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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg/220px-BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg/330px-BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg/440px-BL_MS_Royal_14_C_VII_f.8v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>England's four Norman kings depicted in <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" title="Matthew Paris">Matthew Paris</a>' 13th century <i>Historia Anglorum</i>. Row 1: William I and William II. Row 2: Henry I and Stephen.</figcaption></figure> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066 to the death of <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">King John</a> in 1216, England was governed by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a> dynasties. The Norman kings preserved and built upon the institutions of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon government">Anglo-Saxon government</a>. They also introduced new institutions, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Feudalism_in_England" title="Feudalism in England">feudalism</a>. For later developments in English government, see <a href="/wiki/Government_in_late_medieval_England" title="Government in late medieval England">Government in late medieval England</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_II,_Plantagenet_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Henry_II%2C_Plantagenet_Empire.png/220px-Henry_II%2C_Plantagenet_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Henry_II%2C_Plantagenet_Empire.png 1.5x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>The Angevin Empire during the reign of Henry II</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1066–1087</span>) inherited a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon government">Anglo-Saxon government</a>. He gradually replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy with <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Normans</a> and introduced <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> to England. Nevertheless, government institutions remained essentially unchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201628–29_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201628–29-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Conqueror's sons, <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">William II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1087–1100</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1100–1135</span>), succeeded him. Henry died without a legitimate male heir.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980123_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980123-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Henry designated his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Empress_Matilda" title="Empress Matilda">Empress Matilda</a>, as his successor, but his nephew <a href="/wiki/Stephen,_King_of_England" title="Stephen, King of England">Stephen</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1135–1154</span>) claimed the throne. The resulting civil war, known as <a href="/wiki/The_Anarchy" title="The Anarchy">the Anarchy</a>, weakened royal authority and ended in a negotiated settlement whereby Matilda's son succeeded Stephen as <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980123–126_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980123–126-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henry was the first <a href="/wiki/Angevin_king_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Angevin king of England">Angevin king of England</a>, followed by his sons <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a> and <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John</a>. The Angevin kings ruled over extensive possessions in the British Isles and France, known as the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>. </p><p>As a result of their cross-Channel empires, the Norman and Angevin kings spent little time in England. This situation did not change until the reign of King John, who lost most of his French lands. John was the first English king since the Conquest to spend large amounts of time in England; however, his tyrannical behavior turned the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_baron" title="Feudal baron">barons</a> against him. They forced John to agree to <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, which would have critical constitutional implications for England's late medieval government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Feudalism">Feudalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Feudalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Feudalism_in_England" title="Feudalism in England">Feudalism in England</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law#Land_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon land law</a> recognised several types of land tenure. <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">Bookland</a> was property granted by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">charter</a> to a person with outright ownership, while loanland was leased temporarily. For a <a href="/wiki/Benefice" title="Benefice">benefice</a>, the recipient (such as a parish priest) was granted the income from the property without having ownership. These forms of land tenure created weak bonds between lords and <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a> that were constantly being dissolved and reformed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198712_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198712-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Normans introduced feudalism, which created stronger and multi-generational ties between lords and vassals and became the basis of <a href="/wiki/History_of_English_land_law" title="History of English land law">English land law</a>. William the Conqueror claimed ownership of all land in England,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making all Englishmen directly or indirectly tenants of the Crown. He confiscated estates wholly owned by Anglo-Saxon lords and granted them to his Norman followers as <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fiefs</a>. The king granted the use of a fief to his vassal and the vassal's heirs in return for <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">homage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a>, and specified service (such as <a href="/wiki/Knight-service" title="Knight-service">knight-service</a>). The fief-holder was a tenant, not the owner of the fief. He could not sell the land or give it away; however, he could sub-let land to his tenants in return for their service in a process called <a href="/wiki/Subinfeudation" title="Subinfeudation">subinfeudation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198712–13,_15_&_55_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198712–13,_15_&_55-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vassals who held land directly from the Crown were called <a href="/wiki/Tenants-in-chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenants-in-chief">tenants-in-chief</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, the king had around 500 tenants-in-chief. Of these, 170 were wealthy enough to be considered <a href="/wiki/English_feudal_barony" title="English feudal barony">feudal barons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980143_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980143-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tenants-in-chief were obligated to fight personally for the king, but they also had to contribute <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a> to the king's service. A knight's estate was called a <a href="/wiki/Knight%27s_fee" title="Knight's fee">knight's fee</a>, and It was large enough to support one knight in return for 40 days of military service a year. Besides knight-service, land could also be held in return for non-military service (called <a href="/wiki/Serjeanty" title="Serjeanty">serjeanty</a>). Some church land was held by knight-service, while other property was held by <a href="/wiki/Frankalmoign" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankalmoign">frankalmoign</a> (the obligation to pray and say <a href="/wiki/Votive_Mass" title="Votive Mass">masses for the lord's soul</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630–31_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a lord failed to uphold his responsibilities to his vassals (to protect his vassals and fairly exercise his feudal rights), a vassal could renounce his fealty through the ritual act of defiance known as diffidation (Latin: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">diffidatio</i></span>). Armed rebellion against the king, therefore, was not <a href="/wiki/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="High treason in the United Kingdom">treason</a> as long as the baron had made diffidation. Loss of land held from the king was the only consequence, but most rebellious barons were restored to royal favour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201631_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201631-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crown">Crown</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Crown"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Becoming_king">Becoming king</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Becoming king"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this period, a king had greater latitude to determine his own successor. <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">Primogeniture</a> (the rule that the eldest son inherits) was not yet definitive. William the Conqueror became king by <a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">right of conquest</a>, and he could dispose of England as he saw fit. For this reason, his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curthose" title="Robert Curthose">Robert Curthose</a>, inherited the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> as was customary, while his second oldest son, <a href="/wiki/William_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rufus">William Rufus</a>, was given England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A king's nominated heir was not always accepted, especially when the heir was female.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1116, Henry I required the barons to swear fealty to his son, <a href="/wiki/William_Adelin" title="William Adelin">William Adelin</a>. After William's death on the <i><a href="/wiki/White_Ship" class="mw-redirect" title="White Ship">White Ship</a></i>, Henry designated his daughter, Empress Matilda, as his heir and made the barons swear fealty to her on three occasions. In 1133, Henry designated Matilda's infant son, Henry FitzEmpress, as his heir and required the barons to swear fealty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980139_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980139-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matilda was unpopular both for being a woman and because she was married to <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Plantagenet,_Count_of_Anjou" title="Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou">Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou</a>—Normandy's enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett20009_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett20009-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Henry I died, Matilda's cousin, <a href="/wiki/Stephen,_King_of_England" title="Stephen, King of England">Stephen of Blois</a>, won support for his accession by making concessions to various barons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980139_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980139-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil war between Stephen and Matilda ended after Stephen adopted Henry FitzEmpress, later Henry II, as his son and heir. In the process, Stephen's own sons were disinherited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett200010_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett200010-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard I initially nominated as heir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur of Brittany">Arthur of Brittany</a>, his nephew. After Arthur fell into the French king's custody, Richard decided that his brother John would inherit the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At times, Norman kings claimed election as a "useful fiction" to bolster their legitimacy. Henry I had himself elected by a small group of barons at <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> after his older brother, William Rufus, died in a hunting accident. This hurried election was part of Henry's attempt to bypass his elder brother Robert's claims to the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138–140_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138–140-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interregnum_and_coronation">Interregnum and coronation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interregnum and coronation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez,_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg/220px-Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg/330px-Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg/440px-Richard_L%C3%B6wenhez%2C_Salbung_zum_K%C3%B6nig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="1723" /></a><figcaption>Richard I being anointed during his coronation in Westminster Abbey as depicted in a 13th century chronicle</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_British_monarch" title="Coronation of the British monarch">Coronation of the British monarch</a></div> <p>Henry II added "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">dei gratia</i></span>" (Latin for "<a href="/wiki/By_the_grace_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="By the grace of God">by the grace of God</a>") to the <a href="/wiki/Style_of_the_British_sovereign" title="Style of the British sovereign">royal style</a>, but the idea that kings rule by divine sanction was much older.