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data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content whole type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yT050063_0"><i class="anchor" id="yT050063_0"></i><p> Contrairement aux autres majors hollywoodiennes qui toutes avaient produit et distribué des films muets, R.K.O. est née avec le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme, conservé par l'usage, de « cinéma parlant » n'est pas complètement adéquat pour désigner un genre où les bruits et la musique jouent un rôle essentiel. C'est de cinéma sonore qu'il faudrait parler. D'ailleurs, l'expression a été employée pour caractériser les films antiparlants, qui, refusant le dialogue synchrone, ne faisaient entendre qu'une musique d'accompagneme..." title="Article : CINÉMA PARLANT" href="/encyclopedie/cinema-parlant/">cinéma parlant</a>, et pour le cinéma parlant. En effet sa maison mère, Radio Corporation of America, une des puissances de l'industrie du matériel sonore, déjà présente dans l'industrie des loisirs avec ses éditions phonographiques et le réseau de stations-radio de la National Broadcasting Company, voulait commercialiser ses brevets de cinéma sonore. Or la plupart des majors choisissaient de travailler avec <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Plus qu'un genre éminemment populaire – une histoire de feu et de sang avec des hommes à cheval et des paysages grandioses –, plus qu'un combat manichéen entre le bien et le mal, le western est l'expression d'un milieu culturel particulier, celui des États-Unis d'Amérique. Étroitement lié à une expérience collective – la conquête de l'Ouest –, le western supporte une tr..." title="Article : WESTERN" href="/encyclopedie/western/">Western</a> Electric, qui avait participé au triomphe de la Warner. Le marché restait cependant très ouvert dans l'exploitation et à l'étranger. David Sarnoff, le tout puissant président de R.C.A. – au profil analogue à celui des <em>moghuls </em>hollywoodiens – décide alors de créer de toutes pièces une major intégrant la totalité des métiers du cinéma, avec le soutien du groupe Rockefeller qui l'accueille dans son quartier général et lui offre la plus grande salle du monde, le fameux Radio City Music Hall.</p><p>C'est un habile financier de Boston, le politicien démocrate Joseph Kennedy, qui réalise le montage de l'opération, en tirant un réel profit des transactions. Bon connaisseur des rouages de l'industrie du cinéma (il a notamment géré les intérêts de la star <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de GLORIA SWANSON (1899-1983). Josephine Mae Swanson était née à Chicago dans les dernières années du siècle. D'ascendance mi-italienne mi-suédoise, elle débute au cinéma comme « extra » parce qu'elle était venue voir le tournage d'un film Essanay, par simple curiosité (1913) : trois ans plus tard, elle épouse Wallace Beery et ils partent ensemble à Hollywood , où l..." title="Article : GLORIA SWANSON (1899-1983)" href="/encyclopedie/gloria-swanson/">Gloria Swanson</a> dont il était très proche), le père du futur président des États-Unis aide en 1928 David Sarnoff à racheter les entreprises qui permettent de faire naître tout armé un groupe intégrant les trois branches de l'industrie du cinéma : un studio voisin de ceux de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La Columbia est, avec Warner Bros , une des majors hollywoodiennes qui ont été dirigées le plus longtemps par leurs fondateurs. Harry Cohn (1891-1958) et son frère Jack, associés au juriste Joe Brandt – tous trois transfuges du studio Universal – ont fondé à Hollywood une société, nommée CBC d'après leurs initiales, et dont les ambitions sont si modestes qu'on l'a surnommée,..." title="Article : COLUMBIA" href="/encyclopedie/columbia/">Columbia</a> et de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Major hollywoodienne, la Paramount est née en 1914 à l'initiative de William Hodkinson, qui met en place une société de distribution commune à quelques producteurs indépendants. Inventeur du célèbre logo montrant un sommet montagneux entouré d'étoiles, Hodkinson avait rassemblé notamment la Famous Players Film d'Adolph Zukor et la Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play, créée par Lasky et son b..." title="Article : PARAMOUNT" href="/encyclopedie/paramount/">Paramount</a> (il sera annexé par Paramount à la fin des années 1950), une société de distribution, Film Booking Office, dont Kennedy lui-même s'était rendu acquéreur auparavant, et, pour achever l'opération, un circuit de salles nommé Orpheum couplé au réseau de music-hall Keith-Albee. Cette double dénomination servira à baptiser la nouvelle major, filiale de R.C.A., présidée tout d'abord par Sarnoff en personne, et dont les films sont produits sous l'enseigne R.K.O.-Radio Pictures. Joseph Kennedy, qui avait pris le contrôle en 1928 de la firme américaine <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le Français Charles Pathé (1863-1957), issu d'une famille de petits commerçants, exploitait le phonographe d'Edison dans les foires de la région parisienne lorsqu'il découvrit le Cinématographe. Intéressé par ce type d'appareil, il finance sans succès les recherches de Henri Joly, avant de signer un accord avec les frères Lumière pour « un projecteur Lumière transformé Pathé ». A..." title="Article : PATHÉ" href="/encyclopedie/pathe/">Pathé</a> (cédée par sa maison mère française depuis plusieurs années, et utile par ses actualités cinématographiques), cède la société à R.K.O. en 1931.