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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sense_and_description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sense_and_description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sense and description</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sense_and_description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translation_of_Bedeutung" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translation_of_Bedeutung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Translation of <i>Bedeutung</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translation_of_Bedeutung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Precursors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Precursors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antisthenes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antisthenes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Antisthenes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antisthenes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stoicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stoicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Stoicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stoicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Stuart_Mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>John Stuart Mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung" title="Über Sinn und Bedeutung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Über Sinn und Bedeutung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobre_el_sentido_y_la_referencia" title="Sobre el sentido y la referencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sobre el sentido y la referencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%82" title="معنی و مصداق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معنی و مصداق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens_et_D%C3%A9notation" title="Sens et Dénotation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sens et Dénotation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9C%BB%EA%B3%BC_%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9C%EC%B2%B4" title="뜻과 지시체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뜻과 지시체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%94" title="מובן והוראה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מובן והוראה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frege_nyelvfiloz%C3%B3fi%C3%A1ja" title="Frege nyelvfilozófiája – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Frege nyelvfilozófiája" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over_zin_en_betekenis" title="Over zin en betekenis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Over zin en betekenis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%BE%A9%E3%81%A8%E6%84%8F%E5%91%B3" title="意義と意味 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="意義と意味" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens_i_nominat" title="Sens i nominat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sens i nominat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mieli_ja_merkitys" title="Mieli ja merkitys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mieli ja merkitys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Distinction in the philosophy of language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sinn" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sinn_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sinn (disambiguation)">Sinn (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Signified_and_signifier" title="Signified and signifier">Signified and signifier</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg/360px-Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg/540px-Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg/720px-Ueber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung_Frege_1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption> <i>Die Gleichheit fordert das Nachdenken heraus durch Fragen, die sich daran knüpfen und nicht ganz leicht zu beantworten sind</i>. Equality gives rise to challenging questions, which are not altogether easy to answer.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, the distinction between <b>sense</b> and <b>reference</b> was an idea of the German philosopher and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> in 1892 (in his paper "<b>On Sense and Reference</b>"; German: "Über Sinn und Bedeutung"),<sup id="cite_ref-A_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reflecting the two ways he believed a <a href="/wiki/Singular_term" title="Singular term">singular term</a> may have <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">reference</a> (or "<a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referent</a>"; <i>Bedeutung</i>) of a <i>proper name</i> is the object it means or indicates (<i>bedeuten</i>), whereas its <a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">sense</a> (<i>Sinn</i>) is what the name expresses. The reference of a <i>sentence</i> is its <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a>, whereas its sense is the thought that it expresses.<sup id="cite_ref-A_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frege justified the distinction in a number of ways. </p> <ol><li>Sense is something possessed by a name, whether or not it has a reference. For example, the name "<a href="/wiki/Odysseus" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a>" is intelligible, and therefore has a sense, even though there is no individual object (its reference) to which the name corresponds.</li> <li>The sense of different names is different, even when their reference is the same. Frege argued that if an identity statement such as "<a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">Hesperus</a> is the same planet as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">Phosphorus</a>" is to be informative, the proper names flanking the identity sign must have a different meaning or sense. But clearly, if the statement is true, they must have the same reference.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sense is a 'mode of presentation', which serves to illuminate only a single aspect of the referent.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Much of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> is traceable to Frege's philosophy of language.