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140,_note_1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140,_note_1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, no one could be called a king until he received coronation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980140_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980140-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before coronation, he was a feudal prince styled "Lord of the English". King John illustrated this practice by using the title "<a href="/wiki/Lord_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord of Ireland">Lord of Ireland</a>" rather than "King of Ireland", as he was never crowned in Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198719_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198719-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The time between the death of the previous monarch and a coronation was called an <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a>. These lasted a month on average but could be shorter or longer based on political circumstances. It lasted only three days between the death of William Rufus and the crowning of Henry I, who wanted to secure the throne for himself while his elder brother Robert Curthose was in Normandy. The political uncertainty during an interregnum meant it could be dangerous for the country. The kings of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval France">medieval France</a> avoided interregnums by practicing <a href="/wiki/Coregency" title="Coregency">coregency</a>, where kings had their heirs crowned as co-kings. Coregency occurred in medieval England only once when Henry II had his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Young_King" title="Henry the Young King">Henry the Young King</a>, crowned co-king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123–125_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123–125-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> crowned English kings at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>. As part of the ceremony, the king swore a three-fold oath to protect the church and Christian people, to prohibit crime, and to rule with justice and mercy. The clergy and people present were then asked by a bishop if they wanted him as king, to which they replied, "we wish it and grant it". The king was then <a href="/wiki/Anointed" class="mw-redirect" title="Anointed">anointed</a> with <a href="/wiki/Chrism" title="Chrism">chrism</a>, symbolizing the <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_character" title="Sacramental character">sacramental character</a> of kingship. After the anointing, he was crowned. The physical crown worn by kings symbolized all of the king's rights <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">The Crown</a>)</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123_&_125_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123_&_125-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tradition of the coronation oath acknowledged that monarchs owed certain obligations to their subjects in return for obedience. Henry I further developed this concept, promising to reform William Rufus's abuses and restore the good laws of <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> and William the Conqueror. He also promised to demand only those <a href="/wiki/Feudal_duties" title="Feudal duties">feudal duties</a> established by custom. These promises were confirmed in the <a href="/wiki/Coronation_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation Charter">Coronation Charter</a> (also known as the Charter of Liberties). Stephen issued similar charters, and Henry II reconfirmed his grandfather's charter. While Norman and Angevin kings tended to break the promises in the charters, they provided the barons with political precedents in their struggle with King John, ultimately producing Magna Carta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980140–141_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980140–141-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rights_and_authority">Rights and authority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rights and authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Bryce Lyon</a> described the Norman kings as <a href="/wiki/Autocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocrat">autocrats</a> and "masters almost without limitation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_&_141_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_&_141-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_legibus_et_consuetudinibus_regni_Anglie" title="Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Anglie">Glanvill</a> legal treatise, written during the reign of Henry II, states "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem</i></span>" (in English "what pleases the prince has the force of law").<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the coronation oath and charters provided theoretical limits to the king's powers, these promises were often broken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980141–142_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980141–142-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king enjoyed an extensive <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom">royal prerogative</a>. He could arbitrarily levy taxes (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Royal_income">below</a></span>) and enact new legislation with or without the advice and approval of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Curia_Regis">below</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980150_&_162_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980150_&_162-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Anglo-Saxon kings had issued formal law codes, but Anglo-Norman legislation took the form of royal edicts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198757_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198757-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king had authority over the coinage and the "king's highway" (major roads). He could not be sued and had exclusive jurisdiction over certain crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000122_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000122-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a feudal lord, the king had certain rights and powers over his vassals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000121_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000121-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His tenants-in-chief owed him military service or <a href="/wiki/Scutage" title="Scutage">scutage</a> payments. In addition to non-feudal taxation, the barons paid the king customary feudal payments called <a href="/wiki/Feudal_relief" title="Feudal relief">reliefs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feudal_aid" title="Feudal aid">aids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630–32_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630–32-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preventing the king from abusing these feudal rights was one of the goals of Magna Carta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000164_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000164-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_administration">Central administration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Central administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chief_Justiciar">Chief Justiciar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chief Justiciar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Justiciar" title="Justiciar">Justiciar</a></div> <p>Since Norman kings spent most of their time in Normandy, appointing agents to govern England in their absence became necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201637_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201637-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1109, Henry I appointed <a href="/wiki/Roger_of_Salisbury" title="Roger of Salisbury">Roger of Salisbury</a> the first <a href="/wiki/Chief_justiciar" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief justiciar">chief justiciar</a>. It remained the most powerful office under the king throughout the Norman and Angevin periods until it was abolished in 1234.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963155_&_159_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963155_&_159-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chief justiciar functioned as the king's <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_chief_ministers" title="List of English chief ministers">chief minister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> with particular responsibility over financial and legal matters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201637_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201637-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He supervised the royal household and the <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">exchequer</a>. As chief royal justice, he directed the procedures of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Curia_Regis">below</a></span>) and the itinerant justices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980154_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980154-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The justiciar's authority continued even during an interregnum. Historians <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gerald_Richardson" title="Henry Gerald Richardson">H. G. Richardson</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._O._Sayles" title="G. O. Sayles">G. O. Sayles</a> theorise "that in some way royal authority resided in the justiciar" during an interregnum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963151–152_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963151–152-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_household">Royal household</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Royal household"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal Households of the United Kingdom">Royal Households of the United Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg/220px-Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg/330px-Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg/440px-Henry_II_second_seal_-_combined.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>The Great Seal of Henry II. On one side, the king is seated as lawgiver and judge. On the reverse, he is mounted and armed as a warrior-king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey2010179_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey2010179-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The king and his court were <a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">itinerant</a> during this period. Not only did kings divide their time between England and Normandy, but within England, kings constantly traveled throughout the kingdom with the small council (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Small_council">below</a></span>) and the royal household staff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980155_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980155-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King John's household, for example, moved an average of 13 times a month.