱱᱮᱴᱣᱟᱨᱠ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rrjeti_kompjuterik" title="Rrjeti kompjuterik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rrjeti kompjuterik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD" title="පරිගණක ජාල – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණක ජාල" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Computer network" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_sie%C5%A5" title="Počítačová sieť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Počítačová sieť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalni%C5%A1ko_omre%C5%BEje" title="Računalniško omrežje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Računalniško omrežje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%86%DA%95%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تۆڕی کۆمپیوتەری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تۆڕی کۆمپیوتەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Računarska mreža – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Računarska mreža" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuterska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Kompjuterska mreža – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kompjuterska mreža" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietokoneverkko" title="Tietokoneverkko – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietokoneverkko" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datorn%C3%A4tverk" title="Datornätverk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Datornätverk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_ng_kompyuter" title="Network ng kompyuter – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Network ng kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="கணினி வலையமைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணினி வலையமைப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Компьютер челтәре – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Компьютер челтәре" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D" title="కంప్యూటర్ నెట్వర్క్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంప్యూటర్ నెట్వర్క్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เครือข่ายคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครือข่ายคอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Шабакаи компютерӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Шабакаи компютерӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Bilgisayar ağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar ağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%94mputa_So_Nkitahodie" title="Kɔmputa So Nkitahodie – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Kɔmputa So Nkitahodie" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%27%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Комп'ютерна мережа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Комп'ютерна мережа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9" title="کمپیوٹر نیٹ ورک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کمپیوٹر نیٹ ورک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1ng_m%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh" title="Mạng máy tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mạng máy tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusu" title="Kusu – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Kusu" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C" title="计算机网络 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="计算机网络" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A7" title="קאמפיוטער נעצווערק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאמפיוטער נעצווערק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%B6%B2%E7%B5%A1" title="電腦網絡 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦網絡" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%B1rey_xetan_(network)" title="Gırey xetan (network) – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Gırey xetan (network)" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C" title="计算机网络 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="计算机网络" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1301371#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.15em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Network_science" title="Category:Network science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">Network science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 250px; height: 250px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -0px; left: -0px; width: 250px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Internet_map_1024.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/250px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/375px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/500px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">Theory</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)" title="Graph (discrete mathematics)">Graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_network" title="Complex network">Complex network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_contagion" title="Complex contagion">Contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-world_network" title="Small-world network">Small-world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale-free_network" title="Scale-free network">Scale-free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_structure" title="Community structure">Community structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percolation_theory" title="Percolation theory">Percolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolving_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolving networks">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_controllability" title="Network controllability">Controllability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Link_analysis" title="Link analysis">Link analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_optimization" title="Combinatorial optimization">Optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(network_science)" title="Reciprocity (network science)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triadic_closure" title="Triadic closure">Closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophily" title="Homophily">Homophily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">Transitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preferential_attachment" title="Preferential attachment">Preferential attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_theory" title="Balance theory">Balance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_effect" title="Network effect">Network effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Network types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informational (computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport network">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_collaboration_network" title="Scientific collaboration network">Scientific collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_network" title="Biological network">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Artificial neural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdependent_networks" title="Interdependent networks">Interdependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_network" title="Spatial network">Spatial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_network" title="Dependency network">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_network" title="Flow network">Flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_on_a_chip" title="Network on a chip">on-Chip</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)" title="Graph (discrete mathematics)">Graphs</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clique_(graph_theory)" title="Clique (graph theory)">Clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connected_component_(graph_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Connected component (graph theory)">Component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(graph_theory)" title="Cut (graph theory)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_(graph_theory)" title="Cycle (graph theory)">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_(abstract_data_type)" title="Graph (abstract data type)">Data structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge (graph theory)">Edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_(graph_theory)" title="Loop (graph theory)">Loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighbourhood_(graph_theory)" title="Neighbourhood (graph theory)">Neighborhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)" title="Path (graph theory)">Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)" title="Vertex (graph theory)">Vertex</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adjacency_list" title="Adjacency list">Adjacency list</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adjacency_matrix" title="Adjacency matrix">matrix</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Incidence_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Incidence list">Incidence list</a> / <a href="/wiki/Incidence_matrix" title="Incidence matrix">matrix</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipartite_graph" title="Bipartite graph">Bipartite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_graph" title="Complete graph">Complete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_graph" title="Directed graph">Directed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergraph" title="Hypergraph">Hyper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeled_graph" class="mw-redirect" title="Labeled graph">Labeled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigraph" title="Multigraph">Multi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_graph" title="Random graph">Random</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weighted_graph" class="mw-redirect" title="Weighted graph">Weighted</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metrics_(networking)" title="Metrics (networking)">Metrics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_algorithms#Networking" title="List of algorithms">Algorithms</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrality" title="Centrality">Centrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degree_(graph_theory)" title="Degree (graph theory)">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_motif" title="Network motif">Motif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_coefficient" title="Clustering coefficient">Clustering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degree_distribution" title="Degree distribution">Degree distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assortativity" title="Assortativity">Assortativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distance_(graph_theory)" title="Distance (graph theory)">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(networks)" title="Modularity (networks)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(network_science)" title="Efficiency (network science)">Efficiency</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Models</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Topology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Random_graph" title="Random graph">Random graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erd%C5%91s%E2%80%93R%C3%A9nyi_model" title="Erdős–Rényi model">Erdős–Rényi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barab%C3%A1si%E2%80%93Albert_model" title="Barabási–Albert model">Barabási–Albert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bianconi%E2%80%93Barab%C3%A1si_model" title="Bianconi–Barabási model">Bianconi–Barabási</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_model_(network_theory)" title="Fitness model (network theory)">Fitness model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watts%E2%80%93Strogatz_model" title="Watts–Strogatz model">Watts–Strogatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_random_graph_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Exponential random graph models">Exponential random (ERGM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_geometric_graph" title="Random geometric graph">Random geometric (RGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometric_graph" title="Hyperbolic geometric graph">Hyperbolic (HGN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_network_model" title="Hierarchical network model">Hierarchical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_block_model" title="Stochastic block model">Stochastic block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockmodeling" title="Blockmodeling">Blockmodeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum-entropy_random_graph_model" title="Maximum-entropy random graph model">Maximum entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_configuration_model" title="Soft configuration model">Soft configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancichinetti%E2%80%93Fortunato%E2%80%93Radicchi_benchmark" title="Lancichinetti–Fortunato–Radicchi benchmark">LFR Benchmark</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Dynamics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_network" title="Boolean network">Boolean network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">agent based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemic model">Epidemic</a>/<a href="/wiki/SIR_model" class="mw-redirect" title="SIR model">SIR</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Categories</li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_network_theory_topics" title="List of network theory topics">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis_software" title="Social network analysis software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_network_scientists" title="List of network scientists">Network scientists</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Network_theory" title="Category:Network theory">Category:Network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Graph_theory" title="Category:Graph theory">Category:Graph theory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Network_science" title="Template:Network science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Network_science" title="Template talk:Network science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Network_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Network science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/165px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="165" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/248px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/330px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="370" usemap="#ImageMap_4c9a165895b5ed35" resource="/wiki/File:Operating_system_placement.svg" /></span><map name="ImageMap_4c9a165895b5ed35"><area href="/wiki/User_(computing)" shape="rect" coords="1,1,165,59" alt="User" title="User" /><area href="/wiki/Application_software" shape="rect" coords="1,60,165,119" alt="Application" title="Application" /><area href="/wiki/Operating_system" shape="rect" coords="1,119,165,178" alt="Operating system" title="Operating system" /><area href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" shape="rect" coords="1,179,165,237" alt="Hardware" title="Hardware" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> Common features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">File system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device drivers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Networking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:OS" title="Template:OS"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:OS" title="Template talk:OS"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:OS" title="Special:EditPage/Template:OS"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>computer network</b> is a set of <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> sharing resources located on or provided by <a href="/wiki/Network_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Network node">network nodes</a>. Computers use common <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocols</a> over <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital</a> <a href="/wiki/Interconnection" title="Interconnection">interconnections</a> to communicate with each other. These interconnections are made up of <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications network</a> technologies based on physically wired, <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical</a>, and wireless <a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-frequency">radio-frequency</a> methods that may be arranged in a variety of <a href="/wiki/Network_topologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Network topologies">network topologies</a>. </p><p>The nodes of a computer network can include <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">networking hardware</a>, or other specialized or general-purpose <a href="/wiki/Host_(network)" title="Host (network)">hosts</a>. They are identified by <a href="/wiki/Network_address" title="Network address">network addresses</a> and may have <a href="/wiki/Hostname" title="Hostname">hostnames</a>. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a>. </p><p>Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">transmission medium</a> used to carry signals, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">communications protocols</a> to organize <a href="/wiki/Network_traffic" title="Network traffic">network traffic</a>, the network size, the topology, <a href="/wiki/Network_traffic_control" title="Network traffic control">traffic control</a> mechanisms, and organizational intent.