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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Electricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetic_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetic_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Electromagnetic waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetic_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Magnetism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radioactivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioactivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Radioactivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluid_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluid_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Fluid dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluid_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Mineral physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regions_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Regions of the Earth</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regions_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regions of the Earth subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regions_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Size_and_form_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_and_form_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Size and form of the Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_and_form_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_of_the_interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_the_interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Structure of the interior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_the_interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Magnetosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geodesy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geodesy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Geodesy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geodesy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellites_and_space_probes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellites_and_space_probes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Satellites and space probes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellites_and_space_probes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_positioning_systems_(GPS)_and_geographical_information_systems_(GIS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_positioning_systems_(GPS)_and_geographical_information_systems_(GIS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_positioning_systems_(GPS)_and_geographical_information_systems_(GIS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signal_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signal_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Signal processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signal_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_and_classical_eras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_classical_eras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ancient and classical eras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_classical_eras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginnings_of_modern_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_modern_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Beginnings of modern science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_modern_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geophysics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisika" title="Geofisika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geofisika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6" title="فيزياء الأرض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيزياء الأرض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Երկրաբնագիտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Երկրաբնագիտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeof%C3%ADsica" title="Xeofísica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeofísica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভূ-পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূ-পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геафізіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геафізіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геафізыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Геафізыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizik" title="Geofizik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Geofizik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geof%C3%ADsica" title="Geofísica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geofísica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofyzika" title="Geofyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geofyzika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysik" title="Geofysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geofysik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysik" title="Geophysik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geophysik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geof%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Geofüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geofüüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γεωφυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωφυσική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geof%C3%ADsica" title="Geofísica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geofísica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terfiziko" title="Terfiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Terfiziko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisika" title="Geofisika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geofisika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژئوفیزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژئوفیزیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ophysique" title="Géophysique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géophysique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoifisic" title="Geoifisic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Geoifisic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeof%C3%ADsica" title="Xeofísica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeofísica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EA%B5%AC%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="지구물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지구물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भूभौतिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूभौतिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisika" title="Geofisika – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Geofisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofiziko" title="Geofiziko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Geofiziko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisika" title="Geofisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geofisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jar%C3%B0e%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Jarðeðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jarðeðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisica" title="Geofisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geofisica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גאופיזיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאופיזיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ofisika" title="Géofisika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Géofisika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გეოფიზიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiofizikia" title="Jiofizikia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jiofizikia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysica" title="Geophysica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Geophysica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eofizika" title="Ģeofizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeofizika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भूभौतिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूभौतिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გეოფიზიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეოფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جيوفيزيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيوفيزيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizik" title="Geofizik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geofizik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisika" title="Geofisika – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Geofisika" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AA-gi%C3%B9_%C5%ACk-l%C4%AB-h%C5%8Fk" title="Dê-giù Ŭk-lī-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dê-giù Ŭk-lī-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Геофизик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Геофизик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဘူမိရူပဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘူမိရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysica" title="Geofysica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geofysica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地球物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地球物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysikk" title="Geofysikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geofysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysikk" title="Geofysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geofysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofisica" title="Geofisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Geofisica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဘူမိရူပဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဘူမိရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جیو فزیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جیو فزیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geof%C3%ACsica" title="Geofìsica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Geofìsica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerdphysik" title="Eerdphysik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Eerdphysik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizyka" title="Geofizyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geofizyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geof%C3%ADsica" title="Geofísica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geofísica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizic%C4%83" title="Geofizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geofizică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeofizika" title="Gjeofizika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeofizika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giof%C3%ACsica" title="Giofìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giofìsica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geophysics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88_%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%AA%D8%B3" title="جيو فزڪس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جيو فزڪس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofyzika" title="Geofyzika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geofyzika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofizika" title="Geofizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geofizika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysiikka" title="Geofysiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geofysiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofysik" title="Geofysik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geofysik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heopisika" title="Heopisika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Heopisika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="புவி இயற்பியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவி இயற்பியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геофизика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Геофизика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="ธรณีฟิสิกส์ – Thai" lang="th" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Physics of the Earth and its vicinity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Geophysics_(journal)" title="Geophysics (journal)">Geophysics (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="false color image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png/330px-2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png/495px-2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png/660px-2008_age_of_ocean_plates.