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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Subfields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subfields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syntactic_typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntactic_typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Syntactic typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntactic_typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dominant_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominant_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Dominant order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominant_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.1</span> <span>Theoretical issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Left-right_symmetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Left-right_symmetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Left-right symmetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Left-right_symmetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_issues_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_issues_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.1</span> <span>Theoretical issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_issues_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphosyntactic_alignment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphosyntactic_alignment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Morphosyntactic alignment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphosyntactic_alignment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Phonological typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonological_typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistic typology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taaltipologie" title="Taaltipologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taaltipologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تصنيف نوعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تصنيف نوعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologia_lengouistica" title="Tipologia lengouistica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Tipologia lengouistica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipolox%C3%ADa_lling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Tipoloxía llingüística – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tipoloxía llingüística" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linqvistik_tipologiya" title="Linqvistik tipologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Linqvistik tipologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="ভাষাতাত্ত্বিক শ্রেণিকরণবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাষাতাত্ত্বিক শ্রেণিকরণবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%9E" title="Тыпалогія моў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тыпалогія моў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%9E" title="Тыпалёгія моў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тыпалёгія моў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лингвистична типология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лингвистична типология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologia_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Tipologia lingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tipologia lingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typologick%C3%A1_klasifikace_jazyk%C5%AF" title="Typologická klasifikace jazyků – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Typologická klasifikace jazyků" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teipoleg_ieithyddol" title="Teipoleg ieithyddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teipoleg ieithyddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprogtypologi" title="Sprogtypologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sprogtypologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachtypologie" title="Sprachtypologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprachtypologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keelet%C3%BCpoloogia" title="Keeletüpoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keeletüpoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%84%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γλωσσική τυπολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλωσσική τυπολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipolog%C3%ADa_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Tipología lingüística – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tipología lingüística" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingva_tipologio" title="Lingva tipologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingva tipologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="رده‌شناسی زبانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رده‌شناسی زبانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typologie_linguistique" title="Typologie linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Typologie linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADopeola%C3%ADocht_teangeola%C3%ADochta" title="Tíopeolaíocht teangeolaíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tíopeolaíocht teangeolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipolox%C3%ADa_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Tipoloxía lingüística – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tipoloxía lingüística" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EC%9C%A0%ED%98%95%EB%A1%A0" title="언어유형론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="언어유형론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լեզվաբանական տիպաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզվաբանական տիպաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologio" title="Tipologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Tipologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologi_(linguistik)" title="Tipologi (linguistik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tipologi (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologia_linguistica" title="Tipologia linguistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tipologia linguistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_(%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA)" title="טיפולוגיה (בלשנות) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טיפולוגיה (בלשנות)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Типология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Типология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Топилогия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Топилогия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typologia_linguistica" title="Typologia linguistica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Typologia linguistica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyelvtipol%C3%B3gia" title="Nyelvtipológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyelvtipológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јазична типологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јазична типологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologi_linguistik" title="Tipologi linguistik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tipologi linguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taaltypologie" title="Taaltypologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taaltypologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E9%A1%9E%E5%9E%8B%E8%AB%96" title="言語類型論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語類型論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5ktypologi" title="Språktypologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Språktypologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5ktypologi" title="Språktypologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Språktypologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologia_ling%C3%BCistica" title="Tipologia lingüistica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tipologia lingüistica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistik_tipologiya" title="Lingvistik tipologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Lingvistik tipologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typologia_j%C4%99zyk%C3%B3w" title="Typologia języków – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Typologia języków" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologia_lingu%C3%ADstica" title="Tipologia linguística – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tipologia linguística" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologie_lingvistic%C4%83" title="Tipologie lingvistică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tipologie lingvistică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Типология (лингвистика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Типология (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipologjia_gjuh%C3%ABsore" title="Tipologjia gjuhësore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tipologjia gjuhësore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kielitypologia" title="Kielitypologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kielitypologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5ktypologi" title="Språktypologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Språktypologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மொழியியல் உருவியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழியியல் உருவியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistic typology</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology">Morphological</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">Analytic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">Isolating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">Synthetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">Fusional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">Agglutinative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language">Polysynthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligosynthetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligosynthetic language">Oligosynthetic</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)#Paradigms_and_morphosyntax" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphosyntactic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">Alignment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">Nominative–accusative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marked_nominative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Marked nominative language">Marked nominative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">Ergative–absolutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_ergativity" title="Split ergativity">Split ergative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetrical_voice" title="Symmetrical voice">Symmetrical voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active–stative language">Active–stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_alignment" title="Tripartite alignment">Tripartite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93absolutive_alignment" title="Nominative–absolutive alignment">Nominative–absolutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment" title="Direct–inverse alignment">Direct-inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb#Ditransitive.2Fmonotransitive_alignment" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive/Monotransitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secundative_language" title="Secundative language">Secundative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirective_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirective language">Indirective</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-marking_language" title="Zero-marking language">Zero-marking </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent-marking_language" title="Dependent-marking language">Dependent-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-marking_language" title="Double-marking language">Double-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-marking_language" title="Head-marking language">Head-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">Null-subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_pivot" title="Syntactic pivot">Syntactic pivot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_role" title="Theta role">Theta role</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">Word order</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–object word order">VO languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Subject–verb–object word order">Subject–verb–object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–subject–object word order">Verb–subject–object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Verb–object–subject word order">Verb–object–subject</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Object–verb word order">OV languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">Subject–object–verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Object–subject–verb word order">Object–subject–verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Object–verb–subject word order">Object–verb–subject</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb-initial_word_order" title="Verb-initial word order">V1 word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">V2 word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Object–subject word order">OS word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Free word order">Free word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time%E2%80%93manner%E2%80%93place" title="Time–manner–place">Time–manner–place</a></li> <li>Place–manner–time</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">Color terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">Numerals</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template talk:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Linguistic typology</b> (or <b>language typology</b>) is a field of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Linguistic typology is contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Genealogical_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genealogical (linguistics)">genealogical linguistics</a> on the grounds that typology groups languages or their grammatical features based on formal similarities rather than historic descendence.<sup id="cite_ref-Pioneers_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pioneers-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of genealogical relation is however relevant to typology because modern <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">data sets</a> aim to be representative and unbiased. Samples are collected evenly from different <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a>, emphasizing the importance of lesser-known languages in gaining insight into human language.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Speculations of the existence of a (logical) general or <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal grammar</a> underlying all languages were published in the Middle Ages, especially by the <a href="/wiki/Modistae" title="Modistae">Modistae</a> school. At the time, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> was the model language of linguistics, although transcribing Irish and Icelandic into the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was found problematic. The cross-linguistic dimension of linguistics was established in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period. For example, <i>Grammaticae quadrilinguis partitiones</i> (1544) by Johannes Drosaeus compared French and the three 'holy languages', Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. The approach was expanded by the <a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a> (1660) of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Claude Lancelot</a>, who added Spanish, Italian, German and Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Beauz%C3%A9e" title="Nicolas Beauzée">Nicolas Beauzée</a>'s 1767 book includes examples of English, Swedish, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages" title="Sámi languages">Lappish</a>, Irish, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a>, and Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramat_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramat-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conquest and conversion of the world by Europeans gave rise to 'missionary linguistics' producing first-hand word lists and grammatical descriptions of exotic languages. Such work is accounted for in the 'Catalogue of the Languages of the Populations We Know', 1800, by the Spanish Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Herv%C3%A1s" title="Lorenzo Hervás">Lorenzo Hervás</a>. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_Adelung" title="Johann Christoph Adelung">Johann Christoph Adelung</a> collected the first large language sample with the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's prayer</a> in almost five hundred languages (posthumous 1817).<sup id="cite_ref-Ramat_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramat-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More developed nineteenth-century comparative works include <a href="/wiki/Franz_Bopp" title="Franz Bopp">Franz Bopp</a>'s 'Conjugation System' (1816) and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a>'s 'On the Difference in Human Linguistic Structure and Its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind' (posthumous 1836). In 1818, <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> made a classification of the world's languages into three types: (i) languages lacking grammatical structure, e.g. Chinese; (ii) agglutinative languages, e.g. Turkish; and (iii) inflectional languages, which can be synthetic like Latin and Ancient Greek, or analytic like French. This idea was later developed by others including <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heymann_Steinthal" title="Heymann Steinthal">Heymann Steinthal</a>, Franz Misteli, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Nikolaus_Finck" title="Franz Nikolaus Finck">Franz Nicolaus Finck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pioneers_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pioneers-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word 'typology' was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_der_Gabelentz" title="Georg von der Gabelentz">Georg von der Gabelentz</a> in his <i>Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1891). <a href="/wiki/Louis_Hjelmslev" title="Louis Hjelmslev">Louis Hjelmslev</a> proposed typology as a large-scale empirical-analytical endeavour of comparing grammatical features to uncover the essence of language. Such a project began from the 1961 conference on language universals at <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_Ferry,_New_York" title="Dobbs Ferry, New York">Dobbs Ferry</a>. Speakers included <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett" title="Charles F. Hockett">Charles F. Hockett</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> who proposed forty-five different types of linguistic universals based on his data sets from thirty languages. Greenberg's findings were mostly known from the nineteenth-century grammarians, but his systematic presentation of them would serve as a model for modern typology.