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power efficiency for single <a href="/wiki/Bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandgap">bandgap</a> solar cells. This includes a range of alternatives to cells made of semiconducting <a href="/wiki/P-n_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="P-n junction">p-n junctions</a> ("first generation") and <a href="/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin film solar cell">thin film cells</a> ("second generation"). Common third-generation systems include multi-layer ("tandem") cells made of <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>, while more theoretical developments include frequency conversion, (i.e. changing the frequencies of light that the cell cannot use to light frequencies that the cell can use - thus producing more power), hot-carrier effects and other multiple-carrier ejection techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MartíLuque2003_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MartíLuque2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emerging photovoltaics include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copper_zinc_tin_sulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper zinc tin sulfide">Copper zinc tin sulfide</a> solar cell (CZTS), and derivates CZTSe and CZTSSe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a>, also known as "Grätzel cell"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li></ul> <p>The achievements in the research of perovskite cells, especially, have received tremendous attention in the public as their research efficiencies recently soared above 20 percent. They also offer a wide spectrum of low-cost applications.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, another emerging technology, <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator photovoltaics</a> (CPV), uses high-efficient, <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">multi-junction solar cells</a> in combination with optical lenses and a tracking system. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technologies">Technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Solar cells can be thought of as <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a> counterparts to <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a>. A receiver consists of three basic parts; an antenna that converts the radio waves (light) into wave-like motions of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> in the antenna material, an electronic valve that traps the electrons as they pop off the end of the antenna, and a tuner that amplifies electrons of a selected frequency. It is possible to build a solar cell identical to a radio, a system known as an <a href="/wiki/Optical_rectenna" title="Optical rectenna">optical rectenna</a>, but to date these have not been practical. </p><p>The majority of the solar electric market is made up of silicon-based devices. In silicon cells, the silicon acts as both the antenna (or <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donor</a>, technically) as well as the electron valve. Silicon is widely available, relatively inexpensive and has a bandgap that is ideal for solar collection. On the downside it is energetically and economically expensive to produce silicon in bulk, and great efforts have been made to reduce the amount required. Moreover, it is mechanically fragile, which typically requires a sheet of strong glass to be used as mechanical support and protection from the elements. The glass alone is a significant portion of the cost of a typical solar module. </p><p>According to the Shockley–Queisser limit, the majority of a cell's theoretical efficiency is due to the difference in energy between the bandgap and solar photon. Any photon with more energy than the bandgap can cause photoexcitation, but any energy above the bandgap energy is lost. Consider the solar spectrum; only a small portion of the light reaching the ground is blue, but those photons have three times the energy of red light. Silicon's bandgap is 1.1 eV, about that of red light, so in this case blue light's energy is lost in a silicon cell. If the bandgap is tuned higher, say to blue, that energy is now captured, but only at the cost of rejecting lower energy photons. </p><p>It is possible to greatly improve on a single-junction cell by stacking thin layers of material with varying bandgaps on top of each other – <a href="/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multijunction photovoltaic cell">the "tandem cell" or "multi-junction"</a> approach. Traditional silicon preparation methods do not lend themselves to this approach. Thin-films of amorphous silicon have been employed instead, notably <a href="/wiki/Energy_Conversion_Devices" title="Energy Conversion Devices">Uni-Solar</a>'s products, but other issues have prevented these from matching the performance of traditional cells. Most tandem-cell structures are based on higher performance semiconductors, notably <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs). Three-layer GaAs cells achieved 41.6% efficiency for experimental examples.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2013, a four layer cell reached 44.7 percent efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerical analysis shows that the "perfect" single-layer solar cell should have a bandgap of 1.13 eV, almost exactly that of silicon. Such a cell can have a maximum theoretical power conversion efficiency of 33.7% – the solar power below red (in the infrared) is lost, and the extra energy of the higher colors is also lost. For a two layer cell, one layer should be tuned to 1.64 eV and the other at 0.94 eV, with a theoretical performance of 44%. A three-layer cell should be tuned to 1.83, 1.16 and 0.71 eV, with an efficiency of 48%. A theoretical "infinity-layer" cell would have a theoretical efficiency of 68.2% for diffuse light.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the new solar technologies that have been discovered center around nanotechnology, there are several different material methods currently used. </p><p>The third generation label encompasses multiple technologies, though it includes non-<a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> technologies (including <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">biomimetics</a>), <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">quantum dot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multijunction photovoltaic cell">tandem/multi-junction cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_band_photovoltaics" title="Intermediate band photovoltaics">intermediate band solar cell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hot-carrier_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-carrier cell">hot-carrier cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photon_upconversion" title="Photon upconversion">photon upconversion</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/downconversion" class="extiw" title="wikt:downconversion">downconversion</a> technologies, and <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal">solar thermal</a> technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Thermophotonics" title="Thermophotonics">thermophotonics</a>, which is one technology identified by Green as being third generation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It also includes:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_nanostructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon nanostructure">Silicon nanostructures</a></li> <li>Modifying incident spectrum (<a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator photovoltaics</a>), to reach 300–500 suns and efficiencies of 32% (already attained in Sol3g cells<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to +50%.