<sup id="cite_ref-Speaks_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speaks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frege's views on logic (i.e., his idea that some parts of speech are complete by themselves, and are analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Argument_of_a_function" title="Argument of a function">arguments</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">mathematical function</a>) led to his views on a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of reference">theory of reference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Speaks_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speaks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frege developed his original theory of meaning in early works like <i><a href="/wiki/Begriffsschrift" title="Begriffsschrift">Begriffsschrift</a></i> (concept paper) of 1879 and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">Grundlagen</a></i> (Foundations of Arithmetic) of 1884. On this theory, the meaning of a complete sentence consists in its being true or false,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the meaning of each significant expression in the sentence is an extralinguistic entity which Frege called its <i>Bedeutung</i>, literally meaning or significance, but rendered by Frege's translators as reference, referent, 'Meaning', nominatum, etc. Frege supposed that some parts of speech are complete by themselves, and are analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Argument_of_a_function" title="Argument of a function">arguments</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">mathematical function</a>, but that other parts are incomplete, and contain an empty place, by analogy with the function itself.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus "Caesar conquered Gaul" divides into the complete term "Caesar", whose reference is Caesar himself, and the incomplete term "—conquered Gaul", whose reference is a concept. Only when the empty place is filled by a proper name does the reference of the completed sentence – its truth value – appear. This early theory of meaning explains how the significance or reference of a sentence (its truth value) depends on the significance or reference of its parts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sense">Sense</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mengs,_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg/160px-Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg/240px-Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg/320px-Mengs%2C_Hesperus_als_Personifikation_des_Abends.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2157" data-file-height="2350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">Hesperus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Marc_Nattier,_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_(1741).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg/140px-Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg/210px-Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg/280px-Jean-Marc_Nattier%2C_The_Countess_de_Brac_as_Aurora_%281741%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1315" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">Phosphorus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Frege introduced the notion of "sense" (German: <i>Sinn</i>) to accommodate difficulties in his early theory of meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 965">: 965 </span></sup> </p><p>First, if the entire significance of a sentence consists of its truth value, it follows that the sentence will have the same significance if we replace a word of the sentence with one having an identical reference, as this will not change its truth value.<sup id="cite_ref-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reference of the whole is determined by the reference of the parts. If <i>the evening star</i> has the same reference as <i>the morning star</i>, it follows that <i>the evening star is a body illuminated by the Sun</i> has the same truth value as <i>the morning star is a body illuminated by the Sun</i>. But it is possible for someone to think that the first sentence is true while also thinking that the second is false. Therefore, the thought corresponding to each sentence cannot be its reference, but something else, which Frege called its <i>sense</i>. </p><p>Second, sentences that contain proper names with no reference cannot have a truth value at all. Yet the sentence 'Odysseus was set ashore at <a href="/wiki/Homer%27s_Ithaca" title="Homer's Ithaca">Ithaca</a> while sound asleep' obviously has a sense, even though 'Odysseus' has no reference. The thought remains the same whether or not 'Odysseus' has a reference.<sup id="cite_ref-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, a thought cannot contain the objects that it is about. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mont_Blanc" title="Mont Blanc">Mont Blanc</a>, 'with its snowfields', cannot be a component of the thought that Mont Blanc is more than 4,000 metres high. Nor can a thought about <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Etna</a> contain lumps of solidified lava.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frege's notion of sense is somewhat obscure, and neo-Fregeans have come up with different candidates for its role.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounts based on the work of <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Church</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> treat sense as an <a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">intension</a>, or a function from <a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible worlds</a> to <a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">extensions</a>. For example, the intension of ‘number of planets’ is a function that maps any possible world to the number of planets in that world. <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a> supplies cognitive and reference-determining roles.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Devitt" title="Michael Devitt">Michael Devitt</a> treats senses as causal-historical chains connecting names to referents, allowing that repeated "groundings" in an object account for reference change.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sense_and_description">Sense and description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sense and description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">theory of descriptions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> held the view that most proper names in ordinary language are in fact disguised <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a>. For example, 'Aristotle' can be understood as "The pupil of Plato and teacher of Alexander", or by some other uniquely applying description. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">descriptivist theory of names</a>. Because Frege used definite descriptions in many of his examples, he is often taken to have endorsed the descriptivist theory. Thus Russell's theory of descriptions was conflated with Frege's theory of sense, and for most of the twentieth century this "Frege–Russell" view was the orthodox view of proper name semantics. <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> argued influentially against the descriptivist theory, asserting that proper names are <a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">rigid designators</a> which designate the same object in every possible world.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 48–49">: 48–49 </span></sup> Descriptions, however, such as "the President of the U.S. in 1969" do not designate the same entity in every possible world. For example, someone other than <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert H. Humphrey">Hubert H. Humphrey</a>, might have been the President in 1969. Hence a description (or cluster of descriptions) cannot be a rigid designator, and thus a proper name cannot <i>mean</i> the same as a description.