<sup id="cite_ref-Pioneers_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pioneers-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Winfred_P._Lehmann" title="Winfred P. Lehmann">Winfred P. Lehmann</a> introduced Greenbergian typological theory to <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a> in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-lehmann_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lehmann-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the twentieth century, typology based on missionary linguistics became centered around <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" title="SIL International">SIL International</a>, which today hosts its catalogue of living languages, <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>, as an online database. The Greenbergian or universalist approach is accounted for by the <a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a>, among others. Typology is also done within the frameworks of functional grammar including <a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional Discourse Grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Role_and_reference_grammar" title="Role and reference grammar">Role and Reference Grammar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic Functional Linguistics</a>. During the early years of the twenty-first century, however, the existence of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">linguistic universals</a> became questioned by linguists proposing <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">evolutionary</a> typology.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Method">Method</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quantitative typology deals with the distribution and co-occurrence of structural patterns in the languages of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major types of non-chance distribution include: </p> <ul><li>preferences (for instance, absolute and implicational <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">universals</a>, semantic maps, and <a href="/wiki/Implicational_hierarchy" title="Implicational hierarchy">hierarchies</a>)</li> <li>correlations (for instance, areal patterns, such as with a <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a>)</li></ul> <p>Linguistic universals are patterns that can be seen cross-linguistically. Universals can either be absolute, meaning that every documented language exhibits this characteristic, or statistical, meaning that this characteristic is seen in most languages or is probable in most languages. Universals, both absolute and statistical can be unrestricted, meaning that they apply to most or all languages without any additional conditions. Conversely, both absolute and statistical universals can be restricted or implicational, meaning that a characteristic will be true on the condition of something else (if Y characteristic is true, then X characteristic is true).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of an <a href="/wiki/Implicational_hierarchy" title="Implicational hierarchy">implicational hierarchy</a> is that dual pronouns are only found in languages with <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural pronouns</a> while <a href="/wiki/Singular_(grammatical_number)" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular (grammatical number)">singular pronouns</a> (or unspecified in terms of number) are found in all languages. The implicational hierarchy is thus <b>singular < plural < dual</b> (etc.). </p><p>Qualitative typology develops cross-linguistically viable notions or types that provide a framework for the description and comparison of languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main subfields of linguistic typology include the empirical fields of syntactic, phonological and lexical typology. Additionally, theoretical typology aims to explain the empirical findings, especially statistical tendencies or implicational hierarchies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntactic_typology">Syntactic typology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Syntactic typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">Word order</a></div> <p>Syntactic typology studies a vast array of grammatical phenomena from the languages of the world. Two well-known issues include dominant order and left-right symmetry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dominant_order">Dominant order</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dominant order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One set of types reflects the basic order of <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a> in sentences: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Object–subject–verb">Object–subject–verb</a> (OSV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Object–verb–subject">Object–verb–subject</a> (OVS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">Subject–verb–object</a> (SVO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">Subject–object–verb</a> (SOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">Verb–subject–object</a> (VSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–object–subject">Verb–object–subject</a> (VOS)</li></ul> <p>These labels usually appear abbreviated as "SVO" and so forth, and may be called "typologies" of the languages to which they apply. The most commonly attested word orders are SOV and SVO while the least common orders are those that are object initial with OVS being the least common with only four attested instances.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1980s, linguists began to question the relevance of geographical distribution of different values for various features of linguistic structure. They may have wanted to discover whether a particular grammatical structure found in one language is likewise found in another language in the same geographic location.