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1346" /></a><figcaption>Age of the sea floor. Much of the dating information comes from magnetic anomalies.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif/220px-Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif/330px-Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif/440px-Geodynamo_Between_Reversals.gif 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Computer simulation of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> in a period of normal polarity between <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversal" title="Geomagnetic reversal">reversals</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geophysics</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a subject of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> concerned with the physical processes and <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical properties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists, who usually study geophysics, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, or one of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a> at the graduate level, complete investigations across a wide range of scientific disciplines. The term <i>geophysics</i> classically refers to solid earth applications: Earth's <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">shape</a>; its <a href="/wiki/Gravitational" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational">gravitational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic fields</a> ; its <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of the Earth">internal structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth#Chemical_composition" title="Earth">composition</a>; its <a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">dynamics</a> and their surface expression in <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, the generation of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and rock formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheriff1991_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheriff1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> including snow and ice; <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> of the oceans and the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>; <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity" title="Atmospheric electricity">electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar-terrestrial_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar-terrestrial physics">solar-terrestrial physics</a>; and analogous problems associated with the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and other planets.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheriff1991_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheriff1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IUGG_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUGG-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AGUscience_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGUscience-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gutenberg_(1929)_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutenberg_(1929)-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Runcorn_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runcorn-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geophysics_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geophysics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from <a href="/wiki/Lodestone" title="Lodestone">lodestones</a>, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132 AD. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the <a href="/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinox" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession of the equinox">precession of the equinox</a>; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics. </p><p>Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as <a href="/wiki/Mineral_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral resources">mineral resources</a>, mitigation of <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazards">natural hazards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IUGG_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUGG-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">exploration geophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">geophysical survey</a> data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits, locate groundwater, find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">environmental remediation</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_phenomena">Physical phenomena</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to every area of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a>, while some geophysicists conduct research in the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary sciences">planetary sciences</a>. To provide a more clear idea on what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and how they relate to the Earth and its surroundings. Geophysicists also investigate the physical processes and properties of the Earth, its fluid layers, and magnetic field along with the near-Earth environment in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, which includes other planetary bodies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravity">Gravity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gravity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_gravity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of globe combining color with topography." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earth_gravity.png/220px-Earth_gravity.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earth_gravity.png/330px-Earth_gravity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Earth_gravity.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>A map of deviations in gravity from a perfectly smooth, idealized Earth</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Physical_geodesy" title="Physical geodesy">Physical geodesy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravimetry" title="Gravimetry">Gravimetry</a></div> <p>The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun gives rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gravitational forces make rocks press down on deeper rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Poirier_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poirier-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurements of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">gravitational acceleration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> at the Earth's surface and above it can be used to look for mineral deposits (see <a href="/wiki/Gravity_anomaly" title="Gravity anomaly">gravity anomaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravimetry" title="Gravimetry">gravimetry</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Geopotential" title="Geopotential">geopotential</a> surface called the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a> is one definition of the shape of the Earth. The geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals).<sup id="cite_ref-Lowrie_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowrie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_flow">Heat flow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Heat flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">Geothermal gradient</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convection-snapshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Pseudocolor image in vertical profile." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png/310px-Convection-snapshot.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png/465px-Convection-snapshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png/620px-Convection-snapshot.png 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>A model of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal convection">thermal convection</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a>. The thin red columns are <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantle plumes">mantle plumes</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p>The Earth is cooling, and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Heat_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat flow">heat flow</a> generates the Earth's magnetic field through the <a href="/wiki/Geodynamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodynamo">geodynamo</a> and plate tectonics through <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle convection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main sources of heat are: primordial heat due to Earth's cooling and <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> in the planets upper crust.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also some contributions from <a href="/wiki/Phase_transitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transitions">phase transitions</a>. Heat is mostly carried to the surface by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal convection">thermal convection</a>, although there are two thermal boundary layers – the <a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">core–mantle boundary</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> – in which heat is transported by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">conduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantle plumes">mantle plumes</a>. The heat flow at the Earth's surface is about <span class="texhtml"> 4.2 × 10<sup>13</sup> W</span>, and it is a potential source of <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal</a> energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollack_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollack-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vibrations">Vibrations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vibrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pswaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Deformed blocks with grids on surface." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pswaves.jpg/290px-Pswaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="414" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Pswaves.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the deformations of a block by body waves and surface waves (see <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic wave</a>) </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">Seismic waves</a> are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior or along its surface.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called <a href="/wiki/Normal_modes" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal modes">normal modes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave#Normal_modes" title="Seismic wave">free oscillations of the Earth</a>. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using <a href="/wiki/Seismograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismograph">seismographs</a>. If the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection.<sup id="cite_ref-Shearer_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shearer-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stein_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recording of <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic waves</a> from controlled sources provides information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes, waves are reflected. Reflections recorded using <a href="/wiki/Reflection_seismology" title="Reflection seismology">Reflection Seismology</a> can provide a wealth of information on the structure of the earth up to several kilometers deep and are used to increase our understanding of the geology as well as to explore for oil and gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in the travel direction, called <a href="/wiki/Seismic_refraction" title="Seismic refraction">refraction</a>, can be used to infer the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's interior">deep structure of the Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Earthquakes pose a <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes#Effects/impacts_of_earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">risk to humans</a>. Understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake" title="Intraplate earthquake">intraplate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deep_focus_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep focus earthquake">deep focus</a>), can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bozorgnia2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bozorgnia2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electricity">Electricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although we mainly notice electricity during <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorms" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorms">thunderstorms</a>, there is always a downward electric field near the surface that averages 120 <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> per meter.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative to the solid Earth, the ionization of the planet's atmosphere is a result of the galactic <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> penetrating it, which leaves it with a net positive charge.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A current of about 1800 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a> flows in the global circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It flows downward from the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> over most of the Earth and back upwards through thunderstorms. The flow is manifested by lightning below the clouds and <a href="/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)" title="Sprite (lightning)">sprites</a> above. </p><p>A variety of electric methods are used in geophysical survey. Some measure <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_potential" title="Spontaneous potential">spontaneous potential</a>, a potential that arises in the ground because of human-made or natural disturbances. <a href="/wiki/Telluric_current" title="Telluric current">Telluric currents</a> flow in Earth and the oceans. They have two causes: <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> by the time-varying, external-origin <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic field">geomagnetic field</a> and motion of conducting bodies (such as seawater) across the Earth's permanent magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distribution of telluric current density can be used to detect variations in <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a> of underground structures. Geophysicists can also provide the electric current themselves (see <a href="/wiki/Induced_polarization" title="Induced polarization">induced polarization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_tomography" title="Electrical resistivity tomography">electrical resistivity tomography</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromagnetic_waves">Electromagnetic waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electromagnetic waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic waves">Electromagnetic waves</a> occur in the ionosphere and magnetosphere as well as in <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">Earth's outer core</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dawn_chorus_(electromagnetic)" title="Dawn chorus (electromagnetic)">Dawn chorus</a> is believed to be caused by high-energy electrons that get caught in the <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Whistler_(radio)" title="Whistler (radio)">Whistlers</a> are produced by <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes. <a href="/wiki/Hiss_(electromagnetic)" title="Hiss (electromagnetic)">Hiss</a> may be generated by both. <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic</a> waves may also be generated by earthquakes (see <a href="/wiki/Seismo-electromagnetics" title="Seismo-electromagnetics">seismo-electromagnetics</a>). </p><p>In the highly conductive liquid iron of the outer core, magnetic fields are generated by electric currents through electromagnetic induction. <a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n_wave" title="Alfvén wave">Alfvén waves</a> are <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetohydrodynamic">magnetohydrodynamic</a> waves in the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> or the Earth's core. In the core, they probably have little observable effect on the Earth's magnetic field, but slower waves such as magnetic <a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby waves</a> may be one source of <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_secular_variation" title="Geomagnetic secular variation">geomagnetic secular variation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electromagnetic methods that are used for geophysical survey include <a href="/wiki/Transient_electromagnetics" title="Transient electromagnetics">transient electromagnetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetotellurics" title="Magnetotellurics">magnetotellurics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Surface nuclear magnetic resonance">surface nuclear magnetic resonance</a> and electromagnetic seabed logging.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetism">Magnetism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Magnetism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aeromagnetic_survey" title="Aeromagnetic survey">Aeromagnetic survey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></div> <p>The Earth's magnetic field protects the Earth from the deadly <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> and has long been used for navigation. It originates in the fluid motions of the outer core.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magnetic field in the upper atmosphere gives rise to the <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">auroras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kivelson_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kivelson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geomagnetisme.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram with field lines, axes and magnet lines." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Geomagnetisme.svg/240px-Geomagnetisme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Geomagnetisme.svg/360px-Geomagnetisme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Geomagnetisme.svg/480px-Geomagnetisme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Earth's dipole axis (pink line) is tilted away from the rotational axis (blue line). </figcaption></figure> <p>The Earth's field is roughly like a tilted <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">dipole</a>, but it changes over time (a phenomenon called geomagnetic secular variation). Mostly the <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_pole" title="Geomagnetic pole">geomagnetic pole</a> stays near the <a href="/wiki/Geographic_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic pole">geographic pole</a>, but at random intervals averaging 440,000 to a million years or so, the polarity of the Earth's field reverses. These <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversals" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic reversals">geomagnetic reversals</a>, analyzed within a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversal#Geomagnetic_polarity_time_scale" title="Geomagnetic reversal">Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale</a>, contain 184 polarity intervals in the last 83 million years, with change in frequency over time, with the most recent brief complete reversal of the <a href="/wiki/Laschamp_event" title="Laschamp event">Laschamp event</a> occurring 41,000 years ago during the <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period#Last_glacial_period" title="Glacial period">last glacial period</a>. Geologists observed <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversal#History" title="Geomagnetic reversal">geomagnetic reversal recorded</a> in volcanic rocks, through <a href="/wiki/Magnetostratigraphy#Correlation_and_ages" title="Magnetostratigraphy">magnetostratigraphy correlation</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Natural_remanent_magnetization" title="Natural remanent magnetization">natural remanent magnetization</a>) and their signature can be seen as parallel linear magnetic anomaly stripes on the seafloor. These stripes provide quantitative information on <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a>, a part of plate tectonics. They are the basis of <a href="/wiki/Magnetostratigraphy" title="Magnetostratigraphy">magnetostratigraphy</a>, which correlates magnetic reversals with other <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic_section" title="Stratigraphic section">stratigraphies</a> to construct geologic time scales.