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 49">: 49 </span></sup> </p><p>However, the Russellian descriptivist reading of Frege has been rejected by many scholars, in particular by <a href="/wiki/Gareth_Evans_(philosopher)" title="Gareth Evans (philosopher)">Gareth Evans</a> in <i>The Varieties of Reference</i><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a> in "The Sense and Reference of a Proper Name",<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> following <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a>, who argued that Frege's notion of sense should not be equated with a description. Evans further developed this line, arguing that a sense without a referent was not possible. He and McDowell both take the line that Frege's discussion of empty names, and of the idea of sense without reference, are inconsistent, and that his apparent endorsement of descriptivism rests only on a small number of imprecise and perhaps offhand remarks. And both point to the power that the sense-reference distinction <i>does</i> have (i.e., to solve at least the first two problems), even if it is not given a descriptivist reading. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translation_of_Bedeutung">Translation of <i>Bedeutung</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Translation of Bedeutung"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, translators of Frege have rendered the German <i>Bedeutung</i> in various ways. The term 'reference' has been the most widely adopted, but this fails to capture the meaning of the original German ('meaning' or 'significance'), and does not reflect the decision to standardise key terms across different editions of Frege's works published by <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell#Blackwell_Publishing_history" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision was based on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Exegetical_neutrality" title="Exegetical neutrality">exegetical neutrality</a>: that "if at any point in a text there is a passage that raises for the native speaker legitimate questions of <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a>, then, if at all possible, a translator should strive to confront the reader of his version with the same questions of exegesis and not produce a version which in his mind resolves those questions".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term 'meaning' best captures the standard German meaning of <i>Bedeutung</i>. However, while Frege's own use of the term can sound as odd in German for modern readers as when translated into English, the related term <i>deuten</i> does mean 'to point towards'. Though <i>Bedeutung</i> is not usually used with this etymological proximity in mind in German, German speakers can well make sense of <i>Bedeutung</i> as signifying 'reference', in the sense of it being what <i>Bedeutung</i> points, i.e. refers to. Moreover, 'meaning' captures Frege's early use of <i>Bedeutung</i> well,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it would be problematic to translate Frege's early use as 'meaning' and his later use as 'reference', suggesting a change in terminology not evident in the original German. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors">Precursors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Antisthenes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, apparently distinguished "a general object that can be aligned with the meaning of the utterance” from “a particular object of extensional reference". According to Susan Prince, this "suggests that he makes a distinction between sense and reference".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 20">: 20 </span></sup> The principal basis of Prince's claim is a passage in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>' “Comments on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s 'Topics'” with a three-way distinction: </p> <ol><li>the semantic medium, δι' ὧν λέγουσι</li> <li>an object external to the semantic medium, περὶ οὗ λέγουσιν</li> <li>the direct indication of a thing, σημαίνειν ... τὸ ...<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 518–522">: 518–522 </span></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stoicism">Stoicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stoicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> doctrine of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language#Ancient_philosophy" title="Philosophy of language">lekta</a></i></span> refers to a correspondence between speech and the object referred to in speech, as distinct from the speech itself. British classicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sharples_(classicist)" title="Robert Sharples (classicist)">R. W. Sharples</a> cites <i>lekta</i> as an anticipation of the distinction between sense and reference.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 23">: 23 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Stuart_Mill">John Stuart Mill</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: John Stuart Mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sense-reference distinction is commonly confused with that between <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">denotation</a>, which originates with <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Mill, a common term like 'white' <i>denotes</i> all white things, as snow, paper.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11–13">: 11–13 </span></sup> But according to Frege, a common term does not refer to any individual white thing, but rather to an abstract concept (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Begriff" class="extiw" title="wikt:Begriff"><i>Begriff</i></a>). We must distinguish between the relation of reference, which holds between a proper name and the object it refers to, such as between the name 'Earth' and the planet <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and the relation of 'falling under', such as when the Earth falls under the concept <i>planet</i>. The relation of a proper name to the object it designates is direct, whereas a word like 'planet' does not have such a direct relation to the Earth; instead, it refers to a concept under which the Earth falls. Moreover, judging of anything that it falls under this concept is not in any way part of our knowledge of what the word 'planet' means.