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages split verbs into an auxiliary and an infinitive or participle and put the subject and/or object between them. For instance, German (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Ich <b>habe</b> einen Fuchs im Wald <b>gesehen</b></i></span> - *"I have a fox in-the woods seen"), Dutch (<span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Hans <b>vermoedde</b> dat Jan Marie <b>zag leren zwemmen</b></i></span> - *"Hans suspected that Jan Marie saw to learn to swim") and Welsh (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><b>Mae</b>'r gwirio sillafu wedi'i <b>gwblhau</b></i></span> - *"Is the checking spelling after its to complete"). In this case, linguists base the typology on the non-analytic tenses (i.e. those sentences in which the verb is not split) or on the position of the auxiliary. German is thus SVO in main clauses and Welsh is VSO (and preposition phrases would go after the infinitive). </p><p>Many typologists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2017)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> classify both German and Dutch as <a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">V2</a> languages, as the verb invariantly occurs as the second element of a full clause. </p><p>Some languages allow varying degrees of freedom in their constituent order, posing a problem for their classification within the subject–verb–object schema. Languages with bound case markings for nouns, for example, tend to have more flexible word orders than languages where case is defined by position within a sentence or presence of a preposition. For example, in some languages with bound case markings for nouns, such as Language X, varying degrees of freedom in constituent order are observed. These languages exhibit more flexible word orders, allowing for variations like Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure, as in 'The cat ate the mouse,' and Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) structure, as in 'The mouse the cat ate.' To define a basic constituent order type in this case, one generally looks at frequency of different types in declarative affirmative main clauses in pragmatically neutral contexts, preferably with only old referents. Thus, for instance, Russian is widely considered an SVO language, as this is the most frequent constituent order under such conditions—all sorts of variations are possible, though, and occur in texts. In many inflected languages, such as Russian, Latin, and Greek, departures from the default word-orders are permissible but usually imply a shift in focus, an emphasis on the final element, or some special context. In the poetry of these languages, the word order may also shift freely to meet metrical demands. Additionally, freedom of word order may vary within the same language—for example, formal, literary, or archaizing varieties may have different, stricter, or more lenient constituent-order structures than an informal spoken variety of the same language. </p><p>On the other hand, when there is no clear preference under the described conditions, the language is considered to have "flexible constituent order" (a type unto itself). </p><p>An additional problem is that in languages without living speech communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>, linguists have only written evidence, perhaps written in a poetic, formalizing, or archaic style that mischaracterizes the actual daily use of the language.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The daily spoken language of <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> might have exhibited a different or much more regular syntax than their written legacy indicates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Theoretical_issues">Theoretical issues</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theoretical issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The below table indicates the distribution of the dominant word order pattern of over 5,000 individual languages and 366 language families. SOV is the most common type in both although much more clearly in the data of language families including <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>. 'NODOM' represents languages without a single dominant order.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Languages</th> <th>%</th> <th>Families</th> <th>% </th></tr> <tr> <td>SOV</td> <td>2,275</td> <td>43.3%</td> <td>239</td> <td>65.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>SVO</td> <td>2,117</td> <td>40.3%</td> <td>55</td> <td>15% </td></tr> <tr> <td>VSO</td> <td>503</td> <td>9.5%</td> <td>27</td> <td>7.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>VOS</td> <td>174</td> <td>3.3%</td> <td>15</td> <td>4.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>NODOM</td> <td>124</td> <td>2.3%</td> <td>26</td> <td>7.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>OVS</td> <td>40</td> <td>0.7%</td> <td>3</td> <td>0.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>OSV</td> <td>19</td> <td>0.3%</td> <td>1</td> <td>0.3% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Though the reason of dominance is sometimes considered an unsolved or unsolvable typological problem, several explanations for the distribution pattern have been proposed. Evolutionary explanations include those by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Givon" title="Thomas Givon">Thomas Givon</a> (1979), who suggests that all languages stem from an SOV language but are evolving into different kinds; and by <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Derek Bickerton</a> (1981), who argues that the original language was SVO, which supports simpler grammar employing word order instead of case markers to differentiate between clausal roles.<sup id="cite_ref-Song_Order_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song_Order-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Universalist explanations include a model by Russell Tomlin (1986) based on three functional principles: (i) animate before inanimate; (ii) theme before comment; and (iii) verb-object bonding. The three-way model roughly predicts the real hierarchy (see table above) assuming no statistical difference between SOV and SVO, and, also, no statistical difference between VOS and OVS. By contrast, the processing efficiency theory of <a href="/wiki/John_A._Hawkins_(linguist)" title="John A. Hawkins (linguist)">John A. Hawkins</a> (1994) suggests that constituents are ordered from shortest to longest in VO languages, and from longest to shortest in OV languages, giving rise to the attested distribution. This approach relies on the notion that OV languages have heavy subjects, and VO languages have heavy objects, which is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Song_Order_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song_Order-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Left-right_symmetry">Left-right symmetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Left-right symmetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A second major way of syntactic categorization is by excluding the subject from consideration. It is a well-documented typological feature that languages with a dominant OV order (object before verb), Japanese for example, tend to have <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postpositions</a>. In contrast, VO languages (verb before object) like English tend to have <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> as their main <a href="/wiki/Adposition" title="Adposition">adpositional</a> type. Several OV/VO correlations have been uncovered.