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000133_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000133-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important household department was the <a href="/wiki/Chancery_(medieval_office)" title="Chancery (medieval office)">chancery</a> (writing office). The <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">chancellor</a> led the chancery and had custody of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_Realm" title="Great Seal of the Realm">great seal</a>. The master of the writing office assisted him. Once the chancery produced a royal document, the chancellor affixed the great seal to it in the presence of royal witnesses. The Normans continued to issue <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">charters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writs</a> like the Anglo-Saxons, but they also combined elements of both into the writ-charter. Under the Angevins, the writ-charter developed into <a href="/wiki/Letters_close" title="Letters close">letters close</a> and <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent_(United_Kingdom)" title="Letters patent (United Kingdom)">letters patent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980156–157_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980156–157-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Anglo-Saxon kings, all revenue was received and disbursed by the king's chamber and <a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_(government)" title="Wardrobe (government)">wardrobe</a>. The chamber, like the rest of the household, was itinerant. Under the Normans, the chamber continued to serve as the household's financial department, but a <a href="/wiki/Lord_Great_Chamberlain" title="Lord Great Chamberlain">master chamberlain</a> now led it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exchequer">Exchequer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Exchequer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipe_roll_1194.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a hand written medieval pipe roll, with a handwritten list of entries and a formal stamp in the centre of the document" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipe_roll_1194.jpg/220px-Pipe_roll_1194.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipe_roll_1194.jpg/330px-Pipe_roll_1194.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipe_roll_1194.jpg/440px-Pipe_roll_1194.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1139" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>A pipe roll, part of the increasingly sophisticated system of royal governance at the turn of the 13th century</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">Exchequer</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1042–1066</span>) established a stationary <a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">treasury</a> at Winchester to store surplus wealth. During the reign of Henry I, the treasury became independent of the chamber and controlled royal finances. It received and disbursed most royal income and provided the chamber with funds. A <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer" title="Lord High Treasurer">treasurer</a> and assistant clerks staffed the treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometime in Henry's reign, the treasury was moved to <a href="/wiki/Norman_and_Medieval_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman and Medieval London">London</a> and absorbed into the exchequer, named for the checkered cloth used as an <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>. The exchequer became the government's primary financial department. It gave the chamber the money to pay for the government's operations and the <a href="/wiki/Privy_purse" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy purse">privy purse</a>. The lower exchequer or "exchequer of receipt" was the London treasury. It was staffed by the treasurer, two chamberlains, and other minor officials. Sheriffs paid county revenues to the lower exchequer. Financial records were kept on <a href="/wiki/Pipe_roll" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipe roll">pipe rolls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The upper exchequer or <a href="/wiki/Exchequer_of_Pleas" title="Exchequer of Pleas">Court of Exchequer</a> was an auditing board that examined the sheriffs' accounts each Easter and <a href="/wiki/Michaelmas" title="Michaelmas">Michaelmas</a>. The chief justiciar presided over the exchequer court. The chancellor and several <a href="/wiki/Barons_of_the_exchequer" class="mw-redirect" title="Barons of the exchequer">barons of the exchequer</a> also sat on the court. The barons were selected from among royal court and household officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963164_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963164-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_income">Royal income</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Royal income"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The king's primary sources of revenue were <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown lands</a> (40 per cent), income from feudal rights (16 per cent), taxation (14 per cent), and profits of justice (12 per cent).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the king technically owned all land in England, the land kept directly under royal control (rather than granted to others as fiefs) was called Crown land or the royal <a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a>. According to Domesday Book, over 10 per cent of each county was royal demesne. In four counties, over 30 per cent of the land belonged to the king. This land generated income from peasant rents and the sale of crops and livestock. The king delegated supervision of <a href="/wiki/Royal_manor" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal manor">royal manors</a> in each county to the <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriff</a>. The sheriff collected the income and paid the Crown a yearly fixed sum known as the county "farm".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201689_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201689-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of the Crown lands changed as land was alienated or newly acquired. Kings gave away land as a form of patronage. They received land through confiscations, <a href="/wiki/Escheat" title="Escheat">escheat</a>, and temporarily through <a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">wardship</a> of under-aged heirs (the king received the estate's income until the heir reached adulthood). Like any other feudal lord, the king had the right to levy a <a href="/wiki/Tallage" title="Tallage">tallage</a> on the serfs and townsmen of his demesne. The king could also demand tallage from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England_(1066%E2%80%931290)" title="History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)">English Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000161–162_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000161–162-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king's barons were obligated to pay him a <a href="/wiki/Feudal_aid" title="Feudal aid">feudal aid</a> when he knighted his son, married off his daughter, or had to be ransomed. When a baron died, his heir had to pay the king a <a href="/wiki/Feudal_relief" title="Feudal relief">feudal relief</a> before he could inherit. As a feudal lord, the king was entitled to the military service of his vassals. But this could be replaced with a money payment called <a href="/wiki/Scutage" title="Scutage">scutage</a>. Levies became more frequent in the Angevin period. By the reign of King John, scutage was being levied every 18 months.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000163–164_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000163–164-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings could also levy a universal land tax called the <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">geld</a>. Under the Normans, it was usually levied annually at two shillings per <a href="/wiki/Hide_(unit)" title="Hide (unit)">hide</a>. In 1130, it brought in £2,400. Collection of the geld was discontinued after 1162. In 1194, the government needed a large sum of money to <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England#Captivity,_ransom_and_return" title="Richard I of England">ransom Richard I</a>. It revived the land tax in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Carucage" title="Carucage">carucage</a>. This tax was levied five more times until 1224. In 1220, two shillings per hide produced £3,400.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000165–166_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000165–166-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1166, a new, more complex method of taxation was introduced to fund the Crusade. It taxed a percentage of movable property ("movables") and income. Similar taxes were collected in 1185 and 1188. The 1188 tax was known as the <a href="/wiki/Saladin_tithe" title="Saladin tithe">Saladin tithe</a> because people were ordered to pay a tenth of all income and movables. Later, a 25 percent tax on movables and income was levied for Richard's ransom. John used this tax on several occasions. In 1207, he levied a "thirteenth" (8 percent) tax and collected £60,000. This was an extraordinary amount especially considering that John's ordinary revenue was only about £35,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000166–167_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000166–167-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings also made money from their judicial role. Writs could only be had for a fee. The Crown also made money from fines and forfeitures in criminal cases. Fines for violations of the Forest Law were also profitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000168–170_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000168–170-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Curia_Regis">Curia Regis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Curia Regis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">Curia regis</a></div> <p>Since the unification of England in the 10th century, kings had convened national councils of lay <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a> and leading churchmen. The Anglo-Saxons called such councils <a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">witans</a>. These councils were an important way for kings to maintain ties with powerful men in distant regions of the country. The witan had a role in making and promulgating legislation as well as making decisions concerning war and peace. They were also the venues for <a href="/wiki/State_trials" title="State trials">state trials</a>, such as the trial of <a href="/wiki/Earl_Godwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Earl Godwin">Earl Godwin</a> in 1051.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20093–4_&_8_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20093–4_&_8-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a>, the king received council from his <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "king's court"). Some chroniclers continued to refer to the curia as a witan, and there were similarities between the two institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980142_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980142-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> assisted the king on a permanent basis. Kings periodically enlarged the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> by summoning large numbers of barons and bishops to discuss important national business and promulgate legislation. The enlarged <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> was called a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Magnum_concilium" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum concilium">magnum concilium</a></i></span> (Latin for "great council").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198620_&_23_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198620_&_23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_council">Small council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Small council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The small <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> was a permanent council that assisted the king with routine government business. Members included the justiciar and household officers (chancellor, chamberlain, seneschal, butler, and clerics). In addition, there were always a few bishops and barons who were valued advisers to the king. It witnessed the granting of royal charters, oversaw royal finances, and supervised local officers. The small council decided litigation, and local cases frequently came before it as it traveled with the king. The king could enact laws through the small council but was not required to.