<sup id="cite_ref-Opdyke_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Opdyke-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">magnetization in rocks</a> can be used to measure the motion of continents.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Radioactivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram with compound balls representing nuclei and arrows." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/240px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/360px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/480px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3254" data-file-height="4327" /></a><figcaption>Example of a radioactive decay chain (see <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a>) </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a> accounts for about 80% of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Internal_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal heat">internal heat</a>, powering the geodynamo and plate tectonics.<sup id="cite_ref-Turcotte_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turcotte-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main heat-producing <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> are <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium-40</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium-238</a>, uranium-235, and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium-232</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radioactive elements are used for <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>, the primary method for establishing an absolute time scale in <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a>. </p><p>Unstable isotopes decay at predictable rates, and the decay rates of different <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> cover several orders of magnitude, so radioactive decay can be used to accurately date both recent events and events in past <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">geologic eras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Renne_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renne-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radiometric mapping using ground and airborne <a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma spectrometry">gamma spectrometry</a> can be used to map the concentration and distribution of radioisotopes near the Earth's surface, which is useful for mapping lithology and alteration.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluid_dynamics">Fluid dynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Fluid dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Geophysical fluid dynamics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid motions</a> occur in the magnetosphere, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, ocean, mantle and core. Even the mantle, though it has an enormous <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>, flows like a fluid over long time intervals. This flow is reflected in phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">post-glacial rebound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a>. The mantle flow drives plate tectonics and the flow in the Earth's core drives the geodynamo.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in <a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">physical oceanography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>. In the atmosphere, it gives rise to large-scale patterns like <a href="/wiki/Rossby_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossby waves">Rossby waves</a> and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean, they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin waves">Kelvin waves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ekman_spirals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekman spirals">Ekman spirals</a> at the ocean surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Pedlosky_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pedlosky-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by <a href="/wiki/Taylor_columns" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylor columns">Taylor columns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Waves and other phenomena in the magnetosphere can be modeled using <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">magnetohydrodynamics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mineral_physics">Mineral physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mineral physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></div> <p>The physical properties of minerals must be understood to infer the composition of the Earth's interior from <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermal gradient</a> and other sources of information. Mineral physicists study the <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elastic</a> properties of minerals; their high-pressure <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase diagrams">phase diagrams</a>, melting points and <a href="/wiki/Equations_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Equations of state">equations of state</a> at high pressure; and the <a href="/wiki/Rheology" title="Rheology">rheological properties</a> of rocks, or their ability to flow. Deformation of rocks by <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a> make flow possible, although over short times the rocks are brittle. The <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of rocks is affected by temperature and pressure, and in turn, determines the rates at which tectonic plates move.<sup id="cite_ref-Poirier_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poirier-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water is a very complex substance and its unique properties are essential for life.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadava_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadava-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its physical properties shape the <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a> and are an essential part of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. Its thermodynamic properties determine <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> and the thermal gradient in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. The many types of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> involve a complex mixture of processes such as <a href="/wiki/Coalescence_(physics)" title="Coalescence (physics)">coalescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">supercooling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some precipitated water becomes <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>, and groundwater flow includes phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">percolation</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Conductivity_(electrolytic)" title="Conductivity (electrolytic)">conductivity</a> of water makes electrical and electromagnetic methods useful for tracking groundwater flow. Physical properties of water such as <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> have a large effect on its motion in the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Pedlosky_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pedlosky-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The many phases of ice form the <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a> and come in forms like <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a>, freshwater ice, snow, and frozen ground (or <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regions_of_the_Earth">Regions of the Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regions of the Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_and_form_of_the_Earth">Size and form of the Earth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Size and form of the Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contrary to popular belief, the earth is not entirely spherical but instead generally exhibits an <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoid</a> shape- which is a result of the centrifugal forces the planet generates due to its constant motion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forces cause the planets diameter to bulge towards the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a> and results in the <a href="/wiki/Earth_ellipsoid" title="Earth ellipsoid">ellipsoid shape</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth's shape is constantly changing, and different factors including <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">glacial isostatic rebound</a> (large ice sheets melting causing the Earth's crust to the rebound due to the release of the pressure<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), geological features such as <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountains</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">ocean trenches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plate</a> dynamics, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> can further distort the planet's shape.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_of_the_interior">Structure of the interior</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Structure of the interior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of Earth">Structure of Earth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthquake_wave_paths.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram with concentric shells and curved paths." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Earthquake_wave_paths.svg/290px-Earthquake_wave_paths.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Earthquake_wave_paths.svg/435px-Earthquake_wave_paths.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Earthquake_wave_paths.svg/580px-Earthquake_wave_paths.