</li> <li>Use of excess thermal generation (caused by <a href="/wiki/UV_light" class="mw-redirect" title="UV light">UV light</a>) to enhance voltages or carrier collection.</li> <li>Use of <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> spectrum to produce electricity at night.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShockleyQueisser1961" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W.; Queisser, H. J. (1961). "Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells". <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>. <b>32</b> (3): 510. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961JAP....32..510S">1961JAP....32..510S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1736034">10.1063/1.1736034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Physics&rft.atitle=Detailed+Balance+Limit+of+Efficiency+of+p-n+Junction+Solar+Cells&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=510&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1736034&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961JAP....32..510S&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Queisser%2C+H.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuqueLópez_Araujo1990" class="citation book cs1">Luque, Antonio; López Araujo, Gerardo (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPJSAAAAMAAJ"><i>Physical Limitations to Photovoltaic Energy Conversion</i></a>. Bristol: Adam Hilger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0030-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7503-0030-2"><bdi>0-7503-0030-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Limitations+to+Photovoltaic+Energy+Conversion&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pub=Adam+Hilger&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7503-0030-2&rft.aulast=Luque&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez+Araujo%2C+Gerardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPJSAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2001" class="citation journal cs1">Green, M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ossila&rft.atitle=Perovskite+Solar+Cells&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ossila.com%2Fsupport%2Findustry_news%2FPerovskites_and_perovskite_solar_cells.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Biello, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=new-solar-cell-efficiency-record-se-2009-08-27">"New solar-cell efficiency record set"</a>, <i>Scientific American</i>, 27 August 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treehugger.com/solar-technology/solar-cell-hits-new-world-record.html">"Solar cell hits new world record with 44.7 percent efficiency"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Springer. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Third+generation+photovoltaics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuqueMartí1997" class="citation journal cs1">Luque, Antonio; Martí, Antonio (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5014">"Increasing the Efficiency of Ideal Solar Cells by Photon Induced Transitions at Intermediate Levels"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>78</b> (26): <span class="nowrap">5014–</span>5017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.78.5014">10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Increasing+the+Efficiency+of+Ideal+Solar+Cells+by+Photon+Induced+Transitions+at+Intermediate+Levels&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5014-%3C%2Fspan%3E5017&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.78.5014&rft.aulast=Luque&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Mart%C3%AD%2C+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.aps.org%2Fprl%2Fabstract%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.78.5014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiming_WangAlbert_S._LinJamie_D._Phillips2009" class="citation journal cs1">Weiming Wang; Albert S. Lin; Jamie D. Phillips (2009). "Intermediate band photovoltaic solar cell based on ZnTe:O". <i>Appl. Phys. Lett</i>. <b>95</b> (1): 011103. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApPhL..95a1103W">2009ApPhL..95a1103W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3166863">10.1063/1.3166863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl.+Phys.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Intermediate+band+photovoltaic+solar+cell+based+on+ZnTe%3AO&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=011103&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3166863&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009ApPhL..95a1103W&rft.au=Weiming+Wang&rft.au=Albert+S.+Lin&rft.au=Jamie+D.+Phillips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2003" class="citation book cs1">Green, Martin (2003). <i>Third Generation Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy Conversion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-40137-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-40137-7"><bdi>978-3-540-40137-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Third+Generation+Photovoltaics%3A+Advanced+Solar+Energy+Conversion&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-540-40137-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNSW_School_for_Photovoltaic_Engineering" class="citation web cs1">UNSW School for Photovoltaic Engineering. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/Research/3gp.asp">"Third Generation Photovoltaics"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Third+Generation+Photovoltaics&rft.au=UNSW+School+for+Photovoltaic+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pv.unsw.edu.au%2FResearch%2F3gp.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-generation+photovoltaic+cell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://guntherportfolio.blogspot.com/2007/07/sol3g-secures-triple-junction-solar.html">Sol3g secures Triple Junction Solar Cells from Azur Space</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125210629/http://org.ntnu.no/solarcells/pages/generations.php">Different generations of solar cells</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.vt.edu/~rheflin/">Research</a> in <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech" title="Virginia Tech">Virginia Tech</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/05/solar-shootout-in-the-san-joaquin-valley">Solar Shootout in the San Joaquin Valley</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.cnet.com/Silicon+vs.+CIGS+With+solar+energy,+the+issue+is+material/2100-1008_3-6121488.html">Silicon vs. CIGS: With solar energy, the issue is material</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://optics.org/cws/article/research/23961">Start-up targets thin-film silicon solar cells</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://light.utoronto.ca/tsargent/pdfs/article-nationalgeographic-14jan2005.pdf">Spray-On Solar-Power Cells Are True Breakthrough</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://light.utoronto.ca/tsargent/pdfs/article-businessweek-31jan2005.pdf">Solar Cells: The New Light Fantastic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://world.honda.com/news/2005/c051219.html">Honda to Mass Produce Next-Generation Thin Film Solar Cell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_glossary.html">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photovoltaics" title="Template talk:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photovoltaics466" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_constant" title="Solar constant">Solar constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Quantum efficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_power_(photovoltaic)" title="Nominal power (photovoltaic)">Nominal