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980148–150_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980148–150-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_council">Great council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Great council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnum_Concilium" title="Magnum Concilium">Magnum Concilium</a></div> <p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> was a feudal court. As tenants-in-chief, <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earls</a>, barons, <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbots</a> owed their lord the king their attendance and advice when summoned to his court. Royal household officers such as the chancellor, chamberlain, marshal, and constable attended as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980142_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980142-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Norman era, the largest attendance at these great councils was 75. The average attendance was 50. While some barons always attended, the composition varied each time the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia</i></span> met, depending on who received a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_summons" title="Writ of summons">writ of summons</a> from the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980143_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980143-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great council met regularly at Easter, <a href="/wiki/Whitsuntide" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitsuntide">Whitsuntide</a>, and Christmas. It was assembled at other times when necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980144_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980144-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Great councils allowed kings to consult with their leading subjects, but such consultation rarely resulted in a change in royal policy. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Judith_Green_(historian)" title="Judith Green (historian)">Judith Green</a>, "these assemblies were more concerned with ratification and publicity than with debate".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198623_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198623-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Bryce Lyon argued that great councils were used as royal propaganda. Kings did not need the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia's</i></span> permission to enact legislation, but they occasionally sought its assent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980145-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Constitutions_of_Clarendon" title="Constitutions of Clarendon">Constitutions of Clarendon</a>, for example, were produced at the <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Palace" title="Clarendon Palace">Clarendon</a> council of 1164.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20095_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20095-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> could authorise the collection of customary <a href="/wiki/Feudal_aid" title="Feudal aid">feudal aids</a>. For example, it granted an aid for the marriage of Henry I's daughter Matilda to <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Henry_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Henry V">Emperor Henry V</a> of Germany. Nevertheless, it had no power over nonfeudal taxation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980145-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and kings levied geld whenever they wished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">magnum concilium</i></span> continued to be the setting of state trials, such as the <a href="/wiki/Becket_controversy" title="Becket controversy">trial of Thomas Becket</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20094–5_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20094–5-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also tried civil disputes between the great men of the realm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980145-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The years between 1189 and 1215 were a time of transition for the great council. The cause of this transition were new financial burdens imposed by the Crown to finance the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England#Captivity,_ransom_and_return" title="Richard I of England">ransom Richard I</a>, and pay for the series of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_Wars" title="Anglo-French Wars">Anglo-French wars</a> fought between the <a href="/wiki/Capetian%E2%80%93Plantagenet_rivalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry">Plantagenet and Capetian dynasties</a>. In 1188, a precedent was established when the great council granted Henry II the Saladin tithe. In granting this tax, the great council was acting as representatives for all taxpayers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The likelihood of resistance to national taxes made consent politically necessary. It was convenient for kings to present the great council as a representative body capable of consenting on behalf of all within the kingdom. Increasingly, the kingdom was described as the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">communitas regni</i></span> (Latin for "community of the realm") and the barons as their natural representatives. But this development also created more conflict between kings and the <a href="/wiki/Baronage" title="Baronage">baronage</a> as the latter attempted to defend what they considered the rights belonging to the king's subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott2010123_&_140–143_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott2010123_&_140–143-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John's reign saw the first issuance of <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>. Clause 12 was the origin of the principle of "<a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">no taxation without representation</a>". Clause 12 stated that certain taxes could only be levied "through the common counsel of our kingdom", and clause 14 specified that this common counsel was to come from bishops, earls, and barons.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_government">Local government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Local government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_England" title="History of local government in England">History of local government in England</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counties">Counties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Counties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png/220px-EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png/330px-EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png/440px-EnglandAdminstrativeMap1086.png 2x" data-file-width="4712" data-file-height="5895" /></a><figcaption>England in 1086 showing hundreds, wapentakes and wards</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the Conquest, the largest and most important unit of local government was the <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">shire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980166-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shire system covered all of England except the far north. A shire was governed by the <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriff</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>. The Normans left this system largely unchanged,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they called the shire a <a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">county</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980166-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Normans extended the shire system into the north. The counties of <a href="/wiki/Rutland" title="Rutland">Rutland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westmorland" title="Westmorland">Westmorland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Palatine_of_Durham" title="County Palatine of Durham">Durham</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a> were created after the Conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> England was ultimately divided into 39 counties, which existed with only minor boundary changes until 1974 when the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a> went into effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000147_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000147-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sheriff was appointed by the king and served at his pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His jobs included:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980169–170_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980169–170-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Presiding over the county court</li> <li>Presiding over the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred court">hundred courts</a> (often represented by a subordinate)</li> <li>Empaneling <a href="/wiki/Juries" class="mw-redirect" title="Juries">juries</a> to supply information for the king or to determine judicial facts</li> <li>Law enforcement (enforce court decisions, maintain order, assist the <a href="/wiki/Hue_and_cry" title="Hue and cry">hue and cry</a>, and make arrests)</li> <li>Chief military officer of the county</li> <li>Arranged transportation and provided guards to protect the king when he visited the county</li> <li>Sometimes acted as custodian of the royal castle</li> <li>Executed royal writs</li> <li>Collected taxes and fines</li> <li>Supervised royal lands and collected the county farm <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">(see <a href="#Royal_income">above</a>)</span></li></ul> <p>Once a sheriff paid the county farm to the exchequer, he kept any excess revenue derived from royal lands. This made being sheriff financially rewarding and motivated men to pay for the office. Sheriffs were chosen from the ranks of barons, royal administrators, or local <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">gentry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149–150_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149–150-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first two Norman kings typically chose sheriffs from among the local barons, and shrievalties were in danger of becoming inherited offices. This trend was reversed under Henry I, who preferred his sheriffs to be clerks or knights drawn either from the royal household or the local civil service. These men were more loyal since they owed their success solely to royal patronage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961197_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961197-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980167–168_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980167–168-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Palatine_counties" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine counties">palatine counties</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_Palatine_of_Durham" title="County Palatine of Durham">Durham</a>) enjoyed autonomy from royal control because they were located along the Welsh or Scottish borders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980166-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other things, the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Chester" title="Earl of Chester">earl of Chester</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Durham" title="Bishop of Durham">bishop of Durham</a> appointed their own sheriffs. Kings sometimes granted counties to relatives for short periods. For example, Henry I gave his wife <a href="/wiki/Adeliza_of_Louvain" title="Adeliza of Louvain">Adeliza</a> the county of <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>. Henry's illegitimate son, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_de_Dunstanville,_Earl_of_Cornwall" title="Reginald de Dunstanville, Earl of Cornwall">Reginald de Dunstanville</a>, was given Cornwall with the title of <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Cornwall" title="Earl of Cornwall">earl of Cornwall</a>. Richard I gave his brother John six counties, but these were forfeited due to John's rebellion in 1194.