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Seismic velocities and boundaries in the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> sampled by seismic waves </figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence from <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>, heat flow at the surface, and <a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">mineral physics</a> is combined with the Earth's mass and moment of inertia to infer models of the Earth's interior – its composition, density, temperature, pressure. For example, the Earth's mean <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a> (<span class="texhtml">5.515</span>) is far higher than the typical specific gravity of rocks at the surface (<span class="texhtml">2.7–3.3</span>), implying that the deeper material is denser. This is also implied by its low <a href="/wiki/Moment_of_inertia" title="Moment of inertia">moment of inertia</a> (<span class="texhtml"> 0.33 <var>M R</var><sup>2</sup></span>, compared to <span class="texhtml"> 0.4 <var>M R</var><sup>2</sup></span> for a sphere of constant density). However, some of the density increase is compression under the enormous pressures inside the Earth. The effect of pressure can be calculated using the <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93Williamson_equation" title="Adams–Williamson equation">Adams–Williamson equation</a>. The conclusion is that pressure alone cannot account for the increase in density. Instead, we know that the Earth's core is composed of an alloy of iron and other minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Poirier_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poirier-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no <a href="/wiki/S-waves" class="mw-redirect" title="S-waves">S-waves</a> in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field. <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core" title="Earth's inner core">Earth's inner core</a>, however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Lowrie_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowrie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicates some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth: <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core" title="Earth's inner core">inner core</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">outer core</a>, mantle, <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>. The mantle itself is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper mantle (Earth)">upper mantle</a>, transition zone, lower mantle and <i>D′′</i> layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the <a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lowrie_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowrie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The seismic model of the Earth does not by itself determine the composition of the layers. For a complete model of the Earth, mineral physics is needed to interpret seismic velocities in terms of composition. The mineral properties are temperature-dependent, so the <a href="/wiki/Geotherm" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotherm">geotherm</a> must also be determined. This requires physical theory for <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermal conduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> and the heat contribution of <a href="/wiki/Radionuclides" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclides">radioactive elements</a>. The main model for the radial structure of the interior of the Earth is the <a href="/wiki/Preliminary_reference_Earth_model" title="Preliminary reference Earth model">preliminary reference Earth model</a> (PREM). Some parts of this model have been updated by recent findings in mineral physics (see <a href="/wiki/Post-perovskite" title="Post-perovskite">post-perovskite</a>) and supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Seismic_tomography" title="Seismic tomography">seismic tomography</a>. The mantle is mainly composed of <a href="/wiki/Silicates" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicates">silicates</a>, and the boundaries between layers of the mantle are consistent with phase transitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Poirier_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poirier-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mantle acts as a solid for seismic waves, but under high pressures and temperatures, it deforms so that over millions of years it acts like a liquid. This makes <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Magnetosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram with colored surfaces and lines." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg/290px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg/435px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg/580px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_mod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> flows from left to right. </figcaption></figure> <p>If a planet's <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> is strong enough, its interaction with the solar wind forms a magnetosphere. Early <a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">space probes</a> mapped out the gross dimensions of the Earth's magnetic field, which extends about 10 <a href="/wiki/Earth_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth radii">Earth radii</a> towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the <a href="/wiki/Magnetotail" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetotail">magnetic tail</a>, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are relatively dense regions of solar wind particles called the Van Allen radiation belts.<sup id="cite_ref-Kivelson_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kivelson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geodesy">Geodesy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Geodesy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></div> <p>Geophysical measurements are generally at a particular time and place. Accurate measurements of position, along with earth deformation and gravity, are the province of <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>. While geodesy and geophysics are separate fields, the two are so closely connected that many scientific organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Geophysical_Union" title="Canadian Geophysical Union">Canadian Geophysical Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Geodesy_and_Geophysics" title="International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics">International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics</a> encompass both.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Absolute positions are most frequently determined using the <a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning system">global positioning system</a> (GPS). A three-dimensional position is calculated using messages from four or more visible satellites and referred to the <a href="/wiki/GRS_80" class="mw-redirect" title="GRS 80">1980 Geodetic Reference System</a>. An alternative, <a href="/wiki/Astro-geodetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Astro-geodetic">optical astronomy</a>, combines astronomical coordinates and the local gravity vector to get geodetic coordinates. This method only provides the position in two coordinates and is more difficult to use than GPS. However, it is useful for measuring motions of the Earth such as <a href="/wiki/Nutation" title="Nutation">nutation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandler_wobble" title="Chandler wobble">Chandler wobble</a>. Relative positions of two or more points can be determined using <a href="/wiki/Very-long-baseline_interferometry" title="Very-long-baseline interferometry">very-long-baseline interferometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torge_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torge-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gravity measurements became part of geodesy because they were needed to related measurements at the surface of the Earth to the reference coordinate system. Gravity measurements on land can be made using <a href="/wiki/Gravimeters" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravimeters">gravimeters</a> deployed either on the surface or in helicopter flyovers. Since the 1960s, the Earth's gravity field has been measured by analyzing the motion of satellites. Sea level can also be measured by satellites using <a href="/wiki/Radar_altimeter" title="Radar altimeter">radar altimetry</a>, contributing to a more accurate <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2002, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment</a> (GRACE), wherein two twin <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> map variations in Earth's gravity field by making measurements of the distance between the two satellites using GPS and a microwave ranging system. Gravity variations detected by GRACE include those caused by changes in ocean currents; runoff and ground water depletion; melting ice sheets and glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellites_and_space_probes">Satellites and space probes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Satellites and space probes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Satellites in space have made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>, which are studied through geophysics and space physics. </p><p>Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine details of the <a href="/wiki/Gravity_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity field">gravity fields</a> of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above <a href="/wiki/Lunar_maria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar maria">lunar maria</a> were measured through <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_program" title="Lunar Orbiter program">lunar orbiters</a>, which led to the discovery of concentrations of mass, <a href="/wiki/Mass_concentration_(astronomy)" title="Mass concentration (astronomy)">mascons</a>, beneath the <a href="/wiki/Mare_Imbrium" title="Mare Imbrium">Imbrium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mare_Serenitatis" title="Mare Serenitatis">Serenitatis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mare_Crisium" title="Mare Crisium">Crisium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mare_Nectaris" title="Mare Nectaris">Nectaris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mare_Humorum" title="Mare Humorum">Humorum</a> basins.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_positioning_systems_(GPS)_and_geographical_information_systems_(GIS)"><span id="Global_positioning_systems_.28GPS.29_and_geographical_information_systems_.28GIS.29"></span>Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">GIS</a></div> <p>Since geophysics is concerned with the shape of the Earth, and by extension the mapping of features around and in the planet, geophysical measurements include high accuracy GPS measurements. These measurements are processed to increase their accuracy through <a href="/wiki/Differential_GPS" title="Differential GPS">differential GPS</a> processing. Once the geophysical measurements have been processed and inverted, the interpreted results are plotted using GIS. Programs such as <a href="/wiki/ArcGIS" title="ArcGIS">ArcGIS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geosoft" title="Geosoft">Geosoft</a> were built to meet these needs and include many geophysical functions that are built-in, such as <a href="/wiki/Upward_continuation" title="Upward continuation">upward continuation</a>, and the calculation of the measurement <a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">derivative</a> such as the first-vertical derivative.