</p><p> Outre ses liens directs avec l'industrie, R.K.O. fait donc partie à sa naissance d'un groupe alliant plusieurs industries culturelles (cinéma, radio, disque), qui anticipe sur les stratégies de fusion d'entreprises qui seront caractéristiques de ces secteurs dans les années 1980 – mais R.K.O. aura disparu bien avant.</p><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-2 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="PH060019" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : King Kong (1933)" href="/media/king-kong-1933-ph060019/"><img id="PH060019" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_ph060019_e06815a1a6.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="King Kong (1933) - crédits : John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images" data-description="Le film King Kong, de Schoedsack et Cooper (1933), tire l'essentiel de son succès mondial de la technique et de la fantaisie de ses effets spéciaux. Le monstre attrapant les avions au vol du sommet de l'Empire State Building à New York fascine tous les publics, consacrant le cinéma comme art de…" data-copyright="John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="811" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> King Kong (1933) </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images </p></figcaption></figure></div><p>Dans sa première période R.K.O. exploite la popularité des vedettes de la radio N.B.C. Le succès n'a qu'un temps, strictement lié au boom du parlant. Elle lance un programme de comédies musicales qui ne prendra de l'envergure qu'en 1934 avec l'arrivée du couple Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers. Malgré quelques films appelés à devenir mythiques comme <em>King Kong</em> et <em>Les Chasses du comte Zaroff</em>, tournés simultanément en 1932-1933, la R.K.O. est en récession. Caractérisée par une grande instabilité dans sa direction et une stratégie chaotique, le studio compte dans les années 1930 sur Irene Dunne, Constance Bennett, Joel MacCrea, Charles Laughton et surtout <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de KATHARINE HEPBURN (1907-2003). La présence cinématographique de Katharine Hepburn résulte d'une alchimie déconcertante : une silhouette longue et mince, peu conforme aux canons esthétiques en vogue, un timbre de voix métallique et nasillard, un jeu parfois irritant – autant de traits qui viennent concourir au charme fou et à la grâce rayonnante de l'actrice.. Katharin..." title="Article : KATHARINE HEPBURN (1907-2003)" href="/encyclopedie/katharine-hepburn/">Katharine Hepburn</a>, puis vers 1940, Carole Lombard et Cary Grant. Par mesure d'économie, il ne s'attache qu'un petit nombre de réalisateurs, parmi lesquels Gregory La Cava et <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de GEORGE CUKOR (1899-1983). Il y a dans la cinquantaine de films réalisés par George Cukor, de 1930 à 1981, la continuité et la cohérence d'une œuvre. Même s'il fut, comme beaucoup d'autres à Hollywood , un cinéaste travaillant à la commande, voire un technicien de confiance sauvant des tournages de la catastrophe ou terminant des réalisations commencées par d'autres (il..." title="Article : GEORGE CUKOR (1899-1983)" href="/encyclopedie/george-cukor/">George Cukor</a>. Abandonnée par ses premiers parrains industriels et bancaires, la dernière-née des majors ne se stabilise qu'en 1940. Sa branche distribution reçoit le renfort de plusieurs gros producteurs indépendants qui sont en froid avec <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Un producteur important de l'époque, dirigeant de la M.G.M., salua la naissance de United Artists, en 1919, par ces mots : « Voici les fous qui prennent la direction de l'asile. » La nouvelle société tenait à la prétention de quelques grandes stars de l'époque de devenir leur propre producteur et de conquérir leur indépendance vis-à-vis des premières grandes compagnies hollywoodie..." title="Article : UNITED ARTISTS" href="/encyclopedie/united-artists/">United Artists</a>, comme Goldwyn, ainsi que Disney, qui lui restera fidèle<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="T050063_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="SAUVAGET, Daniel"><a title="Auteur : Daniel SAUVAGET" rel="author" href="/auteurs/daniel-sauvaget/"><strong>Daniel SAUVAGET</strong></a> : économiste, critique de cinéma </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : RKO (Radio Keith Orpheum)" href="/carte-mentale/rko-radio-keith-orpheum/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yT050063_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> Arts </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Cinéma" href="/classification/arts/cinema/"> Cinéma </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire du cinéma" href="/classification/arts/cinema/histoire-du-cinema/"> Histoire du cinéma </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Hollywood" href="/classification/arts/cinema/histoire-du-cinema/hollywood/"> Hollywood </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Major companies"> <a title="Classification : Major companies" href="/classification/arts/cinema/histoire-du-cinema/hollywood/major-companies/"> Major companies </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yT050063_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Média</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-12 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH060019" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : King Kong (1933)" href="/media/king-kong-1933-ph060019/"> <img id="PH060019" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_ph060019_e06815a1a6.