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Computer networks support many <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">services</a>, such as access to the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_video" title="Digital video">digital video</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">audio</a>, shared use of <a href="/wiki/File_server" title="File server">application and storage servers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fax_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fax machine">fax machines</a>, and use of email and instant messaging applications. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer networking may be considered a branch of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technological developments and historical milestones. </p> <ul><li>In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military <a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">Semi-Automatic Ground Environment</a> (SAGE) <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> system<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using the <a href="/wiki/Bell_101_modem" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell 101 modem">Bell 101 modem</a>. It was the first commercial <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modem</a> for computers, released by <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T Corporation</a> in 1958. The modem allowed <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital data</a> to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s).</li> <li>In 1959, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Strachey" title="Christopher Strachey">Christopher Strachey</a> filed a patent application for <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> in the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a> initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT.<sup id="cite_ref-ctsspg3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ctsspg3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strachey passed the concept on to <a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a> at the inaugural <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_for_Information_Processing#History" title="International Federation for Information Processing">UNESCO Information Processing Conference</a> in Paris that year.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing systems (the <a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">Compatible Time-Sharing System</a> in 1961, the <a href="/wiki/BBN_Time-Sharing_System" title="BBN Time-Sharing System">BBN Time-Sharing System</a> in 1962, and the <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_Time-Sharing_System" title="Dartmouth Time-Sharing System">Dartmouth Time-Sharing System</a> in 1963).</li> <li>In 1959, <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Kitov" title="Anatoly Kitov">Anatoly Kitov</a> proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962 <a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a> economy management network project.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system <a href="/wiki/Semi-automatic_business_research_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-automatic business research environment">semi-automatic business research environment</a> (SABRE) went online with two connected <a href="/wiki/Mainframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframe">mainframes</a>.</li> <li>In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_Computer_Network" title="Intergalactic Computer Network">Intergalactic Computer Network</a>", a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users.</li> <li>In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Western_Electric" title="Western Electric">Western Electric</a> introduced the first widely used <a href="/wiki/Telephone_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone switch">telephone switch</a> that implemented computer control in the switching fabric.</li> <li>Throughout the 1960s,<sup id="cite_ref-:17_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> independently invented the concept of <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a> for <a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">data communication</a> between computers over a network.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:232_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:232-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baran's work addressed adaptive routing of message blocks across a distributed network, but did not include routers with software switches, nor the idea that users, rather than the network itself, would provide the <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(computer_networking)" title="Reliability (computer networking)">reliability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pelkey6.1a_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pelkey6.1a-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5a_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5a-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davies' hierarchical network design included high-speed <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocols</a> and the essence of the <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)</a>, pioneered the implementation of the concept in 1968-69 using <span class="nowrap">768 kbit/s</span> links.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Baran's and Davies' inventions were seminal contributions that influenced the development of computer networks.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:24_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1969, the first four nodes of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> were connected using <span class="nowrap">50 kbit/s</span> circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Designed principally by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a>, the network's routing, flow control, software design and network control were developed by the <a href="/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">IMP</a> team working for <a href="/wiki/Bolt_Beranek_%26_Newman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt Beranek & Newman">Bolt Beranek & Newman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2322_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2322-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> carried out mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theoretical work on <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_routing" title="Hierarchical routing">hierarchical routing</a> in the late 1970s with student <a href="/wiki/Farouk_Kamoun" title="Farouk Kamoun">Farouk Kamoun</a> remains critical to the operation of the Internet today.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on experimental <a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a> in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1973, the French <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> network, directed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a> was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1973, <a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Peter Kirstein</a> put <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a> into practice at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> (UCL), connecting the ARPANET to <a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom#History" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">British academic networks</a>, the first international heterogeneous computer network.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_experiences_with_the_Arpanet_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_experiences_with_the_Arpanet-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1973, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a> wrote a formal memo at <a href="/wiki/Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a> describing <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, a networking system that was based on the <a href="/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet">Aloha network</a>, developed in the 1960s by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Norman Abramson</a> and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. Metcalfe, with <a href="/wiki/John_Shoch" title="John Shoch">John Shoch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a>, Ed Taft, and <a href="/wiki/Butler_Lampson" title="Butler Lampson">Butler Lampson</a> also developed the <a href="/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a> for internetworking.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1974, <a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a> published their seminal 1974 paper on internetworking, <i>A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> Later that year, Cerf, <a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a>, and Carl Sunshine wrote the first <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP) specification, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675">675</a>, coining the term <i>Internet</i> as a shorthand for internetworking.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and <a href="/wiki/David_Boggs" title="David Boggs">David Boggs</a> published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks"<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">Public data networks</a> in Europe, North America and Japan began using <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> in the late 1970s and interconnected with <a href="/wiki/X.75" title="X.75">X.75</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:232_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:232-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1976, John Murphy of <a href="/wiki/Datapoint_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Datapoint Corporation">Datapoint Corporation</a> created <a href="/wiki/ARCNET" title="ARCNET">ARCNET</a>, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices.</li> <li>In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long Beach, California.</li> <li>In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Spurgeon_2000_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spurgeon_2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original <span class="nowrap">2.94 Mbit/s</span> protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by <a href="/wiki/Ron_Crane_(engineer)" title="Ron Crane (engineer)">Ron Crane</a>, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Yogen Dalal.<sup id="cite_ref-Pelkey-Dalal_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pelkey-Dalal-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its continued use.<sup id="cite_ref-Spurgeon_2000_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spurgeon_2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer networks enhance how users communicate with each other by using various electronic methods like email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video calls, and video conferencing. Networks also enable the sharing of computing resources. For example, a user can print a document on a shared printer or use shared storage devices. Additionally, networks allow for the sharing of files and information, giving authorized users access to data stored on other computers. <a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a> leverages resources from multiple computers across a network to perform tasks collaboratively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_packet">Network packet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Network packet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Network_packet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Network_packet.jpg/220px-Network_packet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Network_packet.jpg/330px-Network_packet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Network_packet.jpg/440px-Network_packet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Network Packet</figcaption></figure> <p>Most modern computer networks use protocols based on packet-mode transmission. A <a href="/wiki/Network_packet" title="Network packet">network packet</a> is a formatted unit of <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> carried by a <a href="/wiki/Packet-switched_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Packet-switched network">packet-switched network</a>. </p><p>Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user data (payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example, source and destination <a href="/wiki/Network_address" title="Network address">network addresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Error_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Error detection">error detection</a> codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in <a href="/wiki/Header_(computing)" title="Header (computing)">packet headers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trailer_(computing)" title="Trailer (computing)">trailers</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Payload_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Payload data">payload data</a> in between. </p><p>With packets, the <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a> of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were <a href="/wiki/Circuit_switched" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit switched">circuit switched</a>. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is not overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is <a href="/wiki/Message_queue" title="Message queue">queued</a> and waits until a link is free. </p><p>The physical link technologies of packet networks typically limit the size of packets to a certain <a href="/wiki/Maximum_transmission_unit" title="Maximum transmission unit">maximum transmission unit</a> (MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and once the packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_topology">Network topology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Network topology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NetworkTopologies.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NetworkTopologies.svg/220px-NetworkTopologies.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NetworkTopologies.svg/330px-NetworkTopologies.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NetworkTopologies.svg/440px-NetworkTopologies.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>Common network topologies</figcaption></figure> <p>The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links generally have relatively little effect on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or star networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore, most <a href="/wiki/Network_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Network diagram">network diagrams</a> are arranged by their <a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">network topology</a> which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts. </p><p>Common topologies are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bus_network" title="Bus network">Bus network</a>: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, called <a href="/wiki/10BASE5" title="10BASE5">10BASE5</a> and <a href="/wiki/10BASE2" title="10BASE2">10BASE2</a>. This is still a common topology on the <a href="/wiki/Data_link_layer" title="Data link layer">data link layer</a>, although modern <a href="/wiki/Physical_layer" title="Physical layer">physical layer</a> variants use <a href="/wiki/Point-to-point_(telecommunications)" title="Point-to-point (telecommunications)">point-to-point</a> links instead, forming a star or a tree.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_network" title="Star network">Star network</a>: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a small <a href="/wiki/Switched_Ethernet" class="mw-redirect" title="Switched Ethernet">switched Ethernet</a> LAN, where each client connects to a central network switch, and logically in a <a href="/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">wireless LAN</a>, where each wireless client associates with the central <a href="/wiki/Wireless_access_point" title="Wireless access point">wireless access point</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_network" title="Ring network">Ring network</a>: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. <a href="/wiki/Token_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Token ring">Token ring</a> networks, and the <a href="/wiki/Fiber_Distributed_Data_Interface" title="Fiber Distributed Data Interface">Fiber Distributed Data Interface</a> (FDDI), made use of such a topology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesh_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesh network">Mesh network</a>: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fully_connected_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Fully connected network">Fully connected network</a>: each node is connected to every other node in the network.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_network" title="Tree network">Tree network</a>: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing.</li></ul> <p>The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with <a href="/wiki/FDDI" class="mw-redirect" title="FDDI">FDDI</a>, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Physical layout is not completely irrelevant, however, as common ducting and equipment locations can represent single points of failure due to issues like fires, power failures and flooding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overlay_network">Overlay network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Overlay network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Network_Overlay_merged.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Network_Overlay_merged.svg/330px-Network_Overlay_merged.