<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many geophysics companies have designed in-house geophysics programs that pre-date ArcGIS and GeoSoft in order to meet the visualization requirements of a geophysical dataset. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Remote sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a> is a branch of applied geophysics that involves the development and utilization of different seismic or electromagnetic methods which the aim of investigating different energy, mineral and water resources.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is done through the uses of various <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> platforms such as; <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">borehole</a> sensing equipment and <a href="/wiki/Seismic_source" title="Seismic source">seismic receivers</a>. These equipment are often used in conjunction with different geophysical methods such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravimetry" title="Gravimetry">gravimetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiometry" title="Radiometry">radiometric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometry</a> methods in order to gather the data. The remote sensing platforms used in exploration geophysics are not perfect and need adjustments done on them in order to accurately account for the effects that the platform itself may have on the collected data. For example, when gathering <a href="/wiki/Aeromagnetic_survey" title="Aeromagnetic survey">aeromagnetic</a> data (aircraft gathered magnetic data) using a conventional fixed-wing aircraft- the platform has to be adjusted to account for the electromagnetic currents that it may generate as it passes through <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also corrections related to changes in measured potential field intensity as the Earth rotates, as the Earth orbits the Sun, and as the moon orbits the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signal_processing">Signal processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Signal processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></div> <p>Geophysical measurements are often recorded as <a href="/wiki/Time-series" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-series">time-series</a> with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_Navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite Navigation">GPS</a> location. Signal processing involves the correction of time-series data for unwanted noise or errors introduced by the measurement platform, such as aircraft vibrations in gravity data. It also involves the reduction of sources of noise, such as diurnal corrections in magnetic data.<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In seismic data, electromagnetic data, and gravity data, processing continues after error corrections to include <a href="/wiki/Computational_geophysics" title="Computational geophysics">computational geophysics</a> which result in the final interpretation of the geophysical data into a geological interpretation of the geophysical measurements<sup id="cite_ref-Telford_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">History of geophysics</a></div> <p>Geophysics emerged as a separate discipline only in the 19th century, from the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, meteorology, and physics.<sup id="cite_ref-history_resources_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history_resources-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known use of the word <i>geophysics</i> was in German ("Geophysik") by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Fr%C3%B6bel" title="Julius Fröbel">Julius Fröbel</a> in 1834.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many geophysical phenomena – such as the Earth's magnetic field and earthquakes – have been investigated since the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient era</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_classical_eras">Ancient and classical eras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ancient and classical eras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EastHanSeismograph.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of ornate urn-like device with spouts in the shape of dragons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/170px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/255px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/340px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>Replica of <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a>'s seismoscope, possibly the first contribution to <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The magnetic compass existed in China back as far as the fourth century BC. It was used as much for <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a> as for navigation on land. It was not until good steel needles could be forged that compasses were used for navigation at sea; before that, they could not retain their magnetism long enough to be useful. The first mention of a compass in Europe was in 1190 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In circa 240 BC, <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> of Cyrene deduced that the Earth was round and measured the <a href="/wiki/Circumference_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumference of Earth">circumference of Earth</a> with great precision.<sup id="cite_ref-russo273277_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russo273277-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed a system of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eratosthenes_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eratosthenes-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the earliest contribution to seismology was the invention of a <a href="/wiki/Seismoscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismoscope">seismoscope</a> by the prolific inventor <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a> in 132 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This instrument was designed to drop a bronze ball from the mouth of a dragon into the mouth of a toad. By looking at which of eight toads had the ball, one could determine the direction of the earthquake. It was 1571 years before the first design for a seismoscope was published in Europe, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Hautefeuille" title="Jean de Hautefeuille">Jean de la Hautefeuille</a>. It was never built.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_modern_science">Beginnings of modern science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Beginnings of modern science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 17th century had major milestones that marked the beginning of modern science. In 1600, <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> release a publication titled <i><a href="/wiki/De_Magnete" title="De Magnete">De Magnete</a></i> (1600) where he conducted series of experiments on both natural magnets (called <a href="/wiki/Lodestone" title="Lodestone">'loadstones</a>') and artificially magnetized iron.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His experiments lead to observations involving a small compass needle (<a href="/wiki/Versorium" title="Versorium">versorium</a>) which replicated magnetic behaviours when subjected to a spherical magnet, along with it experiencing '<a href="/wiki/Magnetic_dip" title="Magnetic dip">magnetic dips</a>' when it was pivoted on a horizontal axis.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HIs findings led to the deduction that compasses point north due to the Earth itself being a giant magnet.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1687 <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> published his work titled <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a></i> which was pivotal in the development of modern scientific fields such as <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, Newton both laid the foundations for <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>, as well as explained different geophysical phenomena such as the <a href="/wiki/Axial_precession" title="Axial precession">precession of the equinox</a> (the orbit of whole star patterns along an <a href="/wiki/Ecliptical_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecliptical pole">ecliptic axis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's theory of gravity</a> had gained so much success, that it resulted in changing the main objective of physics in that era to unravel natures fundamental forces, and their characterizations in laws.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">seismometer</a>, an instrument capable of keeping a continuous record of seismic activity, was built by <a href="/wiki/James_David_Forbes" title="James David Forbes">James Forbes</a> in 1844.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px 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.citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite 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Berlin: Springer. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenrevolut00russ_217/page/n277">273</a>–277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Revolution&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=273-277&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=Lucio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgottenrevolut00russ_217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eratosthenes-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eratosthenes_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEratosthenes2010">Eratosthenes 2010</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTemple2006">Temple 2006</a>, pp. 177–181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dewey-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dewey_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dewey_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeweyByerly1969">Dewey & Byerly 1969</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthmag/DMGRev2.htm">"Review of "De Magnete"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=About+AGU&rft.atitle=Our+Science&rft.date=2011&rft.au=American+Geophysical+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabout.agu.org%2Four-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIUGG2011" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iugg.org/about/">"About IUGG"</a>. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/">the original</a> on 1 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Texas+at+Austin+Center+for+Space+Research&rft.atitle=GRACE%3A+Gravity+Recovery+and+Climate+Experiment&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csr.utexas.edu%2Fgrace%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardyGoodman2005" class="citation web cs1">Hardy, Shaun J.; Goodman, Roy E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130427182807/http://history.agu.org/hgc_web_resources.htm">"Web resources in the history of geophysics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.agu.org/hgc_web_resources.htm">the original</a> on 27 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Web+resources+in+the+history+of+geophysics&rft.pub=American+Geophysical+Union&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Shaun+J.