<sup id="cite_ref-correlations_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-correlations-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Correlation</th> <th>VO languages</th> <th>Example (VO)<sup id="cite_ref-correlations3_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-correlations3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>OV languages </th> <th>Example (OV) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Adposition type</td> <td>prepositions</td> <td><i>of..., than..., on...</i> </td> <td>postpositions </td> <td><i>...of, ...than, ...on</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of noun and genitive</td> <td>noun before genitive</td> <td><i>father</i> + <i>of John</i> </td> <td>genitive before noun </td> <td><i>John-of + father</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of adjective and standard of comparison</td> <td>adjective before standard</td> <td><i>taller</i> + <i>than Bob</i> </td> <td>standard before adjective </td> <td><i>Bob-than + taller</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of verb and adpositional phrase</td> <td>verb before adpositional phrase</td> <td><i>slept</i> + <i>on the floor</i> </td> <td>adpositional phrase before verb </td> <td><i>floor-on + slept</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of verb and manner adverb</td> <td>verb before manner adverb</td> <td><i>ran</i> + <i>slowly</i> </td> <td>manner adverb before verb </td> <td><i>slowly + ran</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of copula and predicative</td> <td>copula before predicate</td> <td><i>is</i> + <i>a teacher</i> </td> <td>predicate before copula </td> <td><i>a teacher + is</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of auxiliary verb and content verb</td> <td>auxiliary before content verb</td> <td><i>want</i> + <i>to see Mary</i> </td> <td>content verb before auxiliary </td> <td><i>Mary see-to + want</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Place of adverbial subordinator in clause</td> <td>clause-initial subordinators</td> <td><i>because</i> + <i>Bob has left</i> </td> <td>clause-final subordinators </td> <td><i>Bob has left-because</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order of noun and relative clause </td> <td>noun before relative clause </td> <td><i>movies</i> + <i>that we saw</i> </td> <td>either </td> <td><i>we-seen + movies</i> or <i>movies we-seen</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Theoretical_issues_2">Theoretical issues</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theoretical issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">processing</a> explanations were proposed in the 1980s and 1990s for the above correlations. They suggest that the brain finds it easier to <a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">parse</a> <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_tree_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic tree diagram">syntactic patterns</a> that are either right or left <a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">branching</a>, but not mixed. The most widely held such explanation is <a href="/wiki/John_A._Hawkins_(linguist)" title="John A. Hawkins (linguist)">John A. Hawkins</a>' parsing efficiency theory, which argues that language is a non-innate <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_system" title="Adaptive system">adaptation</a> to innate <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> mechanisms. Typological tendencies are considered as being based on language users' preference for grammars that are organized efficiently, and on their avoidance of word orderings that cause processing difficulty. Hawkins's processing theory predicts the above table but also makes predictions for non-correlation pairs including the order of adjective, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> and numeral in respect with the noun. This theory was based on <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus</a> research and lacks support in <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistic</a> studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Song_Order_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song_Order-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some languages exhibit regular "inefficient" patterning. These include the VO languages <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Adpositional_phrase" title="Adpositional phrase">adpositional phrase</a> before the verb, and <a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a>, which has postpositions. But there are few other profoundly exceptional languages. It is suggested more recently that the left-right orientation is limited to role-marking connectives (<a href="/wiki/Adpositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Adpositions">adpositions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subordinator_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinator (grammar)">subordinators</a>), stemming directly from the semantic mapping of the sentence. Since the true correlation pairs in the above table either involve such a connective or, arguably, follow from the canonical order, orientation predicts them without making problematic claims.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morphosyntactic_alignment">Morphosyntactic alignment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Morphosyntactic alignment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">Morphosyntactic alignment</a></div> <p>Another common classification distinguishes <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">nominative–accusative</a> alignment patterns and <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive</a> ones. In a language with <a href="/wiki/Noun_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun case">cases</a>, the classification depends on whether the subject (S) of an intransitive verb has the same case as the agent (A) or the patient (P) of a transitive verb. If a language has no cases, but the word order is AVP or PVA, then a classification may reflect whether the subject of an intransitive verb appears on the same side as the agent or the patient of the transitive verb. Bickel (2011) has argued that alignment should be seen as a construction-specific property rather than a language-specific property.