power (Watt-peak)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third-generation photovoltaic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_research" title="Solar cell research">Solar cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">Thermodynamic efficiency limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun-free_photovoltaics" title="Sun-free photovoltaics">Sun-free photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarizing_organic_photovoltaics" title="Polarizing organic photovoltaics">Polarizing organic photovoltaics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon (c-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">Cadmium telluride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon (a-Si)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic<br />system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell" title="Hybrid solar cell">Hybrid solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmonic_solar_cell" title="Plasmonic solar cell">Plasmonic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaics" title="Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics">Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_solar_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed solar panel">Printed solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance of system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charge_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar charge controller">Solar charge controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_shingles" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar shingles">Solar shingles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_mirror#Photovoltaic_augmentation" title="Solar mirror">Solar mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronverter" title="Synchronverter">Synchronverter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fill factor (solar cell)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system_performance" title="Photovoltaic system performance">PV system performance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Appliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_refrigerator" title="Solar-powered refrigerator">Solar-powered refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#Photovoltaic_(PV)_solar_cooling" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_watch" title="Solar-powered watch">Solar-powered watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_keyboard" title="Photovoltaic keyboard">Photovoltaic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_road_stud" title="Solar road stud">Solar road stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_radio" title="Solar-powered radio">Solar-powered radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_flashlight" title="Solar-powered flashlight">Solar-powered flashlight</a></li> <li>Solar-powered fan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_street_light" title="Solar street light">Solar street light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_traffic_light" title="Solar traffic light">Solar traffic light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Land transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_golf_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar golf cart">Solar golf cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quiet_Achiever" title="The Quiet Achiever">The Quiet Achiever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Air transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Solar_Riser" title="Mauro Solar Riser">Mauro Solar Riser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-Powered_Aircraft_Developments_Solar_One" title="Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One">Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinetiq_Zephyr" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinetiq Zephyr">Qinetiq Zephyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Water transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat#Types" title="Electric boat">Solar boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Solar vehicle racing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car_racing" title="Solar car racing">Solar car racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_car_teams" title="List of solar car teams">List of solar car teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_challenge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Solar challenge (disambiguation)">Solar challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge">World Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Challenge" title="American Solar Challenge">American Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_Sun_Grand_Prix" title="Formula Sun Grand Prix">Formula Sun Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Cup" title="Solar Cup">Solar Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Solar_Challenge" title="Frisian Solar Challenge">Frisian Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Splash" title="Solar Splash">Solar Splash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Solar_Challenge" title="South African Solar Challenge">South African Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_Sol" title="Tour de Sol">Tour de Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt-Winston_School_Solar_Car_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge">Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Model_Solar_Vehicle_Challenge" title="Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge">Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Generation<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="PV_power_station100" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">PV power station</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">List of photovoltaic power stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Building-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">Rooftop photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Ark" title="Solar Ark">Solar Ark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Solar power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chile" title="Solar power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Switzerland" title="Solar power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">PV companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_production" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by photovoltaics production">List of countries by photovoltaics production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Individual producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_CELLS" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q CELLS">Hanwha Q CELLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motech_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Motech Solar">Motech Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation" title="Renewable Energy Corporation">REC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Solar" title="Sharp Solar">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Frontier" title="Solar Frontier">Solar Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solyndra" title="Solyndra">Solyndra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNGEN_International_Limited" title="SUNGEN International Limited">Sungen Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunpower">Sunpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suntech" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntech">Suntech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yingli_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingli Solar">Yingli Solar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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