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Network_Overlay_merged.svg/495px-Network_Overlay_merged.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Network_Overlay_merged.svg/660px-Network_Overlay_merged.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="305" /></a><figcaption>A sample overlay network</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Overlay_network" title="Overlay network">overlay network</a> is a virtual network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-over_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-over-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overlay networks have been used since the early days of networking, back when computers were connected via telephone lines using modems, even before data networks were developed. </p><p>The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_network" title="Telephone network">telephone network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-over_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-over-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even today, each Internet node can communicate with virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. <a href="/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol" title="Address Resolution Protocol">Address resolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network. </p><p>Another example of an overlay network is a <a href="/wiki/Distributed_hash_table" title="Distributed hash table">distributed hash table</a>, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a <a href="/wiki/Associative_array" title="Associative array">map</a>) indexed by keys. </p><p>Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of service</a> guarantees achieve higher-quality <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a>. Previous proposals such as <a href="/wiki/IntServ" class="mw-redirect" title="IntServ">IntServ</a>, <a href="/wiki/DiffServ" class="mw-redirect" title="DiffServ">DiffServ</a>, and <a href="/wiki/IP_multicast" title="IP multicast">IP multicast</a> have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a> in the network.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a>. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Akamai_Technologies" title="Akamai Technologies">Akamai Technologies</a> manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of <a href="/wiki/Multicast" title="Multicast">multicast</a>). Academic research includes end system multicast,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_links">Network links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Network links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">Data transmission</a></div> <p>The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the <i><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">physical medium</a></i>) used to link devices to form a computer network include <a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">electrical cable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a>, and free space. In the <a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI model</a>, the software to handle the media is defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer. </p><p>A widely adopted <i>family</i> that uses copper and fiber media in <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> (LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.3" title="IEEE 802.3">IEEE 802.3</a>. Wireless LAN standards use <a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a>, others use <a href="/wiki/IrDA" class="mw-redirect" title="IrDA">infrared</a> signals as a transmission medium. <a href="/wiki/Power_line_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Power line communication">Power line communication</a> uses a building's <a href="/wiki/Power_cabling" class="mw-redirect" title="Power cabling">power cabling</a> to transmit data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wired">Wired</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wired"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibreoptic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bundle of glass threads with light emitting from the ends" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/150px-Fibreoptic.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/225px-Fibreoptic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/300px-Fibreoptic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable" title="Fiber-optic cable">Fiber-optic cables</a> are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another.</figcaption></figure> <p>The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking. </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></i> is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Coax is fundamentally capable of more than this. This must refer to a specific Ethernet over coax standard, but that's covered in the point below. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ITU-T" title="ITU-T">ITU-T</a> <a href="/wiki/G.hn" title="G.hn">G.hn</a> technology uses existing <a href="/wiki/Home_wiring" title="Home wiring">home wiring</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethernet_over_coax" title="Ethernet over coax">coaxial cable</a>, phone lines and <a href="/wiki/Power_line_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Power line communication">power lines</a>) to create a high-speed local area network.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twisted_pair" title="Twisted pair">Twisted pair</a></i> cabling is used for wired <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce <a href="/wiki/Crosstalk" title="Crosstalk">crosstalk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a>. The transmission speed ranges from 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several <a href="/wiki/Category_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Category cable">category ratings</a>, designed for use in various scenarios.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_map_of_submarine_cables.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map with red and blue lines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/World_map_of_submarine_cables.png/220px-World_map_of_submarine_cables.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/World_map_of_submarine_cables.png/330px-World_map_of_submarine_cables.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/World_map_of_submarine_cables.png/440px-World_map_of_submarine_cables.png 2x" data-file-width="1601" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the world</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>An <i><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></i> is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifiers</a>. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using dense <a href="/wiki/Wave_division_multiplexing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave division multiplexing">wave division multiplexing</a>, optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for <a href="/wiki/Undersea_communications_cables" class="mw-redirect" title="Undersea communications cables">undersea communications cables</a> to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of fiber optics, <a href="/wiki/Single-mode_optical_fiber" title="Single-mode optical fiber">single-mode optical fiber</a> (SMF) and <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber" title="Multi-mode optical fiber">multi-mode optical fiber</a> (MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade.<sup id="cite_ref-1961-_2012_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1961-_2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wireless">Wireless</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wireless"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wireless_network.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black laptop with the router in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg/220px-Wireless_network.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg/330px-Wireless_network.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></div> <p>Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic means of communication. </p> <ul><li><i> Terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a></i> – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellites</a></i> – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular networks</a></i> use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by a low-power <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a>.</li> <li><i>Radio and <a href="/wiki/Spread_spectrum" title="Spread spectrum">spread spectrum</a> technologies</i> – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11" title="IEEE 802.11">IEEE 802.11</a> defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></i> uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases, <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight propagation</a> is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.</li> <li>Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_Internet" title="Interplanetary Internet">Interplanetary Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IP_over_Avian_Carriers" title="IP over Avian Carriers">IP over Avian Carriers</a> was a humorous April fool's <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a>, issued as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1149">1149</a>. It was implemented in real life in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The last two cases have a large <a href="/wiki/Round-trip_delay_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Round-trip delay time">round-trip delay time</a>, which gives slow <a href="/wiki/Two-way_communication" title="Two-way communication">two-way communication</a> but does not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_nodes">Network nodes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Network nodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Node (networking)</a></div> <p>Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building blocks, such as <a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">network interface controllers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">repeaters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethernet_hub" title="Ethernet hub">hubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Network_bridge" title="Network bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">switches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>, modems, and <a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">firewalls</a>. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and so may perform multiple functions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_interfaces">Network interfaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Network interfaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controller</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A network interface circuit with a port for ATM" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg/220px-ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg/330px-ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg/440px-ForeRunnerLE_25_ATM_Network_Interface_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4587" data-file-height="3058" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</a> network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.</figcaption></figure> <p>A network interface controller (NIC) is <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> that connects the computer to the <a href="/wiki/Network_media" title="Network media">network media</a> and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for plugging in a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry. </p><p>In Ethernet networks, each NIC has a unique <a href="/wiki/MAC_address" title="MAC address">Media Access Control (MAC) address</a>—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six <a href="/wiki/Octet_(computing)" title="Octet (computing)">octets</a>. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repeaters_and_hubs">Repeaters and hubs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Repeaters and hubs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">Repeater</a></div> <p>A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal</a>, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is <a href="/wiki/Retransmission_(data_networks)" title="Retransmission (data networks)">retransmitted</a> at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted-pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart. </p><p>Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a <a href="/wiki/Propagation_delay" title="Propagation delay">propagation delay</a> that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet <a href="/wiki/5-4-3_rule" title="5-4-3 rule">5-4-3 rule</a>. </p><p>An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an <a href="/wiki/Ethernet_hub" title="Ethernet hub">Ethernet hub</a>. In addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modern network switches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bridges_and_switches">Bridges and switches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bridges and switches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Network_bridge" title="Network bridge">Network bridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switch</a></div> <p>Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forwards to all ports.<sup id="cite_ref-compnetworking_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-compnetworking-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bridges only have two ports but a switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches. </p><p>Bridges and switches operate at the <a href="/wiki/Data_link_layer" title="Data link layer">data link layer</a> (layer 2) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between two or more <a href="/wiki/Network_segment" title="Network segment">network segments</a> to form a single local network. Both are devices that forward <a href="/wiki/Frame_(networking)" title="Frame (networking)">frames</a> of data between <a href="/wiki/Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">ports</a> based on the destination MAC address in each frame.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They learn the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports except the source, and discovers the location from the reply. </p><p>Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain. Network segmentation through bridging and switching helps break down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Routers">Routers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Routers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">Router (computing)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adsl_connections.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Adsl_connections.jpg/220px-Adsl_connections.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Adsl_connections.jpg/330px-Adsl_connections.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Adsl_connections.jpg/440px-Adsl_connections.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>A typical home or small office router showing the <a href="/wiki/ADSL" title="ADSL">ADSL</a> telephone line and <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> network cable connections</figcaption></figure> <p>A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the packet. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Routing_table" title="Routing table">routing table</a>. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets and does not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modems">Modems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">Modem</a></div> <p>Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more <a href="/wiki/Carrier_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrier signal">carrier signals</a> are <a href="/wiki/Modulated" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulated">modulated</a> by the digital signal to produce an <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog signal</a> that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Early modems modulated <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio signals</a> sent over a standard voice telephone line. Modems are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a <a href="/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line" title="Digital subscriber line">digital subscriber line</a> technology and cable television systems using <a href="/wiki/DOCSIS" title="DOCSIS">DOCSIS</a> technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Firewalls">Firewalls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Firewalls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">Firewall (computing)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gateway_firewall.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Gateway_firewall.svg/220px-Gateway_firewall.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Gateway_firewall.svg/330px-Gateway_firewall.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Gateway_firewall.svg/440px-Gateway_firewall.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="846" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>This is an image of a firewall separating a private network from a public network</figcaption></figure> <p>A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in <a href="/wiki/Cyber_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber attack">cyber attacks</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Communication_protocols">Communication protocols</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Communication protocols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_layering.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Protocols in relation to the Internet layering scheme." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Internet_layering.svg/250px-Internet_layering.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Internet_layering.svg/375px-Internet_layering.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Internet_layering.svg/500px-Internet_layering.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>The TCP/IP model and its relation to common protocols used at different layers of the model</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Message_flows_and_Routing.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="When a router is present, message flows go down through protocol layers, across to the router, up the stack inside the router, and back down again and is sent on to the final destination where it climbs back up the stack" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Message_flows_and_Routing.svg/250px-Message_flows_and_Routing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Message_flows_and_Routing.svg/375px-Message_flows_and_Routing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Message_flows_and_Routing.svg/500px-Message_flows_and_Routing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>Message flows between two devices (A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP model in the presence of a router (R). Red flows are effective communication paths, black paths are across the actual network links.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocol</a> is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be <a href="/wiki/Connection-oriented" class="mw-redirect" title="Connection-oriented">connection-oriented</a> or <a href="/wiki/Connectionless" class="mw-redirect" title="Connectionless">connectionless</a>, they may use <a href="/wiki/Circuit_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit mode">circuit mode</a> or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing. </p><p>In a <a href="/wiki/Protocol_stack" title="Protocol stack">protocol stack</a>, often constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> (the World Wide Web protocol) running over <a href="/wiki/Transmission_control_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission control protocol">TCP</a> over IP (the Internet protocols) over <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11" title="IEEE 802.11">IEEE 802.11</a> (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_router" title="Wireless router">wireless router</a> and the home user's personal computer when the user is surfing the web. </p><p>There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rate_Based_Satellite_Control_Protocol" title="Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol">Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_protocols">Common protocols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Common protocols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internet_protocol_suite">Internet protocol suite</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Internet protocol suite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a>, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Version_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol Version 4">Internet Protocol Version 4</a> (IPv4) and for <a href="/wiki/IPv6" title="IPv6">IPv6</a>, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. The Internet protocol suite is the defining set of protocols for the Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-Tanenbaum_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tanenbaum-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="IEEE_802">IEEE 802</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: IEEE 802"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/IEEE_802" title="IEEE 802">IEEE 802</a> is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model. </p><p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Bridging_(networking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridging (networking)">MAC bridging</a> (<a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.1D" title="IEEE 802.1D">IEEE 802.1D</a>) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a <a href="/wiki/Spanning_Tree_Protocol" title="Spanning Tree Protocol">Spanning Tree Protocol</a>. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q" title="IEEE 802.1Q">IEEE 802.1Q</a> describes <a href="/wiki/VLAN" title="VLAN">VLANs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.1X" title="IEEE 802.1X">IEEE 802.1X</a> defines a port-based <a href="/wiki/Network_access_control" title="Network access control">network access control</a> protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (but it is also found in WLANs<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access key". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ethernet">Ethernet</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ethernet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together called <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.3" title="IEEE 802.3">IEEE 802.3</a> published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Wireless_LAN">Wireless LAN</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Wireless LAN"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wireless LAN based on the <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11" title="IEEE 802.11">IEEE 802.11</a> standards, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802" title="IEEE 802">IEEE 802</a> protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="SONET/SDH"><span id="SONET.2FSDH"></span>SONET/SDH</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: SONET/SDH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking" title="Synchronous optical networking">Synchronous optical networking</a> (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized <a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">multiplexing</a> protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support circuit-switched <a href="/wiki/Digital_telephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital telephony">digital telephony</a>. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</a> (ATM) frames. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Asynchronous Transfer Mode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous <a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">time-division multiplexing</a> and encodes data into small, fixed-sized <a href="/wiki/Cell_relay" title="Cell relay">cells</a>. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet protocol suite or <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> that use variable-sized packets or <a href="/wiki/Ethernet_frame" title="Ethernet frame">frames</a>. ATM has similarities with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, <a href="/wiki/Network_latency" class="mw-redirect" title="Network latency">low-latency</a> content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual circuit</a> must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. </p><p>ATM still plays a role in the <a href="/wiki/Last_mile_(telecommunications)" title="Last mile (telecommunications)">last mile</a>, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (January 2022)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cellular_standards">Cellular standards</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cellular standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: <a href="/wiki/Global_System_for_Mobile_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Global System for Mobile Communications">Global System for Mobile Communications</a> (GSM), <a href="/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service" title="General Packet Radio Service">General Packet Radio Service</a> (GPRS), <a href="/wiki/CdmaOne" title="CdmaOne">cdmaOne</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDMA2000" title="CDMA2000">CDMA2000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution-Data_Optimized" title="Evolution-Data Optimized">Evolution-Data Optimized</a> (EV-DO), <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution">Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution</a> (EDGE), <a href="/wiki/Universal_Mobile_Telecommunications_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Mobile Telecommunications System">Universal Mobile Telecommunications System</a> (UMTS), <a href="/wiki/Digital_Enhanced_Cordless_Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications">Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications</a> (DECT), <a href="/wiki/Digital_AMPS" title="Digital AMPS">Digital AMPS</a> (IS-136/TDMA), and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Digital_Enhanced_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Digital Enhanced Network">Integrated Digital Enhanced Network</a> (iDEN).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Routing">Routing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Routing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:XO_classroom_network.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/XO_classroom_network.jpg/220px-XO_classroom_network.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/XO_classroom_network.jpg/330px-XO_classroom_network.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/XO_classroom_network.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to take. For example, from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-7-6, 1-8-10-6 or 1-9-10-6, as these are the shortest routes.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">Routing</a> is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks. </p><p>In packet-switched networks, <a href="/wiki/Routing_protocol" title="Routing protocol">routing protocols</a> direct <a href="/wiki/Packet_forwarding" title="Packet forwarding">packet forwarding</a> through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> can also forward packets and perform routing, though because they lack specialized hardware, may offer limited performance. The routing process directs forwarding on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Routing_table" title="Routing table">routing tables</a>, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. <a href="/wiki/Multipath_routing" title="Multipath routing">Multipath routing</a> techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. </p><p>Routing can be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Bridging_(networking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridging (networking)">bridging</a> in its assumption that <a href="/wiki/Network_address" title="Network address">network addresses</a> are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, the structured addressing used by routers outperforms unstructured addressing used by bridging. Structured IP addresses are used on the Internet. Unstructured MAC addresses are used for bridging on Ethernet and similar local area networks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_scale">Geographic scale</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Geographic scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size: 120%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer network</a> types<br />by scale</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg/150px-Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg/225px-Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg/300px-Data_Networks_classification_by_spatial_scope.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanonetwork" title="Nanonetwork">Nanonetwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-field_communication" title="Near-field communication">Near-field (NFC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_area_network" title="Body area network">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_area_network" title="Personal area network">Personal (PAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-me_area_network" title="Near-me area network">Near-me</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">Local (LAN)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storage_area_network" title="Storage area network">Storage (SAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">Wireless (WLAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VLAN" title="VLAN">Virtual (VLAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_network" title="Home network">Home (HAN)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campus_network" title="Campus network">Campus (CAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backbone_network" title="Backbone network">Backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area_network" title="Metropolitan area network">Metropolitan (MAN)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_wireless_network" title="Municipal wireless network">Municipal wireless (MWN)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">Wide (WAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_area_network" title="Internet area network">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_Internet" title="Interplanetary Internet">Interplanetary Internet</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Area_networks" title="Template:Area networks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Area_networks" title="Template talk:Area networks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Area_networks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Area networks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Networks may be characterized by many properties or features, such as physical capacity, organizational purpose, user authorization, access rights, and others. Another distinct classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanoscale_network">Nanoscale network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nanoscale network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Nanoscale_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscale network">nanoscale network</a> has key components implemented at the nanoscale, including message carriers, and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for other communication techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_area_network">Personal area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Personal area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Personal_area_network" title="Personal area network">personal area network</a> (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computers and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A wired PAN is usually constructed with <a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a> and <a href="/wiki/FireWire" class="mw-redirect" title="FireWire">FireWire</a> connections while technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infrared_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared communication">infrared communication</a> typically form a wireless PAN. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_area_network">Local area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Local area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Wired LANs are most commonly based on Ethernet technology. Other networking technologies such as <a href="/wiki/ITU-T" title="ITU-T">ITU-T</a> <a href="/wiki/G.hn" title="G.hn">G.hn</a> also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A LAN can be connected to a <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">wide area network</a> (WAN) using a router. The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a WAN, include higher <a href="/wiki/Data_transfer_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transfer rate">data transfer rates</a>, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on <a href="/wiki/Leased_line" title="Leased line">leased lines</a> to provide connectivity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="IEEE ref below is narrowly focused on 100G ethernet (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to and in excess of <a href="/wiki/100_Gigabit_Ethernet" title="100 Gigabit Ethernet">100 Gbit/s</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> standardized by IEEE in 2010. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Home_area_network">Home area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Home area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Home_area_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Home area network">home area network</a> (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a <a href="/wiki/Cable_Internet_access" title="Cable Internet access">cable Internet access</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line" title="Digital subscriber line">digital subscriber line</a> (DSL) provider. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storage_area_network">Storage area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Storage area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Storage_area_network" title="Storage area network">storage area network</a> (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the storage appears as locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business environments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campus_area_network">Campus area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Campus area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Campus_area_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Campus area network">campus area network</a> (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, <a href="/wiki/Category_5_cable" title="Category 5 cable">Cat5</a> cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant or owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.). </p><p>For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backbone_network">Backbone network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Backbone network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Backbone_network" title="Backbone network">backbone network</a> is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. When designing a network backbone, <a href="/wiki/Network_performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Network performance management">network performance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_congestion" title="Network congestion">network congestion</a> are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it. </p><p>For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. Another example of a backbone network is the <a href="/wiki/Internet_backbone" title="Internet backbone">Internet backbone</a>, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that carry the bulk of data between <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">wide area networks</a> (WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metropolitan_area_network">Metropolitan area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Metropolitan area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area_network" title="Metropolitan area network">metropolitan area network</a> (MAN) is a large computer network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan area</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wide_area_network">Wide area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Wide area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">wide area network</a> (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carriers</a>, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI model: the physical layer, the <a href="/wiki/Data_link_layer" title="Data link layer">data link layer</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Network_layer" title="Network layer">network layer</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enterprise_private_network">Enterprise private network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Enterprise private network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_private_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterprise private network">enterprise private network</a> is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtual_private_network">Virtual private network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Virtual private network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">virtual private network</a> (VPN) is an <a href="/wiki/Overlay_network" title="Overlay network">overlay network</a> in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. </p><p>VPN may have best-effort performance or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_area_network">Global area network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Global area network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Global_area_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Global area network">global area network</a> (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">wireless LANs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizational_scope">Organizational scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Organizational scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intranet">Intranet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Intranet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Intranet" title="Intranet">intranet</a> is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. An intranet typically uses the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extranet">Extranet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Extranet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Extranet" title="Extranet">extranet</a> is a network that is under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. The network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/220px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/330px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/440px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Partial map of the Internet based on 2005 data.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing two <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP addresses</a>. The length of the lines indicates the delay between those two nodes.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Internetwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Internetwork">internetwork</a> is the connection of multiple different types of computer networks to form a single computer network using higher-layer network protocols and connecting them together using routers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet protocol suite. It is the successor of the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency Network">Advanced Research Projects Agency Network</a> (ARPANET) developed by <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>. The Internet utilizes copper communications and an <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> backbone to enable the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> (WWW), the <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a>, video transfer, and a broad range of information services. </p><p>Participants on the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet protocol suite and the IP addressing system administered by the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regional_Internet_registry" title="Regional Internet registry">address registries</a>. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the <a href="/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" title="Border Gateway Protocol">Border Gateway Protocol</a> (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Darknet">Darknet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Darknet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Darknet" title="Darknet">darknet</a> is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. It is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called <i>friends</i> (<a href="/wiki/Friend-to-friend" title="Friend-to-friend">F2F</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — using non-standard protocols and <a href="/wiki/Port_(computer_networking)" title="Port (computer networking)">ports</a>. </p><p>Darknets are distinct from other distributed <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> networks as <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer_file_sharing" title="Peer-to-peer file sharing">sharing</a> is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_service">Network service</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Network service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network services</a> are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to <a href="/wiki/Service_(systems_architecture)" title="Service (systems architecture)">provide some functionality</a> for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/E-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="E-mail">E-mail</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distributed_file_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed file system">network file sharing</a> are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (DNS) give names for <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP</a> and <a href="/wiki/MAC_address" title="MAC address">MAC addresses</a> (people remember names like <i>nm.lan</i> better than numbers like <i><span class="ipaddr"><span style="padding-right: 1px;">210.121.67.18</span></span></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-rfc1035_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc1035-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol" title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol">Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</a> (DHCP) to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Services are usually based on a <a href="/wiki/Protocol_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (computing)">service protocol</a> that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_performance">Network performance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Network performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bandwidth">Bandwidth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Bandwidth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bit/s" class="mw-redirect" title="Bit/s">bit/s</a> may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved <a href="/wiki/Throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Throughput">throughput</a> or <a href="/wiki/Goodput" title="Goodput">goodput</a>, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected by processes such as <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_shaping" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandwidth shaping">bandwidth shaping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_management" title="Bandwidth management">bandwidth management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_throttling" title="Bandwidth throttling">bandwidth throttling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_cap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandwidth cap">bandwidth cap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_allocation" title="Bandwidth allocation">bandwidth allocation</a> (using, for example, <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_allocation_protocol" title="Bandwidth allocation protocol">bandwidth allocation protocol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_bandwidth_allocation" title="Dynamic bandwidth allocation">dynamic bandwidth allocation</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_delay">Network delay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Network delay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Network_delay" title="Network delay">Network delay</a></div> <p><i>Network delay</i> is a design and performance characteristic of a <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications network</a>. It specifies the <a href="/wiki/Network_latency" class="mw-redirect" title="Network latency">latency</a> for a bit of data to travel across the network from one <a href="/wiki/Communication_endpoint" title="Communication endpoint">communication endpoint</a> to another. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several components, the sum of which is the total delay: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processing_delay" title="Processing delay">Processing delay</a> –  time it takes a router to process the packet header</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queuing_delay" title="Queuing delay">Queuing delay</a> –  time the packet spends in routing queues</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_delay" title="Transmission delay">Transmission delay</a> –  time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propagation_delay" title="Propagation delay">Propagation delay</a> –  time for a signal to propagate through the media</li></ul> <p>A certain minimum level of delay is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">transmit</a> a packet serially through a <a href="/wiki/Data_link" title="Data link">link</a>. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to <a href="/wiki/Network_congestion" title="Network congestion">network congestion</a>. <a href="/wiki/IP_network" class="mw-redirect" title="IP network">IP network</a> delays can range from less than a microsecond to several hundred milliseconds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performance_metrics">Performance metrics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Performance metrics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The parameters that affect performance typically can include <a href="/wiki/Throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Throughput">throughput</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jitter" title="Jitter">jitter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bit_error_rate" title="Bit error rate">bit error rate</a> and latency. </p><p>In circuit-switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the <a href="/wiki/Grade_of_service" title="Grade of service">grade of service</a>. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo. </p><p>In an <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</a> (ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology, modulation technique, and modem enhancements.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (August 2018)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (August 2018)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example, <a href="/wiki/State_diagram" title="State diagram">state transition diagrams</a> are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_congestion">Network congestion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Network congestion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Network_congestion" title="Network congestion">Network congestion</a> occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues become too full, packets have to be discarded, and participants must rely on <a href="/wiki/Retransmission_(data_networks)" title="Retransmission (data networks)">retransmission</a> to maintain <a href="/wiki/Reliable_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliable communications">reliable communications</a>. Typical effects of congestion include <a href="/wiki/Queueing_delay" class="mw-redirect" title="Queueing delay">queueing delay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Packet_loss" title="Packet loss">packet loss</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Blocking_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="Blocking probability">blocking</a> of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in <a href="/wiki/Offered_load" title="Offered load">offered load</a> lead either to only a small increase in the network <a href="/wiki/Throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Throughput">throughput</a> or to a potential reduction in network throughput. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocols</a> that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Congestive_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive collapse">congestive collapse</a></i>. </p><p>Modern networks use <a href="/wiki/Congestion_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion control">congestion control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congestion_avoidance" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion avoidance">congestion avoidance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_traffic_control" title="Network traffic control">traffic control</a> techniques where endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even stop transmission entirely when the network is congested to try to avoid congestive collapse. Specific techniques include: <a href="/wiki/Exponential_backoff" title="Exponential backoff">exponential backoff</a> in protocols such as <a href="/wiki/802.11" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11">802.11</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CSMA/CA" class="mw-redirect" title="CSMA/CA">CSMA/CA</a> and the original Ethernet, <a href="/wiki/Sliding_window" class="mw-redirect" title="Sliding window">window</a> reduction in TCP, and <a href="/wiki/Fair_queueing" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair queueing">fair queueing</a> in devices such as routers. </p><p>Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of service</a> priority schemes allowing selected traffic to bypass congestion. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for critical services. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the <a href="/wiki/ITU-T" title="ITU-T">ITU-T</a> <a href="/wiki/G.hn" title="G.hn">G.hn</a> home networking standard. </p><p>For the Internet, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/RFC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="RFC (identifier)">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2914">2914</a> addresses the subject of congestion control in detail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_resilience">Network resilience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Network resilience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Network_resilience" class="mw-redirect" title="Network resilience">Network resilience</a> is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of <a href="/wiki/Service_(systems_architecture)" title="Service (systems architecture)">service</a> in the face of <a href="/wiki/Fault_(technology)" title="Fault (technology)">faults</a> and challenges to normal operation."