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many languages show mixed accusative and ergative behaviour (for example: ergative morphology marking the verb arguments, on top of an accusative syntax). Other languages (called "<a href="/wiki/Active_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active language">active languages</a>") have two types of intransitive verbs—some of them ("active verbs") join the subject in the same case as the agent of a transitive verb, and the rest ("stative verbs") join the subject in the same case as the patient<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (May 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Yet other languages behave ergatively only in some contexts (this "<a href="/wiki/Split_ergativity" title="Split ergativity">split ergativity</a>" is often based on the grammatical person of the arguments or on the tense/aspect of the verb).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, only some verbs in <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> behave this way, and, as a rule, only while using the <a href="/wiki/Perfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective">perfective</a> (aorist). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonological_typology">Phonological typology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonological typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></div> <p>Linguistic typology also seeks to identify patterns in the structure and distribution of sound systems among the world's languages. This is accomplished by surveying and analyzing the relative frequencies of different phonological properties. Exemplary relative frequencies are given below for certain <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">speech sounds formed by obstructing airflow (obstruents)</a>. These relative frequencies show that contrastive voicing commonly occurs with <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosives</a>, as in English <i>neat</i> and <i>need</i>, but occurs much more rarely among <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>, such as the English <i>niece</i> and <i>knees</i>. According to a worldwide sample of 637 languages,<sup id="cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song,_2011-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 62% have the voicing contrast in stops but only 35% have this in fricatives. In the vast majority of those cases, the absence of voicing contrast occurs because there is a lack of voiced fricatives and because all languages have <a href="/wiki/Occlusive" title="Occlusive">some form of plosive (occlusive)</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there are languages with no fricatives. Below is a chart showing the breakdown of voicing properties among languages in the aforementioned sample. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"><i>Fricative Voicing</i></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"><i>Plosive Voicing</i></div> </th> <th>Yes </th> <th>No </th> <th>Total </th></tr> <tr> <td>Yes </td> <td style="text-align: center;">117 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">218 </td> <td>395 (62%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>No </td> <td style="text-align: center;">44 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">198 </td> <td>242 (38%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>221 (35%) </td> <td>416 (65%) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">637 </td></tr></tbody></table><p><sup id="cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song,_2011-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Languages worldwide also vary in the number of sounds they use. These languages can go from very small phonemic inventories (<a href="/wiki/Rotokas_language" title="Rotokas language">Rotokas</a> with six consonants and five vowels) to very large inventories (<a href="/wiki/Taa_language" title="Taa language">!Xóõ</a> with 128 consonants and 28 vowels). An interesting phonological observation found with this data is that the larger a consonant inventory a language has, the more likely it is to contain a sound from a defined set of complex consonants (clicks, glottalized consonants, doubly articulated labial-velar stops, lateral fricatives and affricates, uvular and pharyngeal consonants, and dental or alveolar non-sibilant fricatives). Of this list, only about 26% of languages in a survey<sup id="cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song,_2011-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of over 600 with small inventories (less than 19 consonants) contain a member of this set, while 51% of average languages (19-25) contain at least one member and 69% of large consonant inventories (greater than 25 consonants) contain a member of this set. It is then seen that complex consonants are in proportion to the size of the inventory. </p><p>Vowels contain a more modest number of phonemes, with the average being 5–6, which 51% of the languages in the survey have. About a third of the languages have larger than average vowel inventories. Most interesting though is the lack of relationship between consonant inventory size and vowel inventory size. Below is a chart showing this lack of predictability between consonant and vowel inventory sizes in relation to each other. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Consonant Inventory </th> <th colspan="4">Vowel Quality Inventory </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: center;">Small </td> <td style="text-align: center;">Average </td> <td style="text-align: center;">Large </td> <td style="text-align: center;">Total </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small </td> <td style="text-align: center;">47 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">153 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">65 </td> <td>265 (39%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Average </td> <td style="text-align: center;">34 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">105 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">98 </td> <td>237 (35%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Large </td> <td style="text-align: center;">34 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">87 </td> <td style="text-align: center;">57 </td> <td>178 (26%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>115 (17%) </td> <td>345 (51%) </td> <td>220 (32%) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">680 </td></tr></tbody></table><p><sup id="cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Song,_2011-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:12-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1959" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, Charles A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 6,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.uni-leipzig.de&rft.atitle=What+is+typology%3F+-+a+short+note&rft.aulast=Bickel&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-leipzig.de%2F~bickel%2Fresearch%2Fpapers%2Fmanifesto.