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Roy+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.agu.org%2Fhgc_web_resources.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisonCarslaw2003" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, R. G.; Carslaw, K. S. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2002RG000114">"Ion-aerosol-cloud processes in the lower atmosphere"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Geophysics" title="Reviews of Geophysics">Reviews of Geophysics</a></i>. <b>41</b> (3): 1012. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RvGeo..41.1012H">2003RvGeo..41.1012H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2002RG000114">10.1029/2002RG000114</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123305218">123305218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Ion-aerosol-cloud+processes+in+the+lower+atmosphere&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1012&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123305218%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2002RG000114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003RvGeo..41.1012H&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft.au=Carslaw%2C+K.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2002RG000114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKivelsonRussell1995" class="citation book cs1">Kivelson, Margaret G.; Russell, Christopher T. 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In Geophysics Study Committee; Geophysics Research Forum; Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Resources; <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> (eds.). <i>The Earth's electrical environment</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="National Academy Press">National Academy Press</a>. pp. 232–258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-03680-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-03680-1"><bdi>0-309-03680-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Telluric+currents%3A+the+natural+environment+and+interactions+with+man-made+systems&rft.btitle=The+Earth%27s+electrical+environment&rft.pages=232-258&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-309-03680-1&rft.aulast=Lanzerotti&rft.aufirst=Louis+J.&rft.au=Gregori%2C+Giovanni+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D898%26page%3D232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowrie2004" class="citation book cs1">Lowrie, William (2004). <i>Fundamentals of Geophysics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-46164-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-46164-2"><bdi>0-521-46164-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Geophysics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-46164-2&rft.aulast=Lowrie&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrillMcElhinnyMcFadden1998" class="citation book cs1">Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (1998). <i>The Magnetic Field of the Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core, and the Deep Mantle</i>. International Geophysics Series. Vol. 63. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0124912458" title="Special:BookSources/978-0124912458"><bdi>978-0124912458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Magnetic+Field+of+the+Earth%3A+Paleomagnetism%2C+the+Core%2C+and+the+Deep+Mantle&rft.series=International+Geophysics+Series&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0124912458&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=Ronald+T.&rft.au=McElhinny%2C+Michael+W.&rft.au=McFadden%2C+Phillip+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullerSjogren1968" class="citation journal cs1">Muller, Paul; Sjogren, William (1968). "Mascons: lunar mass concentrations". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>161</b> (3842): 680–684. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968Sci...161..680M">1968Sci...161..680M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.161.3842.680">10.1126/science.161.3842.680</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801458">17801458</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40110502">40110502</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Mascons%3A+lunar+mass+concentrations&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=3842&rft.pages=680-684&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.161.3842.680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40110502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17801458&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968Sci...161..680M&rft.aulast=Muller&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Sjogren%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_(U.S.)._Committee_on_Geodesy1985" class="citation report cs1">National Research Council (U.S.). 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A new translation by I Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, preceded by "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I Bernard Cohen. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08816-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08816-0"><bdi>978-0-520-08816-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principia%2C+Mathematical+principles+of+natural+philosophy&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08816-0&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpdykeChannell1996" class="citation book cs1">Opdyke, Neil D.; Channell, James T. 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"Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set". <i><a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Geophysics" title="Reviews of Geophysics">Reviews of Geophysics</a></i>. <b>31</b> (3): 267–280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993RvGeo..31..267P">1993RvGeo..31..267P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F93RG01249">10.1029/93RG01249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Heat+flow+from+the+Earth%27s+interior%3A+Analysis+of+the+global+data+set&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-280&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F93RG01249&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993RvGeo..31..267P&rft.aulast=Pollack&rft.aufirst=Henry+N.&rft.au=Hurter%2C+Suzanne+J.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Jeffrey+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenneLudwigKarner2000" class="citation journal cs1">Renne, P.R.; Ludwig, K.R.; Karner, D.B. (2000). "Progress and challenges in geochronology". <i>Science Progress</i>. <b>83</b>: 107–121. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10800377">10800377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Progress&rft.atitle=Progress+and+challenges+in+geochronology&rft.volume=83&rft.pages=107-121&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10800377&rft.aulast=Renne&rft.aufirst=P.R.&rft.au=Ludwig%2C+K.R.&rft.au=Karner%2C+D.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2011" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, John M. (2011). <i>An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-48535-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-48535-3"><bdi>978-0-471-48535-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Applied+and+Environmental+Geophysics&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-471-48535-3&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsDuncanCourtillot1989" class="citation journal cs1">Richards, M. A.; Duncan, R. A.; Courtillot, V. E. (1989). "Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>246</b> (4926): 103–107. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Sci...246..103R">1989Sci...246..103R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.246.4926.103">10.1126/science.246.4926.103</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17837768">17837768</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9147772">9147772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Flood+Basalts+and+Hot-Spot+Tracks%3A+Plume+Heads+and+Tails&rft.volume=246&rft.issue=4926&rft.pages=103-107&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.246.4926.103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9147772%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17837768&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Sci...246..103R&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Courtillot%2C+V.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1995" class="citation book cs1">Ross, D.A. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontooc0000ross"><i>Introduction to Oceanography</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-491408-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-491408-2"><bdi>0-13-491408-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Oceanography&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-13-491408-2&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontooc0000ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadavaHellerHillisBerenbaum2009" class="citation book cs1">Sadava, David; Heller, H. Craig; Hillis, David M.; Berenbaum, May (2009). <i>Life: The Science of Biology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Publishers (United States)">Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-1962-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-1962-4"><bdi>978-1-4292-1962-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%3A+The+Science+of+Biology&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-1962-4&rft.aulast=Sadava&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Heller%2C+H.+Craig&rft.au=Hillis%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Berenbaum%2C+May&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders2003" class="citation news cs1">Sanders, Robert (10 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/12/10_heat.shtml">"Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core"</a>. UC Berkeley News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Radioactive+potassium+may+be+major+heat+source+in+Earth%27s+core&rft.date=2003-12-10&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berkeley.edu%2Fnews%2Fmedia%2Freleases%2F2003%2F12%2F10_heat.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSirvatka2003" class="citation web cs1">Sirvatka, Paul (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weather.cod.edu/sirvatka/bergeron.html">"Cloud Physics: Collision/Coalescence; The Bergeron Process"</a>. <a href="/wiki/College_of_DuPage" title="College of DuPage">College of DuPage</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cloud+Physics%3A+Collision%2FCoalescence%3B+The+Bergeron+Process&rft.pub=College+of+DuPage&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Sirvatka&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweather.cod.edu%2Fsirvatka%2Fbergeron.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheriff1991" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sheriff, Robert E. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopedicdict0000unse_h0w6">"Geophysics"</a></span>. <i>Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics</i> (3rd ed.). Society of Exploration. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56080-018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56080-018-7"><bdi>978-1-56080-018-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geophysics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Exploration+Geophysics&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Society+of+Exploration&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-56080-018-7&rft.aulast=Sheriff&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopedicdict0000unse_h0w6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinWysession2003" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2003). <i>An introduction to seismology, earthquakes, and earth structure</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86542-078-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-86542-078-5"><bdi>0-86542-078-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+seismology%2C+earthquakes%2C+and+earth+structure&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-86542-078-5&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft.au=Wysession%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelfordGeldartSheriff1990" class="citation book cs1">Telford, William Murray; Geldart, L. 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(1990). <i>Applied geophysics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33938-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33938-4"><bdi>978-0-521-33938-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+geophysics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33938-4&rft.aulast=Telford&rft.aufirst=William+Murray&rft.au=Geldart%2C+L.+P.&rft.au=Sheriff%2C+Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple2006" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert (2006). <i>The Genius of China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Andre_Deutsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre Deutsch">Andre Deutsch</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-62028-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-62028-2"><bdi>0-671-62028-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China&rft.pub=Andre+Deutsch&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-671-62028-2&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorge2001" class="citation book cs1">Torge, W. (2001). <i>Geodesy</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89925-680-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89925-680-5"><bdi>0-89925-680-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geodesy&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-89925-680-5&rft.aulast=Torge&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcotteSchubert2002" class="citation book cs1">Turcotte, Donald Lawson; Schubert, Gerald (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-nCHlVuJ4FoC&pg=PA286"><i>Geodynamics</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66624-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66624-4"><bdi>0-521-66624-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geodynamics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-66624-4&rft.aulast=Turcotte&rft.aufirst=Donald+Lawson&rft.au=Schubert%2C+Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-nCHlVuJ4FoC%26pg%3DPA286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerhoogen1980" class="citation book cs1">Verhoogen, John (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_yTsrAAAAYAAJ"><i>Energetics of the Earth</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="National Academy Press">National Academy Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-03076-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-03076-2"><bdi>978-0-309-03076-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energetics+of+the+Earth&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-309-03076-2&rft.aulast=Verhoogen&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_yTsrAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210218212208/http://www.environmental-geophysics.co.uk/documents/ref_manual/TechRef.pdf">Archived</a> 18 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190210154628/https://www.iugg-georisk.org/">Commission on Geophysical Risk and Sustainability (GeoRisk), International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sedigroup.org/">Study of the Earth's Deep Interior, a Committee of IUGG</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iugg.org/about/commissions/">Union Commissions (IUGG)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geomag.usgs.gov/">USGS Geomagnetism Program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology" title="Template:Geology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology" title="Template talk:Geology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/50px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/75px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/100px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_geodesy" title="Planetary science">Planetary geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">Geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics" title="Planetary science">Planetary geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics" title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Category:Geology">Geology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Geology">Geology</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_branches_of_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_physics" title="Template talk:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Applied_and_interdisciplinary_physics" title="Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth_science" 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class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Earth_sciences" title="Category:Earth sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Earth_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Earth sciences">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geodesy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geodesy_navbox" title="Template:Geodesy navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical <br />phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandler_wobble" title="Chandler wobble">Chandler wobble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_gravity_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's gravity field">Earth's gravity field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">Geodynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_precession" title="Axial precession">Precession of the equinoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/16px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/24px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg/32px-Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_an_ellipsoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="750" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geodesy" title="Portal:Geodesy">Geodesy portal</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">Mesosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">Thermosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosphere" title="Exosphere">Exosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Culture and society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">List of sovereign states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">dependent territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Atmospheric_electricity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atmospheric_electricity" title="Template:Atmospheric electricity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atmospheric_electricity" title="Template talk:Atmospheric electricity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric_electricity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric electricity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Atmospheric_electricity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity" title="Atmospheric electricity">Atmospheric electricity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology#Dynamic_meteorology" title="Meteorology">Atmospheric dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dynamo" title="Atmospheric dynamo">Atmospheric dynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electromagnetism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">ELF/VLF emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_atmospheric" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio atmospheric">Radio atmospherics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistler_(radio)" title="Whistler (radio)">Whistlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_chorus_(electromagnetic)" title="Dawn chorus (electromagnetic)">Chorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiss_(electromagnetic)" title="Hiss (electromagnetic)">Hiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Optical emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning" title="Upper-atmospheric lightning">Upper-atmospheric lightning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)" title="Sprite (lightning)">Sprites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="St. Elmo's fire">St. Elmo's fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">Ball lightning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_electrojet" title="Equatorial electrojet">Equatorial electrojet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrodynamic_tether" title="Electrodynamic tether">Electrodynamic tethers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetotellurics" title="Magnetotellurics">Magnetotellurics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Richmann" title="Georg Wilhelm Richmann">Georg Wilhelm Richmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Schweidler" title="Egon Schweidler">Egon Schweidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Simpson_(meteorologist)" title="George Simpson (meteorologist)">George Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">Charles Thomson Rees Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Atmospheric_electricity" title="Category:Atmospheric electricity">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46255#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46255#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119395915">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Géophysique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119395915">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573041">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="geofyzika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114615&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="fyzikální geologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120436&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span 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