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Security">Security</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Security"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer networks are also used by <a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">security hackers</a> to deploy <a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">computer viruses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">computer worms</a> on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">denial-of-service attack</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_security">Network security</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Network security"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Network_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Network Security">Network Security</a> consists of provisions and policies adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Network_administrator" title="Network administrator">network administrator</a> to prevent and monitor <a href="/wiki/Unauthorized" class="mw-redirect" title="Unauthorized">unauthorized</a> access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Network_surveillance">Network surveillance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Network surveillance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Network_surveillance" class="mw-redirect" title="Network surveillance">Network surveillance</a> is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency. </p><p>Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity. </p><p>Surveillance is very useful to governments and <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> to maintain <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent or investigate <a href="/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">criminal</a> activity. With the advent of programs such as the <a href="/wiki/Total_Information_Awareness" title="Total Information Awareness">Total Information Awareness</a> program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and <a href="/wiki/Surveillance#Biometric" title="Surveillance">biometrics</a> software, and laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Assistance_For_Law_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act">Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act</a>, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-us-surveillance-soc_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-us-surveillance-soc-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, many <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a> groups—such as <a href="/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders" title="Reporters Without Borders">Reporters Without Borders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a <a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">mass surveillance</a> society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to lawsuits such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hepting_v._AT%26T" title="Hepting v. AT&T">Hepting v. AT&T</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-us-surveillance-soc_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-us-surveillance-soc-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bigger-monster_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigger-monster-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hacktivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacktivist">hacktivist</a> group <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a> has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_to_end_encryption">End to end encryption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: End to end encryption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">End-to-end encryption</a> (E2EE) is a <a href="/wiki/Digital_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital communications">digital communications</a> paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party <a href="/wiki/Encrypting" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypting">encrypting</a> data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet service providers or <a href="/wiki/Application_service_provider" title="Application service provider">application service providers</a>, from reading or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both <a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">confidentiality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">integrity</a>. </p><p>Examples of end-to-end encryption include <a href="/wiki/HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a> for web traffic, <a href="/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy" title="Pretty Good Privacy">PGP</a> for <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Off-the-Record_Messaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-the-Record Messaging">OTR</a> for <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZRTP" title="ZRTP">ZRTP</a> for <a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/TETRA" title="TETRA">TETRA</a> for radio. </p><p>Typical <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">server</a>-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between <a href="/wiki/Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">clients</a> and <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are <a href="/wiki/Google_Talk" title="Google Talk">Google Talk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yahoo_Messenger" title="Yahoo Messenger">Yahoo Messenger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dropbox" title="Dropbox">Dropbox</a>. </p><p>The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the communication themselves, such as the <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">technical exploitation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">clients</a>, poor quality <a href="/wiki/Random_number_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Random number generator">random number generators</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Key_escrow" title="Key escrow">key escrow</a>. E2EE also does not address <a href="/wiki/Traffic_analysis" title="Traffic analysis">traffic analysis</a>, which relates to things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="SSL/TLS"><span id="SSL.2FTLS"></span>SSL/TLS</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: SSL/TLS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a></div> <p>The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made it obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> took the first shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this certificate (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of <a href="/wiki/Root_certificate" title="Root certificate">root certificates</a> preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a <a href="/wiki/Symmetric-key_cipher" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetric-key cipher">symmetric-key cipher</a> for use in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL client.<sup id="cite_ref-1961-_2012_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1961-_2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_of_networks">Views of networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Views of networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a <a href="/wiki/Workgroup_(computer_networking)" title="Workgroup (computer networking)">workgroup</a>, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a network administrator is responsible for keeping that network up and running. A <a href="/wiki/Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">community of interest</a> has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> technologies. </p><p>Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and <a href="/wiki/Application-layer_gateway" class="mw-redirect" title="Application-layer gateway">application-layer gateways</a>) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, <a href="/wiki/Subnet" title="Subnet">subnets</a>, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using VLANs. </p><p>Users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of a network's trust and scope characteristics. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an <a href="/wiki/Intranet" title="Intranet">intranet</a> is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees).<sup id="cite_ref-RFC2547_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFC2547-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An <a href="/wiki/Extranet" title="Extranet">extranet</a> is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).<sup id="cite_ref-RFC2547_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFC2547-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the <a href="/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" title="Border Gateway Protocol">Border Gateway Protocol</a>. Typically, the <a href="/wiki/Human-readable" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-readable">human-readable</a> names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (DNS). </p><p>Over the Internet, there can be <a href="/wiki/Business-to-business" title="Business-to-business">business-to-business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business-to-consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Business-to-consumer">business-to-consumer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consumer-to-consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer-to-consumer">consumer-to-consumer</a> communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of <a href="/wiki/Communications_security" title="Communications security">communications security</a> mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure VPN technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">Cloud computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberspace" title="Cyberspace">Cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_11801" title="ISO/IEC 11801">ISO/IEC 11801</a> – International standard for electrical and optical cables</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_diagram_software" title="Network diagram software">Network diagram software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_mapping" title="Network mapping">Network mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_on_a_chip" title="Network on a chip">Network on a chip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_planning_and_design" title="Network planning and design">Network planning and design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_simulation" title="Network simulation">Network simulation</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterling2008" class="citation book cs1">Sterling, Christopher H., ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RBC2nY1rp5MC&dq=semi+automatic+ground+environment+network&pg=PA399"><i>Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. p. 399. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-737-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-737-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-737-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Communications%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=399&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-737-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRBC2nY1rp5MC%26dq%3Dsemi%2Bautomatic%2Bground%2Benvironment%2Bnetwork%26pg%3DPA399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaighCeruzzi2021" class="citation book cs1">Haigh, Thomas; <a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Ceruzzi" title="Paul E. Ceruzzi">Ceruzzi, Paul E.</a> (14 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KOY9EAAAQBAJ&dq=semi+automatic+ground+environment+network&pg=PA87"><i>A New History of Modern Computing</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">87–</span>89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262542906" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262542906"><bdi>978-0262542906</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Modern+Computing&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2021-09-14&rft.isbn=978-0262542906&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Ceruzzi%2C+Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKOY9EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsemi%2Bautomatic%2Bground%2Benvironment%2Bnetwork%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlmann2014" class="citation book cs1">Ulmann, Bernd (August 19, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZITpBQAAQBAJ&q=semi+automatic+ground+environment"><i>AN/FSQ-7: the computer that shaped the Cold War</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85670-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85670-5"><bdi>978-3-486-85670-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AN%2FFSQ-7%3A+the+computer+that+shaped+the+Cold+War&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2014-08-19&rft.isbn=978-3-486-85670-5&rft.aulast=Ulmann&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZITpBQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsemi%2Bautomatic%2Bground%2Benvironment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ctsspg3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ctsspg3_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbató1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fernando_J._Corbat%C3%B3" title="Fernando J. Corbató">Corbató, F. J.</a>; et al. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/ctss/CTSS_ProgrammersGuide.pdf"><i>The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide]</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03008-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03008-3"><bdi>978-0-262-03008-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120527174321/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/ctss/CTSS_ProgrammersGuide.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2012-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-26</span></span>. <q>Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H. M. Teager and J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.computer.org&rft.atitle=Computer+Pioneers+-+Christopher+Strachey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.computer.org%2Fpioneers%2Fstrachey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200428094453/http://jmc.stanford.edu/computing-science/timesharing.html">"Reminiscences on the Theory of Time-Sharing"</a>. <i>jmc.stanford.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jmc.stanford.edu/computing-science/timesharing.html">the original</a> on 2020-04-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jmc.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Reminiscences+on+the+Theory+of+Time-Sharing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjmc.stanford.edu%2Fcomputing-science%2Ftimesharing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer">"Computer - Time-sharing and minicomputers"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150102192452/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/130429/computer/216032/Invention-of-the-modern-computer">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Computer+-+Time-sharing+and+minicomputers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fcomputer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilliesGilliesGilliesCailliau2000" class="citation book cs1">Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwebwasbornsto00gill"><i>How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwebwasbornsto00gill/page/13">13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286207-5"><bdi>978-0-19-286207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Web+was+Born%3A+The+Story+of+the+World+Wide+Web&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286207-5&rft.aulast=Gillies&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Gillies%2C+James&rft.au=Gillies%2C+James+and+Cailliau+Robert&rft.au=Cailliau%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowwebwasbornsto00gill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitova" class="citation web cs1">Kitova, O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computer-museum.ru/english/galglory_en/Kitov.htm">"Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich. Russian Virtual Computer Museum"</a>. <i>computer-museum.ru</i>. Translated by Alexander Nitusov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230204143509/https://www.computer-museum.ru/english/galglory_en/Kitov.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=computer-museum.ru&rft.atitle=Kitov+Anatoliy+Ivanovich.+Russian+Virtual+Computer+Museum&rft.aulast=Kitova&rft.aufirst=O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computer-museum.ru%2Fenglish%2Fgalglory_en%2FKitov.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2016" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016). <i>How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262034180" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262034180"><bdi>978-0262034180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Not+to+Network+a+Nation%3A+The+Uneasy+History+of+the+Soviet+Internet&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2016-03-25&rft.isbn=978-0262034180&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:17_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaran2002" class="citation journal cs1">Baran, Paul (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.cs.ucla.edu/~lixia/papers/Baran2002.pdf">"The beginnings of packet switching: some underlying concepts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Communications Magazine</i>. <b>40</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">42–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCOM.2002.1018006">10.1109/MCOM.2002.1018006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0163-6804">0163-6804</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://web.cs.ucla.edu/~lixia/papers/Baran2002.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-10. <q>Essentially all the work was defined by 1961, and fleshed out and put into formal written form in 1962. The idea of hot potato routing dates from late 1960.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+beginnings+of+packet+switching%3A+some+underlying+concepts&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E42-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMCOM.2002.1018006&rft.issn=0163-6804&rft.aulast=Baran&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cs.ucla.edu%2F~lixia%2Fpapers%2FBaran2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:23_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ece.ucf.edu/~yuksem/teaching/nae/reading/1978-roberts.pdf">"The evolution of packet switching"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i>. <b>66</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1307–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141">10.1109/PROC.1978.11141</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9219">0018-9219</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26876676">26876676</a>. <q>Almost immediately after the 1965 meeting, Davies conceived of the details of a store-and-forward packet switching system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+packet+switching&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1307-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=1978-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26876676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-9219&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ece.ucf.edu%2F~yuksem%2Fteaching%2Fnae%2Freading%2F1978-roberts.