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between connotation and denotation is closer to that between concept and object than to that between 'sense' and 'reference'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_reference&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-A-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-A_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-A_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Sense and Reference" ["Über Sinn und Bedeutung"], <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Philosophie_und_philosophische_Kritik" title="Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik">Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik</a></i>, vol. 100 (1892), pp. 25–50, esp. p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Sense and Reference", p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Sense and Reference", p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speaks-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Speaks_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Speaks_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeff Speaks, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.nd.edu/~jspeaks/courses/2011-12/83104/handouts/frege-reference.pdf">"Frege's theory of reference"</a> (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gareth Evans, <i>The Varieties of Reference</i>, Oxford: Clarendon 1982, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Function and Concept", p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Cassin" title="Barbara Cassin">Cassin, B.</a>, Apter, E., Lezra, J., & <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Wood (academic)">Wood, M.</a>, eds., <i>Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon</i> (<a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UXP5AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA965&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 965</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-On_Sense_and_Reference,_p._32_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Sense and Reference", p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Frege's undated letter to <a href="/wiki/Philip_Jourdain" title="Philip Jourdain">Philip Jourdain</a>, published in <i>Frege's Philosophical and Mathematical Correspondence</i>, ed. Gottfried Gabriel, Hans Hermes, Friedrich Kanbartel, Christian Thiel and Albet Veraart, transl. Hans Kaal, Oxford: Blackwell 1980. (See also Frege's letter to Russell dated 1904, in the same collection.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cumming, S., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/names/">Entry on Names</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Meaning_and_Necessity" title="Meaning and Necessity">Meaning and Necessity</a></i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“A Formulation of the Logic of Sense and Denotation”, in P. Henle, M. Kallen, and S. K. Langer, eds., <i>Structure, Method, and Meaning</i>, New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1951</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDowell, J., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CZ1zeQAFT8C&pg=PA171&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">“On the Sense and Reference of a Proper Name”</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)"><i>Mind</i></a>, 86: 159–85, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Devitt, M., <i>Designation</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kripke, S. A., <i>Naming and Necessity</i> (Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 1980), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9vvAlOBfq0kC&pg=PA48&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">pp. 48-49</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kripke, S. A., <i>Naming and Necessity</i> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9vvAlOBfq0kC&pg=PA49&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 49</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEvans1982" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Gareth (1982). John McDowell (ed.). <i>The Varieties of Reference</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Varieties+of+Reference&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASense+and+reference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell1977" class="citation journal cs1">McDowell, John (April 1977). "On the Sense and Reference of a Proper Name". <i>Mind</i>. New Series. <b>86</b> (342).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=On+the+Sense+and+Reference+of+a+Proper+Name&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=342&rft.date=1977-04&rft.aulast=McDowell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASense+and+reference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to M. Beaney (ed., <i>The Frege Reader</i>, Oxford: Blackwell 1997, p. 36) 'the decision was taken at a meeting in the early 1970s attended by Michael Dummett, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Kneale" title="William Kneale">William Kneale</a>, Roger White and a representative from Blackwell. The translation of <i>Bedeutung</i> by 'meaning' was unanimously agreed after lengthy discussion'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Long, P. and White, A., 'On the Translation of Frege's <i>Bedeutung</i>: A Reply to Dr. Bell', <i>Analysis</i> 40 pp. 196-202, 1980, p. 196. See also Bell, D., "On the Translation of Frege's <i>Bedeutung</i>", <i>Analysis</i> Vol. 40, No. 4 (Oct., 1980), pp. 191-195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beaney, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrince2015" class="citation book cs1">Prince, S. H. (2015). <i>Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antisthenes+of+Athens%3A+Texts%2C+Translations%2C+and+Commentary&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Prince&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASense+and+reference" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i8IhCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20">p. 20</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prince 2015, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i8IhCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA518">pp. 518–522</a> (Antisthenes' literary remains: t. 153B.1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. W. Sharples (1996), <i>Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i>. Routledge, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KlmKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">p. 23</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See section §5 of Book I, Chapter II of Mill's <a href="/wiki/A_System_of_Logic" title="A System of Logic">A System of Logic</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Remmelt_de_Jong" class="extiw" title="nl:Willem Remmelt de Jong">Jong, W. R. de</a>, <i>The Semantics of John Stuart Mill</i> (<a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>: <a href="/wiki/D._Reidel" title="D. Reidel">D. Reidel</a>, 1982), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2gqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">pp. 11–13</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frege, A Critical Elucidation of Some Points in E. Schroeder's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P95LAAAAYAAJ"><i>Vorlesungen Ueber Die Algebra der Logik</i></a>, <i>Archiv für systematische Philosophie</i> 1895, pp. 433-456, transl. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">P. T. Geach</a>, in Geach & <a href="/wiki/Max_Black" title="Max Black">Black</a> pp. 86-106.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy286" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy286" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality32" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Formal_semantics" title="Template talk:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul> 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