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000148_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000148-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boroughs">Boroughs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Boroughs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_borough" title="Ancient borough">Ancient borough</a></div> <p>At the time of the Conquest, England was highly urbanised compared to other parts of Europe, even though only ten per cent of people lived in towns. The only legally recognised towns were the boroughs. Each county had at least one, which became the <a href="/wiki/County_town" title="County town">county town</a>. It served as the sheriff's headquarters and was often the <a href="/wiki/Bishop%27s_seat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop's seat">bishop's seat</a>. Half a dozen towns could be called cities, the largest being <a href="/wiki/Norman_and_Medieval_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman and Medieval London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_York" title="History of York">York</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>. London enjoyed self-government and was treated more like a shire than a town.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19874–5_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19874–5-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the reign of Richard I, London was recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">commune</a> and the office of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London" title="Lord Mayor of London">Lord Mayor</a> was created.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196339_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196339-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Royal boroughs were part of the royal demesne, paid dues to the Crown, and received many privileges from the king. There were also <a href="/wiki/Seignorial_borough" class="mw-redirect" title="Seignorial borough">seignorial boroughs</a> and monastic boroughs. These were part of the demesne of lords or religious houses, and they received fewer privileges as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196335_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196335-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19874_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19874-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hundreds">Hundreds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hundreds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Counties were divided into 628 smaller units called <a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">hundreds</a>. The hundred court met every two to four weeks and was attended by local landholders. Twice a year the hundred court met with the sheriff presiding to ensure that every free adult male was part of a <a href="/wiki/Tithing" title="Tithing">tithing</a>. Members of a tithing were collectively responsible for one another's conduct in a system known as <a href="/wiki/Frankpledge" title="Frankpledge">frankpledge</a>. A tithing could be fined if it failed to detain criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000156–157_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000156–157-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late Anglo-Saxon and Norman times, hundreds were not yet established in Northern England and the Welsh border areas. Law enforcement was the responsibility of paramilitary "sergeants of the peace" under the control of local lords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198762_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198762-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 13th century, over half of all hundreds had been granted to barons, bishops, or abbeys. In these hundreds, the lord's representative presided over the hundred court, and the lord received the profits of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000157_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000157-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had authority to punish <a href="/wiki/Petty_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty theft">petty theft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affray" title="Affray">affray</a>. They also could hang thieves <a href="/wiki/In_flagrante_delicto" title="In flagrante delicto">caught red-handed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vills_and_manors">Vills and manors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Vills and manors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The smallest unit of English administration was the <a href="/wiki/Vill" title="Vill">vill</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Township_(England)" title="Township (England)">township</a>). A vill could take the form of a collection of <a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(place)" title="Hamlet (place)">hamlets</a>, a single village, or a small town.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19872_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19872-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A delegation from each vill (including the priest, <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeve</a>, and four "of the better men of the township") might be required to attend the county court.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those in bondage to a <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manor</a> were called <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">villeins</a>. According to the law, villeins were subject to the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">lord of the manor</a>. The lord even had his own <a href="/wiki/Manor_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Manor court">manor court</a> to enforce his rights. Nevertheless, unhappy villeins could collectively make life difficult for their lord through strikes, sabotage, and other forms of resistance. Lords tended to provide villeins with some self-government and adhered to the "custom of the manor" (recorded in <a href="/wiki/Custumal" title="Custumal">custumals</a>), which defined the rights and duties of the lord and his tenants. As suitors to the manor court, the villeins had the power to impose these customs on the working of the manor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19877_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19877-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_system">Legal system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Legal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_English_law" title="History of English law">History of English law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_courts">Central courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Central courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The king was the fount of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, important cases were heard <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">coram rege</i></span> (Latin for "in the presence of the king himself") with the advice of his <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span>. But the growth of the legal system required specialization, and the judicial functions of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">curia regis</i></span> were delegated to two courts sitting at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hall" title="Westminster Hall">Westminster Hall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzroy192810_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzroy192810-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Common_Pleas_(England)" title="Court of Common Pleas (England)">Court of Common Pleas</a> split from the Exchequer of Pleas in the 1190s. It had jurisdiction over civil cases (such as debts, property rights, and trespass). It was staffed by a <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_Common_Pleas" title="Chief Justice of the Common Pleas">chief justice of the Common Pleas</a> and several other <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_Common_Pleas" title="Justice of the Common Pleas">justices of the Common Pleas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201582–83_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201582–83-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurt201328_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurt201328-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_courts">Local courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Local courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred court">hundred court</a> had jurisdiction over minor offenses and property disputes. Before the reign of Henry II, the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire or county court</a> had a wide-ranging jurisdiction. Most land disputes and serious criminal cases were heard there. Henry I mandated that land disputes between vassals of two different lords were also to be heard in county court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000177_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000177-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>County courts met twice a year in Anglo-Saxon times, but some were meeting every three weeks by the 13th century. Local custom and tradition played a large role in the functioning of the county courts, and these customs varied from county to county. The court was presided over by the sheriff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000151–153_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000151–153-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those required to attend court were called "suitors". The suitors were divided between large landowners ("barons of the shire" or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">barones comitatus</i></span> in Latin) and small landowners (lesser freemen). The large landowners passed judgment, and the lesser freemen deferred to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196394_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196394-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Henry II instituted the <a href="/wiki/Eyre_(legal_term)" title="Eyre (legal term)">general eyres</a> in which a group of between two and nine itinerant justices were assigned a <a href="/wiki/Judicial_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial circuit">circuit</a> of counties to visit. These circuits covered the whole country with the exception of Chester and Durham, which were exempt due to their special status. The eyre justices would stay in one county for several weeks to hear cases under their jurisdiction before moving on. Their jurisdiction included among other things the pleas of the Crown, cases initiated by royal writ, criminal cases, and issues touching the rights of the Crown (wardships, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000190–191_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000190–191-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1189, there were around 35 itinerant judges, seven to nine judges per circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201548,_50_&_62_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201548,_50_&_62-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lord of a manor automatically enjoyed the right to hold a <a href="/wiki/Manorial_court" title="Manorial court">manorial court</a> over his vassals and tenants. Manorial courts had jurisdiction over "debt under forty shillings, contracts and conventions made within the power of the lord, cattle wounding [and other sorts of things], damage to crops by animals, assault not leading to bloodshed, trespass or damaging of timber where the king's peace was not involved<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961148_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961148-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tenants-in-chief possessed fiefs called "honours" made up of many different manors scattered over several shires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198756_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198756-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The honour court had jurisdiction over all the honour's manors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196336_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196336-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cases could be transferred from a manorial court to the county court through a process called tolt. A case could be transferred from county court to the royal justices by a writ of pone. Royal justices often presided