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacson2014" class="citation book cs1">Isaacson, Walter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4V9koAEACAAJ&pg=PA245"><i>The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. <span class="nowrap">237–</span>246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476708690" title="Special:BookSources/9781476708690"><bdi>9781476708690</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230204143508/https://books.google.com/books?id=4V9koAEACAAJ&pg=PA245">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Innovators%3A+How+a+Group+of+Hackers%2C+Geniuses%2C+and+Geeks+Created+the+Digital+Revolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781476708690&rft.aulast=Isaacson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4V9koAEACAAJ%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:232-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:232_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:232_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ece.ucf.edu/~yuksem/teaching/nae/reading/1978-roberts.pdf">"The evolution of packet switching"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i>. <b>66</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1307–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141">10.1109/PROC.1978.11141</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26876676">26876676</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230204143508/https://www.ece.ucf.edu/~yuksem/teaching/nae/reading/1978-roberts.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2023-02-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-12</span></span>. <q>Both Paul Baran and Donald Davies in their original papers anticipated the use of T1 trunks</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+packet+switching&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1307-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=1978-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26876676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ece.ucf.edu%2F~yuksem%2Fteaching%2Fnae%2Freading%2F1978-roberts.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invent.org/inductees/paul-baran">"NIHF Inductee Paul Baran, Who Invented Packet Switching"</a>. National Inventors Hall of Fame. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220212204116/https://www.invent.org/inductees/paul-baran">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIHF+Inductee+Paul+Baran%2C+Who+Invented+Packet+Switching&rft.pub=National+Inventors+Hall+of+Fame&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.invent.org%2Finductees%2Fpaul-baran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invent.org/inductees/donald-watts-davies">"NIHF Inductee Donald Davies, Who Invented Packet Switching"</a>. National Inventors Hall of Fame. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220212204117/https://www.invent.org/inductees/donald-watts-davies">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIHF+Inductee+Donald+Davies%2C+Who+Invented+Packet+Switching&rft.pub=National+Inventors+Hall+of+Fame&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.invent.org%2Finductees%2Fdonald-watts-davies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaran1964" class="citation journal cs1">Baran, P. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1088883">"On Distributed Communications Networks"</a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCOM.1964.1088883">10.1109/TCOM.1964.1088883</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-2244">0096-2244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Communications&rft.atitle=On+Distributed+Communications+Networks&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTCOM.1964.1088883&rft.issn=0096-2244&rft.aulast=Baran&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F1088883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinrock1978" class="citation journal cs1">Kleinrock, L. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1455412">"Principles and lessons in packet communications"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i>. <b>66</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1320–</span>1329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11143">10.1109/PROC.1978.11143</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9219">0018-9219</a>. <q>Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his work.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=Principles+and+lessons+in+packet+communications&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1320-%3C%2Fspan%3E1329&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11143&rft.issn=0018-9219&rft.aulast=Kleinrock&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F1455412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelkey6.1a-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pelkey6.1a_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelkey" class="citation book cs1">Pelkey, James L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyofcomputercommunications.info/section/6.1/the-communications-subnet-bbn-1969/">"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969"</a>. <i>Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988</i>. <q>As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.1+The+Communications+Subnet%3A+BBN+1969&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Capitalism+and+Innovation%3A+A+History+of+Computer+Communications+1968%E2%80%931988&rft.aulast=Pelkey&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoryofcomputercommunications.info%2Fsection%2F6.1%2Fthe-communications-subnet-bbn-1969%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5a-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5a_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldrop2018" class="citation book cs1">Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eRnBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT285"><i>The Dream Machine</i></a>. Stripe Press. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-953953-36-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-953953-36-0"><bdi>978-1-953953-36-0</bdi></a>. <q>Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dream+Machine&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=Stripe+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-953953-36-0&rft.aulast=Waldrop&rft.aufirst=M.+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeRnBEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates1997" class="citation book cs1">Yates, David M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ToMfAQAAIAAJ&q=packet+switch"><i>Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945-1995</i></a>. National Museum of Science and Industry. pp. <span class="nowrap">132–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901805-94-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901805-94-2"><bdi>978-0-901805-94-2</bdi></a>. <q>Davies's invention of packet switching and design of computer communication networks ... were a cornerstone of the development which led to the Internet</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turing%27s+Legacy%3A+A+History+of+Computing+at+the+National+Physical+Laboratory+1945-1995&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E132-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Science+and+Industry&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-901805-94-2&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DToMfAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dpacket%2Bswitch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaughton2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Naughton" title="John Naughton">Naughton, John</a> (2000) [1999]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryoffu0000naug/page/292/mode/2up"><i>A Brief History of the Future</i></a>. Phoenix. p. 292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780753810934" title="Special:BookSources/9780753810934"><bdi>9780753810934</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Future&rft.pages=292&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780753810934&rft.aulast=Naughton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryoffu0000naug%2Fpage%2F292%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell-Kelly1987" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DataCommunicationsAtTheNationalPhysicalLaboratory">"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)"</a>. <i>Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>9</b> (3/4): <span class="nowrap">221–</span>247. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.1987.10023">10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8172150">8172150</a>. <q>the first occurrence in print of the term protocol in a data communications context ... the next hardware tasks were the detailed design of the interface between the terminal devices and the switching computer, and the arrangements to secure reliable transmission of packets of data over the high-speed lines</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=Data+Communications+at+the+National+Physical+Laboratory+%281965-1975%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E247&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.1987.10023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8172150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Campbell-Kelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDataCommunicationsAtTheNationalPhysicalLaboratory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesBartlettScantleburyWilkinson1967" class="citation conference cs1">Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/teaching/sp07/sys_seminar/how_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf"><i>A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://people.mpi-sws.org/~gummadi/teaching/sp07/sys_seminar/how_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=A+Digital+Communication+Network+for+Computers+Giving+Rapid+Response+at+remote+Terminals&rft.date=1967-10&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Bartlett%2C+Keith&rft.au=Scantlebury%2C+Roger&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.mpi-sws.org%2F~gummadi%2Fteaching%2Fsp07%2Fsys_seminar%2Fhow_did_erope_blow_this_vision.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span> "all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScantleburyWilkinson,_P.T.1974" class="citation conference cs1">Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P.T. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerdmoore.ca/PS/NPLPh/NPL1974A.html">"The National Physical Laboratory Data Communications Network"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 2nd ICCC 74</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">223–</span>228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+National+Physical+Laboratory+Data+Communications+Network&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2nd+ICCC+74&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E223-%3C%2Fspan%3E228&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Scantlebury&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+P.T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerdmoore.ca%2FPS%2FNPLPh%2FNPL1974A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuardian_Staff2013" class="citation news cs1">Guardian Staff (2013-06-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jun/25/internet-pioneers-airbrushed-from-history">"Internet pioneers airbrushed from history"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101062943/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jun/25/internet-pioneers-airbrushed-from-history">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-01-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>. <q>This was the first digital local network in the world to use packet switching and high-speed links.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Internet+pioneers+airbrushed+from+history&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.au=Guardian+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2013%2Fjun%2F25%2Finternet-pioneers-airbrushed-from-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:16_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150530231409/http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2015/05/30/net-of-insecurity-part-1/">"The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2015/05/30/net-of-insecurity-part-1/">the original</a> on 2015-05-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-18</span></span>. <q>Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+real+story+of+how+the+Internet+became+so+vulnerable&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fsf%2Fbusiness%2F2015%2F05%2F30%2Fnet-of-insecurity-part-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:24-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:24_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181231092936/http://www.ismlab.usf.edu/dcom/Ch10_Roberts_EvolutionPacketSwitching_IEEE_1978.pdf">"The Evolution of Packet Switching"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Invited Paper</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ismlab.usf.edu/dcom/Ch10_Roberts_EvolutionPacketSwitching_IEEE_1978.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 31 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2017</span>. <q>In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Invited+Paper&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Packet+Switching&rft.date=1978-11&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ismlab.usf.edu%2Fdcom%2FCh10_Roberts_EvolutionPacketSwitching_IEEE_1978.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:13_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorbergO'Neill1996" class="citation book cs1">Norberg, Arthur L.; O'Neill, Judy E. (1996). <i>Transforming computer technology: information processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986</i>. Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology New series. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5152-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5152-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-5152-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+computer+technology%3A+information+processing+for+the+Pentagon%2C+1962-1986&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.series=Johns+Hopkins+studies+in+the+history+of+technology+New+series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5152-0&rft.aulast=Norberg&rft.aufirst=Arthur+L.&rft.au=O%27Neill%2C+Judy+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span> Prominently cites Baran and Davies as sources of inspiration.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA115440.pdf">A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc. 1 April 1981. pp. 13, 53 of 183 (III-11 on the printed copy). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121201013642/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA115440">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2012. <q>Aside from the technical problems of interconnecting computers with communications circuits, the notion of computer networks had been considered in a number of places from a theoretical point of view. Of particular note was work done by Paul Baran and others at the Rand Corporation in a study "On Distributed Communications" in the early 1960's. Also of note was work done by Donald Davies and others at the National Physical Laboratory in England in the mid-1960's. ... Another early major network development which affected development of the ARPANET was undertaken at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex, England, under the leadership of D. W. Davies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+ARPANET%3A+The+First+Decade&rft.pages=13%2C+53+of+183+%28III-11+on+the+printed+copy%29&rft.pub=Bolt%2C+Beranek+%26+Newman+Inc.&rft.date=1981-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA115440.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Sutton" class="citation web cs1">Chris Sutton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080308120314/https://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm">"Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm">the original</a> on 2008-03-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internet+Began+35+Years+Ago+at+UCLA+with+First+Message+Ever+Sent+Between+Two+Computers&rft.pub=UCLA&rft.au=Chris+Sutton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineer.ucla.edu%2Fstories%2F2004%2FInternet35.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2322-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2322_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ece.ucf.edu/~yuksem/teaching/nae/reading/1978-roberts.pdf">"The evolution of packet switching"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i>. <b>66</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1307–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141">10.1109/PROC.1978.11141</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26876676">26876676</a>. <q>Significant aspects of the network's internal operation, such as routing, flow control, software design, and network control were developed by a BBN team consisting of Frank Heart, Robert Kahn, Severo Omstein, William Crowther, and David Walden</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+packet+switching&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1307-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=1978-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26876676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ece.ucf.edu%2F~yuksem%2Fteaching%2Fnae%2Freading%2F1978-roberts.