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+typology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Legate, J. A. (2008). Morphological and abstract case. <i>Linguistic Inquiry, 39</i>(1), 55-101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fling.2008.39.1.55">10.1162/ling.2008.39.1.55</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Song,_2011-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song,_2011_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Song, J.J. (ed.) (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928125-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928125-1">978-0-19-928125-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">König, W. (ed) <i>dtv Atlas zur deutschen Sprache</i> dtv 1994 <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bisang, W. (2001). Aspects of typology and universals. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-050-03559-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-050-03559-5">3-050-03559-5</a>.</li> <li>Comrie, B. (1989). Language universals and linguistic typology: Syntax and morphology. Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-11433-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-11433-3">0-226-11433-3</a>.</li> <li>Croft, W. (2002). Typology and universals. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 2nd ed. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00499-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00499-3">0-521-00499-3</a>.</li> <li>Cysouw, M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cysouw.de/home/articles_files/cysouwQUANTMETHOD.pdf">Quantitative methods in typology</a>. Quantitative linguistics: an international handbook, ed. by Gabriel Altmann, Reinhard Köhler and R. Piotrowski. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-015578-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-015578-8">3-11-015578-8</a>.</li> <li>Grijzenhout, J. (2009). Phonological domains : universals and deviations. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-110-20540-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-110-20540-8">3-110-20540-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_A._Moravcsik" title="Edith A. Moravcsik">Moravcsik, Edith</a> A. (2013). Introducing language typology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Nichols, J. (1992). <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_diversity_in_space_and_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic diversity in space and time">Linguistic diversity in space and time</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-58057-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-58057-1">0-226-58057-1</a>.</li> <li>Nichols, J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reference-global.com/doi/abs/10.1515/LINGTY.2007.017">What, if anything, is typology?</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> Linguistic Typology. Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages 231–238, ISSN (Online) 1613-415X, ISSN (Print) 1430–0532, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2FLINGTY.2007.017">10.1515/LINGTY.2007.017</a>, July 2007</li> <li>Song, J.J. (2001). Linguistic typology: Morphology and syntax. Harlow and London: Pearson Education (Longman). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-31220-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-31220-5">0-582-31220-5</a>.</li> <li>Song, J.J. (ed.) (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928125-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928125-1">978-0-19-928125-1</a>.</li> <li>Whaley, L.J. (1997). Introduction to typology: The unity and diversity of language. Newbury Park: Sage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8039-5963-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8039-5963-X">0-8039-5963-X</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistic-typology.org/">Association for Linguistic Typology</a></li> <li>Ivan G. Iliev. On the Nature of Grammatical Case, Language Typology, and on the Origin of Cognate Objects and Subjects. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://ivanilievlogosmaster.blogspot.com/2011/11/casetypologyvocativeness.html">[2]</a></li> <li>Plank, F. Themes in Typology: Basic Reading List. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051218182252/http://ling.uni-konstanz.de/pages/home/a20_11/plank/TypoThemesBib%3D2000.pdf">[3]</a></li> <li>Bickel, B. (2001). What is typology? - a short note. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~bickel/research/papers/manifesto.pdf">[4]</a></li> <li>Bickel, B. (2005). Typology in the 21st century: major developments. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~bickel/research/papers/21century_typology_bickel_submitted.pdf">[5]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/ikos/EXFAC03-AAS/h05/larestoff/linguistics/Chapter%204.(H05).pdf">"Linguistic typology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linguistic+typology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uio.no%2Fstudier%2Femner%2Fhf%2Fikos%2FEXFAC03-AAS%2Fh05%2Flarestoff%2Flinguistics%2FChapter%25204.%28H05%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+typology" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(275 <a href="/wiki/Kibibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibibyte">KiB</a>)</span>, chapter 4 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/ikos/EXFAC03-AAS/h05/larestoff/linguistics/">Halvor Eifring & Rolf Theil: <i>Linguistics for Students of Asian and African Languages</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info">World Atlas of Language Structures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/lity">Linguistic Typology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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