over special sessions of the county court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trials">Trials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Trials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Norman times, court procedure involved the <a href="/wiki/Pleading" title="Pleading">pleadings</a> of the parties, information supplied by <a href="/wiki/Juries_in_England_and_Wales" title="Juries in England and Wales">juries</a>, documentary evidence, and witness testimony. In many cases, a compromise settlement was reached. When this was not possible, conclusive proof was sought through methods invoking divine intervention: trial by oath (<a href="/wiki/Compurgation" title="Compurgation">compurgation</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_ordeal" title="Trial by ordeal">trial by ordeal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179–180_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179–180-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In criminal cases, three forms of ordeal were used: <a href="/wiki/Ordeal_by_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordeal by fire">trial by hot iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_ordeal#Cold_water" title="Trial by ordeal">trial by cold water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_combat" title="Trial by combat">trial by combat</a>. Trial by combat was introduced by the Normans and was frequently used when one person accused another of theft or murder. Civil cases involving property over 10 <a href="/wiki/Shilling_(English_coin)" title="Shilling (English coin)">shillings</a> were determined by battle as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000181–182_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000181–182-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trial_reform">Trial reform</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Trial reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Henry II introduced a number of legal reforms that mark the origins of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the role of juries in both criminal and civil cases was expanded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192–193_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192–193-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A jury was a group of men who swore to give a truthful answer (a <a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">verdict</a>) to a question asked of them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Clarendon" title="Assize of Clarendon">Assize of Clarendon</a> of 1166 required that <a href="/wiki/Jury_of_presentment" class="mw-redirect" title="Jury of presentment">juries of presentment</a> identify those "accused or notoriously suspect of being a robber, murderer or thief" and provide this information to the itinerant judges when they visited the county.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201548_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201548-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jury did not yet decide innocence or guilt, which was still proven by ordeal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000193_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000193-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In civil cases, such as land disputes, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Assize" title="Grand Assize">Grand Assize</a> of 1179 gave defendants the option of having the matter settled by a jury of twelve knights instead of trial by battle. Henry also introduced the petty assizes—procedures to allow speedy resolution of land disputes. These include <a href="/wiki/Novel_disseisin" class="mw-redirect" title="Novel disseisin">novel disseisin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mort_d%27ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mort d'ancestor">mort d'ancestor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Darrein_presentment" class="mw-redirect" title="Darrein presentment">darrein presentment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the petty assizes, a plaintiff initiated proceedings by purchasing a writ from the chancery. The writ instructed the sheriff to choose a jury of 12 free men. The next time a royal justice was in the county, the parties and the jury would appear before him. For novel disseisin, the jury was to answer, "Was the plaintiff evicted unjustly and without judgment from an estate of which he was in peaceful possession?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1215, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Lateran_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Lateran Council">Fourth Lateran Council</a> forbade clergy participation in trial by ordeal. In 1219, the Crown ordered justices to find an alternative and the jury trial was chosen. The first recorded criminal jury trial occurred at Westminster in 1220. The first juries differed from modern juries in that early jurors were local men with knowledge of the case. Their job was not to weigh evidence but to decide the facts of a case using their own knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201577_&_79_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201577_&_79-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Punishment">Punishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Punishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Punishments for serious crimes included execution by hanging and mutilation (such as blinding and castration). Lesser offenses were punished by <a href="/wiki/Amercement" title="Amercement">amercements</a> or financial penalties. The royal <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Prison" title="Fleet Prison">Fleet Prison</a> in London was opened as early as the 1130s. The <a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Clarendon" title="Assize of Clarendon">Assize of Clarendon</a> required each county to have a jail in a borough or royal castle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000184_&_186_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000184_&_186-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg/220px-Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg/330px-Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg/440px-Dover_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2868607.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dover_Castle" title="Dover Castle">Dover Castle</a> in Kent</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)</a></div> <p>In the Anglo-Saxon period, England had no standing army. The king and magnates retained professional household troops (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/Housecarl" title="Housecarl">housecarl</a>), and all free men were obligated to perform military service in the <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a>. In addition, holders of bookland were obligated to provide a certain number of men based on the number of hides they owned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Norman Conquest, the king's household troops remained central to any royal army. But the Normans also introduced a new feudal element to the English military. The king's tenants-in-chief (his feudal barons) were obligated to provide mounted knights for service in the royal army or to garrison royal <a href="/wiki/Castles_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Castles in Great Britain and Ireland">castles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Normans brought castle building to England, and most shires had a royal castle in the charge of a royally appointed <a href="/wiki/Castellan" title="Castellan">castellan</a>. These were centers of royal administration and the location of <a href="/wiki/Royal_mint" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal mint">royal mints</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201638_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201638-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The total number of knights owed was called the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/English_feudal_barony#Servitium_debitum" title="English feudal barony">servitium debitum</a></i></span> (Latin: "service owed"), and historian Richard Huscroft estimates this number was around 5,000. In reality, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">servitium debitum</i></span> was greater than any king would actually need in wartime. Its main purpose was for assessing how much scutage the king was owed. Scutage was used to pay for <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a>, which were an important part of any Norman army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Anglo-Saxon fyrd or Norman <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Arri%C3%A8re-ban" title="Arrière-ban">arrière-ban</a></i></span> remained an important element of military service and applied to all able-bodied freemen. Similar to the old Anglo-Saxon <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Trinoda_necessitas" title="Trinoda necessitas">trinoda necessitas</a></i></span>, royal vassals were obligated to contribute to the fortification of royal castles, to repair bridges, and to maintain roads.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980161_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980161-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the 21st century, all land in England and Wales continues to be legally owned by the Crown. Individuals can only possess an <a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">estate in land</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Real_property#United_Kingdom" title="Real property">interest in land</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Percentages are for the year 1130.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000159_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000159-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201628–29-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201628–29_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980123-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980123_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980123–126-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980123–126_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 123–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198712-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198712_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198712–13,_15_&_55-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198712–13,_15_&_55_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, pp. 12–13, 15 & 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980143-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980143_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980143_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630–31-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630–31_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201631-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201631_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980139-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980139_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980139_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett20009-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett20009_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett200010-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett200010_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138–140-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138–140_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 138–140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140,_note_1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963140,_note_1_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 140, note 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980140-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980140_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198719-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198719_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123–125-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123–125_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 123–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123_&_125-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000123_&_125_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 123 & 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980140–141-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980140–141_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 140–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_&_141-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980138_&_141_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 138 & 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGlanville1932">Glanville (1932</a>, p. 24) quoted in <a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles (1963</a>, p. 143).