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-F.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent2_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF.E._Froehlich,_A._Kent1990" class="citation book cs1">F.E. Froehlich, A. Kent (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaRBTHdUKmgC&pg=PA344"><i>The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 1 - Access Charges in the U.S.A. to Basics of Digital Communications</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824729005" title="Special:BookSources/0824729005"><bdi>0824729005</bdi></a>. <q>Although there was considerable technical interchange between the NPL group and those who designed and implemented the ARPANET, the NPL Data Network effort appears to have had little fundamental impact on the design of ARPANET. Such major aspects of the NPL Data Network design as the standard network interface, the routing algorithm, and the software structure of the switching node were largely ignored by the ARPANET designers. There is no doubt, however, that in many less fundamental ways the NPL Data Network had and effect on the design and evolution of the ARPANET.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Froehlich%2FKent+Encyclopedia+of+Telecommunications%3A+Volume+1+-+Access+Charges+in+the+U.S.A.+to+Basics+of+Digital+Communications&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0824729005&rft.au=F.E.+Froehlich%2C+A.+Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaRBTHdUKmgC%26pg%3DPA344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeartMcKenzieMcQuillianWalden1978" class="citation techreport cs1">Heart, F.; McKenzie, A.; McQuillian, J.; Walden, D. (January 4, 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230527095942/https://walden-family.com/bbn/arpanet-completion-report.pdf"><i>Arpanet Completion Report</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Technical report). Burlington, MA: Bolt, Beranek and Newman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Arpanet+Completion+Report&rft.place=Burlington%2C+MA&rft.pub=Bolt%2C+Beranek+and+Newman&rft.date=1978-01-04&rft.aulast=Heart&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=McKenzie%2C+A.&rft.au=McQuillian%2C+J.&rft.au=Walden%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20230527095942%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwalden-family.com%2Fbbn%2Farpanet-completion-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1982" class="citation thesis cs1">Clarke, Peter (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/35864/2/Clarke-PN-1982-PhD-Thesis.pdf"><i>Packet and circuit-switched data networks</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PhD thesis). Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Packet+and+circuit-switched+data+networks&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Department+of+Electrical+Engineering%2C+Imperial+College+of+Science+and+Technology%2C+University+of+London&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspiral.imperial.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2F10044%2F1%2F35864%2F2%2FClarke-PN-1982-PhD-Thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span> "Many of the theoretical studies of the performance and design of the ARPA Network were developments of earlier work by Kleinrock ... Although these works concerned message switching networks, they were the basis for a lot of the ARPA network investigations ... The intention of the work of Kleinrock [in 1961] was to analyse the performance of store and forward networks, using as the primary performance measure the average message delay. ... Kleinrock [in 1970] extended the theoretical approaches of [his 1961 work] to the early ARPA network."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1979" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Donald Watts (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computernetworks00davi/page/86/mode/2up?q=kleinrock+kleinrock%27s"><i>Computer networks and their protocols</i></a>. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. See page refs highlighted at url. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-99750-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-99750-4"><bdi>978-0-471-99750-4</bdi></a>. <q>In mathematical modelling use is made of the theories of queueing processes and of flows in networks, describing the performance of the network in a set of equations. ... The analytic method has been used with success by Kleinrock and others, but only if important simplifying assumptions are made. ... It is heartening in Kleinrock's work to see the good correspondence achieved between the results of analytic methods and those of simulation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+networks+and+their+protocols&rft.pages=See+page+refs+highlighted+at+url&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-471-99750-4&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Donald+Watts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputernetworks00davi%2Fpage%2F86%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dkleinrock%2Bkleinrock%2527s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:52-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:52_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1979" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Donald Watts (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computernetworks00davi/page/110/mode/2up?q=%22kleinrock+and+kamoun%22"><i>Computer networks and their protocols</i></a>. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. <span class="nowrap">110–</span>111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-99750-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-99750-4"><bdi>978-0-471-99750-4</bdi></a>. <q>Hierarchical addressing systems for network routing have been proposed by Fultz and, in greater detail, by McQuillan. A recent very full analysis may be found in Kleinrock and Kamoun.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+networks+and+their+protocols&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E111&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-471-99750-4&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Donald+Watts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputernetworks00davi%2Fpage%2F110%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3D%2522kleinrock%2Band%2Bkamoun%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldmannCittadiniMühlbauerBush2009" class="citation book cs1">Feldmann, Anja; Cittadini, Luca; Mühlbauer, Wolfgang; Bush, Randy; Maennel, Olaf (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/326320693.pdf">"HAIR: Hierarchical architecture for internet routing"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 2009 workshop on Re-architecting the internet</i>. ReArch '09. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. <span class="nowrap">43–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1658978.1658990">10.1145/1658978.1658990</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60558-749-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60558-749-3"><bdi>978-1-60558-749-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2930578">2930578</a>. <q>The hierarchical approach is further motivated by theoretical results (e.g., [16]) which show that, by optimally placing separators, i.e., elements that connect levels in the hierarchy, tremendous gain can be achieved in terms of both routing table size and update message churn. ... [16] KLEINROCK, L., AND KAMOUN, F. Hierarchical routing for large networks: Performance evaluation and optimization. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+the+U.S.+Turning+Into+a+Surveillance+Society%3F&rft.pub=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fother%2Fus-turning-surveillance-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bigger-monster-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bigger-monster_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_StanleyBarry_Steinhardt2003" class="citation web cs1">Jay Stanley; Barry Steinhardt (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/aclu_report_bigger_monster_weaker_chains.pdf">"Bigger Monster, Weaker Chains: The Growth of an American Surveillance Society"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Civil Liberties Union. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/aclu_report_bigger_monster_weaker_chains.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bigger+Monster%2C+Weaker+Chains%3A+The+Growth+of+an+American+Surveillance+Society&rft.pub=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.date=2003-01&rft.au=Jay+Stanley&rft.au=Barry+Steinhardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2FFilesPDFs%2Faclu_report_bigger_monster_weaker_chains.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmil_Protalinski2012" class="citation web cs1">Emil Protalinski (2012-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130403054106/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/anonymous-hacks-uk-government-sites-over-draconian-surveillance/11412">"Anonymous hacks UK government sites over 'draconian surveillance'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>ZDNet</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/anonymous-hacks-uk-government-sites-over-draconian-surveillance/11412">the original</a> on 2013-04-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ZDNet&rft.atitle=Anonymous+hacks+UK+government+sites+over+%27draconian+surveillance%27&rft.date=2012-04-07&rft.au=Emil+Protalinski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Fblog%2Fsecurity%2Fanonymous-hacks-uk-government-sites-over-draconian-surveillance%2F11412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Ball2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Ball_(journalist)" title="James Ball (journalist)">James Ball</a> (2012-04-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/apr/20/hacktivists-battle-internet">"Hacktivists in the frontline battle for the internet"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180314103619/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/apr/20/hacktivists-battle-internet">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-03-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Hacktivists+in+the+frontline+battle+for+the+internet&rft.date=2012-04-20&rft.au=James+Ball&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2012%2Fapr%2F20%2Fhacktivists-battle-internet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RFC2547-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RFC2547_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFC2547_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenRekhter1999" class="citation cs1">Rosen, E.; Rekhter, Y. (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2547"><i>BGP/MPLS VPNs</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2547">10.17487/RFC2547</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2547">2547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=BGP%2FMPLS+VPNs&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC2547&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Rekhter%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc2547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation 1037C"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122224547/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm"><i>Federal Standard 1037C</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/General_Services_Administration" title="General Services Administration">General Services Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">the original</a> on 2022-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Federal+Standard+1037C&rft.pub=General+Services+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.its.bldrdoc.gov%2Ffs-1037%2Ffs-1037c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+network" class="Z3988"></span></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_network&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kurose James F and Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stallings" title="William Stallings">William Stallings</a>, <i>Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology</i>, Pearson Education 2004.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Bertsekas" title="Dimitri Bertsekas">Dimitri Bertsekas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gallager" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Gallager">Robert Gallager</a>, "Data Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Operating_systems310" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Operating_systems" title="Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Operating_systems" title="Template talk:Operating systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Operating_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Operating_systems310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_software_engineering" title="Forensic software engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_operating_systems" title="List of operating systems">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of user features of operating systems">User features comparison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">Disk operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_operating_system" title="Distributed operating system">Distributed operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobbyist_operating_system" title="Hobbyist operating system">Hobbyist operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_enough_operating_system" title="Just enough operating system">Just enough operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_operating_system" title="Mobile operating system">Mobile operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">Network operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_operating_system" title="Object-oriented operating system">Object-oriented operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer_operating_system" title="Supercomputer operating system">Supercomputer operating system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_kernel" title="Hybrid kernel">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multikernel" title="Multikernel">Multikernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vkernel" title="Vkernel">vkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rump_kernel" title="Rump kernel">Rump kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unikernel" title="Unikernel">Unikernel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">User space and kernel space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">Context switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">IPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control_block" title="Process control block">Process control block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling<br />algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling" title="Fixed-priority pre-emptive scheduling">Fixed-priority preemptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilevel_feedback_queue" title="Multilevel feedback queue">Multilevel feedback queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">Round-robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortest_job_next" title="Shortest job next">Shortest job next</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_(operating_systems)" title="Memory management (operating systems)">Memory management</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/System_resource" title="System resource">resource</a> protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bus_error" title="Bus error">Bus error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_protection_fault" title="General protection fault">General protection fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_ring" title="Protection ring">Protection ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">Segmentation fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Storage</a> access,<br /><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booting#BOOT-LOADER" title="Booting">Boot loader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defragmentation" title="Defragmentation">Defragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_file" title="Device file">Device file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_attribute" title="File attribute">File attribute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inode" title="Inode">Inode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journaling_file_system" title="Journaling file system">Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_tape_library" title="Virtual tape library">Virtual tape library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supporting concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/API" title="API">API</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_abstraction" title="Hardware abstraction">HAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_CD" title="Live CD">Live CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_USB" title="Live USB">Live USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(computing)" title="Shell (computing)">Shell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">CLI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">User interface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preboot_Execution_Environment" title="Preboot Execution Environment">PXE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science1028" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computer_science1028" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing" title="Template:Differentiable computing">Differentiable computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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