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980141–142-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980141–142_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 141–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980150_&_162-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980150_&_162_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 150 & 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198757-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198757_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000122-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000122_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000121-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000121_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201630–32-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201630–32_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 30–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000164-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000164_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201637-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201637_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201637_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963155_&_159-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963155_&_159_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, pp. 155 & 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980154-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980154_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963151–152-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963151–152_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey2010179-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey2010179_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarkey2010">Starkey 2010</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980155-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980155_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000133-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000133_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980156–157-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980156–157_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980157–158_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 157–158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980158–159_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 158–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963164-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles1963164_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000159-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000159_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201689-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201689_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000161–162-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000161–162_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 161–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000163–164-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000163–164_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 163–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000165–166-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000165–166_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 165–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000166–167-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000166–167_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 166–167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000168–170-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000168–170_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 168–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20093–4_&_8-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20093–4_&_8_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2009">Maddicott 2009</a>, pp. 3–4 & 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980142-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980142_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980142_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198620_&_23-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198620_&_23_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1986">Green 1986</a>, pp. 20 & 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980148–150-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980148–150_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 148–150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980144-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980144_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198623-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198623_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1986">Green 1986</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980145-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980145_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20095-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20095_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2009">Maddicott 2009</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20096_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2009">Maddicott 2009</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20094–5-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20094–5_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2009">Maddicott 2009</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott2010123_&_140–143-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott2010123_&_140–143_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, pp. 123 & 140–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Source_Problems_in_English_History/Appendix/Magna_Carta._1215" class="extiw" title="s:Source Problems in English History/Appendix/Magna Carta. 1215">Magna Carta</a></i> clause 12 quoted in <a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett (2000</a>, p. 146)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980166-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980166_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196325_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000147-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000147_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980169–170-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980169–170_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 169–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149–150-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000149–150_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 149–150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961197-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961197_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980167–168-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980167–168_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 167–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000148-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000148_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19874–5-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19874–5_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196339-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196339_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196335-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196335_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19874-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19874_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000156–157-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000156–157_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198762-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198762_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000157-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000157_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000178_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19872-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19872_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowner1972">Downer (1972</a>, p. 100, 7.7b) quoted in <a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett (2000</a>, p. 158)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren19877-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren19877_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzroy192810-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzroy192810_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzroy1928">Fitzroy 1928</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201582–83-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201582–83_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotter2015">Potter 2015</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurt201328-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurt201328_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurt2013">Burt 2013</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000177-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000177_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000151–153-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000151–153_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 151–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196394-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196394_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000190–191-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000190–191_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201548,_50_&_62-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201548,_50_&_62_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotter2015">Potter 2015</a>, pp. 48, 50 & 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961148-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe1961148_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198756-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198756_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196336-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196336_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179–180-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000179–180_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000181–182-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000181–182_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 181–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201644–45_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192–193-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192–193_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 192–193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000192_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201548-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201548_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotter2015">Potter 2015</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000193-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000193_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter201577_&_79-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter201577_&_79_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotter2015">Potter 2015</a>, pp. 77 & 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000184_&_186-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2000184_&_186_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2000">Bartlett 2000</a>, pp. 184 & 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201638-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201638_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon1980161-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon1980161_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bartlett_(historian)" title="Robert Bartlett (historian)">Bartlett, Robert</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englandundernorm00bart_0"><i>England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075-1225</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/New_Oxford_History_of_England" title="New Oxford History of England">New Oxford History of England</a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199251018" title="Special:BookSources/9780199251018"><bdi>9780199251018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+Under+the+Norman+and+Angevin+Kings%2C+1075-1225&rft.series=New+Oxford+History+of+England&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780199251018&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglandundernorm00bart_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurt2013" class="citation book cs1">Burt, Caroline (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LjT1gHYvDkcC"><i>Edward I and the Governance of England, 1272–1307</i></a>. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139851299" title="Special:BookSources/9781139851299"><bdi>9781139851299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+I+and+the+Governance+of+England%2C+1272%E2%80%931307&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Medieval+Life+and+Thought&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781139851299&rft.aulast=Burt&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLjT1gHYvDkcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowner1972" class="citation book cs1">Downer, L. J., ed. (1972). <i><a href="/wiki/Leges_Henrici_Primi" title="Leges Henrici Primi">Leges Henrici Primi</a></i>. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/389304">389304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leges+Henrici+Primi&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F389304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzroy1928" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Almeric_FitzRoy" title="Almeric FitzRoy">Fitzroy, Almeric</a> (1928). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505038"><i>The History of the Privy Council</i></a></span>. London: John Murray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Privy+Council&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Fitzroy&rft.aufirst=Almeric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.505038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Green_(historian)" title="Judith Green (historian)">Green, Judith A.</a> (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governmentofengl00gree"><i>The Government of England under Henry I</i></a></span>. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511560248">10.1017/CBO9780511560248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511560248" title="Special:BookSources/9780511560248"><bdi>9780511560248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Government+of+England+under+Henry+I&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Medieval+Life+and+Thought%3A+Fourth+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511560248&rft.isbn=9780511560248&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Judith+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernmentofengl00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuscroft2016" class="citation book cs1">Huscroft, Richard (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tKNYCwAAQBAJ"><i>Ruling England, 1042–1217</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138786554" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138786554"><bdi>978-1138786554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruling+England%2C+1042%E2%80%931217&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138786554&rft.aulast=Huscroft&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtKNYCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolliffe1961" class="citation book cs1">Jolliffe, J. E. A. (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalhi0000joll"><i>The Constitutional History of Medieval England from the English Settlement to 1485</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Adams and Charles Black.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+History+of+Medieval+England+from+the+English+Settlement+to+1485&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Adams+and+Charles+Black&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Jolliffe&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionalhi0000joll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon2016" class="citation book cs1">Lyon, Ann (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9a1TDAAAQBAJ"><i>Constitutional History of the UK</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-20398-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-20398-8"><bdi>978-1-317-20398-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+History+of+the+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-20398-8&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9a1TDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Lyon, Bryce</a> (1980). <i>A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England</i> (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4"><bdi>0-393-95132-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Constitutional+and+Legal+History+of+Medieval+England&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-393-95132-4&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Bryce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span> 1st edition available to read online <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalle0000bryc">here</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddicott2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maddicott" title="John Maddicott">Maddicott, John</a> (2009). "Origins and Beginnings to 1215". In Jones, Clyve (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9sDVTsMGMMC"><i>A Short History of Parliament: England, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Scotland</i></a>. The Boydell Press. pp. 3–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-843-83717-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-843-83717-6"><bdi>978-1-843-83717-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origins+and+Beginnings+to+1215&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Parliament%3A+England%2C+Great+Britain%2C+the+United+Kingdom%2C+Ireland+and+Scotland&rft.pages=3-9&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-843-83717-6&rft.aulast=Maddicott&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9sDVTsMGMMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddicott2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maddicott" title="John Maddicott">Maddicott, J. R.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KCcUDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-58550-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-58550-2"><bdi>978-0-199-58550-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+English+Parliament%2C+924-1327&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-199-58550-2&rft.aulast=Maddicott&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKCcUDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2015" class="citation book cs1">Potter, Harry (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9lDoCQAAQBAJ"><i>Law, Liberty and the Constitution: A Brief History of the Common Law</i></a>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781783270118" title="Special:BookSources/9781783270118"><bdi>9781783270118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law%2C+Liberty+and+the+Constitution%3A+A+Brief+History+of+the+Common+Law&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781783270118&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9lDoCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlanville1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ranulf_de_Glanvill" title="Ranulf de Glanvill">Ranulf de Glanville</a> (1932). Woodbine, George Edward (ed.). <i>De legibus et consuetudinibus regni Anglia</i>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+legibus+et+consuetudinibus+regni+Anglia&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.au=Ranulf+de+Glanville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gerald_Richardson" title="Henry Gerald Richardson">Richardson, H. G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/G._O._Sayles" title="G. O. Sayles">Sayles, G. O.</a> (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofmedi0000unse"><i>The Governance of Mediaeval England from the Conquest to Magna Carta</i></a></span>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-102-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-102-8"><bdi>978-0-85224-102-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Mediaeval+England+from+the+Conquest+to+Magna+Carta&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-102-8&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=H.+G.&rft.au=Sayles%2C+G.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofmedi0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarkey2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Starkey" title="David Starkey">Starkey, David</a> (2010). <i>Crown and Country: A History of England through the Monarchy</i>. HarperCollins Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0007307715" title="Special:BookSources/978-0007307715"><bdi>978-0007307715</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crown+and+Country%3A+A+History+of+England+through+the+Monarchy&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0007307715&rft.aulast=Starkey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._L._Warren" title="W. L. Warren">Warren, W. L.</a> (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofnorm0000warr_y8g2"><i>The Governance of Norman and Angevin England, 1086–1272</i></a></span>. The Governance of England. Vol. 2. Stanford, CA, US: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1307-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1307-3"><bdi>0-8047-1307-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Norman+and+Angevin+England%2C+1086%E2%80%931272&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA%2C+US&rft.series=The+Governance+of+England&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8047-1307-3&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofnorm0000warr_y8g2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolliffe1963" class="citation book cs1">Jolliffe, J. E. A. (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/angevinkingship0000jeaj"><i>Angevin Kingship</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Barnes and Noble.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Angevin+Kingship&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Barnes+and+Noble&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Jolliffe&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fangevinkingship0000jeaj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollockMaitland1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Frederick_Pollock,_3rd_Baronet" title="Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet">Pollock, Frederick</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frederic_William_Maitland" title="Frederic William Maitland">Maitland, Frederic William</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DfUyAAAAIAAJ"><i>The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I</i></a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+English+Law+Before+the+Time+of+Edward+I&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft.au=Maitland%2C+Frederic+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDfUyAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollockMaitland1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Frederick_Pollock,_3rd_Baronet" title="Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet">Pollock, Frederick</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frederic_William_Maitland" title="Frederic William Maitland">Maitland, Frederic William</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vmO1NHtbqtAC"><i>The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I</i></a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+English+Law+Before+the+Time+of+Edward+I&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft.au=Maitland%2C+Frederic+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvmO1NHtbqtAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsay1925" class="citation book cs1">Ramsay, James H. (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MLIcAAAAMAAJ"><i>A History of the Revenues of the Kings of England, 1066–1399</i></a>. Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Revenues+of+the+Kings+of+England%2C+1066%E2%80%931399&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Ramsay&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMLIcAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Norman+and+Angevin+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&oldid=1254380006">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England&oldid=1254380006</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_of_England" title="Category:Government of England">Government of England</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_England" title="Category:Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_with_empty_Wikidata_description" title="Category:Short description with empty Wikidata description">Short description with empty Wikidata description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 30 October 2024, at 18:41<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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