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="King Kong (1933) - crédits : John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images" data-description="Le film King Kong, de Schoedsack et Cooper (1933), tire l'essentiel de son succès mondial de la technique et de la fantaisie de ses effets spéciaux. Le monstre attrapant les avions au vol du sommet de l'Empire State Building à New York fascine tous les publics, consacrant le cinéma comme art de…" data-copyright="John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="811" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> King Kong (1933) </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> John Kobal Foundation/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yT050063_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/citizen-kane/"> <span class="rg">CITIZEN KANE, </span><span class="rm">film de Orson Welles</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Michel MARIE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">935 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CITIZEN KANE, film de Orson Welles" href="/encyclopedie/citizen-kane/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="<it>Citizen Kane</it>, d'Orson Welles - crédits : RKO Radio Pictures Inc./ Collection privée" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/0/csm_ph070012_75182d7302.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Premier long-métrage d'un <em>wonder boy</em> de vingt-cinq ans, <em>Citizen Kane</em> est un film atypique pour des raisons multiples. Bien que débutant dans le cinéma, <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie d'ORSON WELLES (1915-1985). Que l'avènement de Citizen Kane en 1941 marque une date dans l'évolution du cinéma, nul n'en doute plus aujourd'hui. Pourtant, Orson Welles n'a réalisé que douze films depuis Citizen Kane (si l'on excepte les inédits, les projets inachevés, les collaborations aux œuvres d'autres réalisateurs). Entre ces films, on chercherait en vain quelque u..." title="Article : ORSON WELLES (1915-1985)" href="/encyclopedie/orson-welles/">Orson Welles</a> (1915-1985) obtient de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Contrairement aux autres majors hollywoodiennes qui toutes avaient produit et distribué des films muets, R.K.O. est née avec le cinéma parlant , et pour le cinéma parlant. En effet sa maison mère, Radio Corporation of America, une des puissances de l'industrie du matériel sonore, déjà présente dans l'industrie des loisirs avec ses éditions phonographiques et le réseau de stations-radio..." title="Article : RKO (Radio Keith Orpheum)" href="/encyclopedie/rko-radio-keith-orpheum/">RKO</a> un contrat exceptionnel qui lui donne le contrôle du film, alors que, dans le système des studios...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/la-feline/"> <span class="rg">LA FÉLINE, </span><span class="rm">film de Jacques Tourneur</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jacques AUMONT</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">969 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Avec <em>Citizen Kane</em> (1941) puis <em>La Splendeur des Amberson</em> (1942) d'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="6 mai 1915 Naissance d' Orson Welles à Kenosha, Wisconsin.. 1925 Joue et interprète dans un camp de vacances une version de Dr. Jekyll et Mr. Hyde , d'après R. L. Stevenson.. 1926-1930 Monte, joue, écrit de nombreuses pièces à la Todd School de Woodstock, Illinois.. 1 er janvier 1931 Le Dr. Maurice Bernstein devient le tuteur de Welles, orphelin depuis la mort de son père...." title="Article : WELLES - repères chronologiques" href="/encyclopedie/welles-reperes-chronologiques/">Orson Welles</a>, la compagnie Radio Keith Orpheum (R.K.O.) renouvelle le cinéma américain. L'arrivée de Val Lewton au poste de producteur constitue un autre tournant. Il est en effet chargé d'étendre le catalogue des films d'horreur...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/richard-fleischer/"> <span class="rg">FLEISCHER </span><span class="pc">RICHARD </span><span class="rm">(1916-2006)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Alain GAREL</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">775 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Né le 8 décembre 1916, dans le quartier de Brooklyn, à New York, le réalisateur américain Richard Fleischer est le fils de Max et le neveu de Dave Fleischer, pionniers du dessin animé qui, avec les <em>Cartoons</em> des séries « Out of the Inkwell », « Betty Boop » et « Popeye », furent, dans les années...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/mark-robson/"> <span class="rg">ROBSON </span><span class="pc">MARK </span><span class="rm">(1913-1978)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Patrick BRION</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">973 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : ROBSON MARK (1913-1978)" href="/encyclopedie/mark-robson/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="<it>Champion,</it>&nbsp;M. Robson - crédits : United Artists Corporation/ Collection privée" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/0/csm_ph070010_bbfc008b45.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Mark Robson est né à Montréal (Canada). Diplômé de l'université de Californie, c'est à la 20th Century Fox qu'il débute dans le monde du cinéma, en tant qu'accessoiriste. De la Fox, Robson passe ensuite à la R.K.O. où il va travailler pendant plus de douze ans.</p><p>D'abord...</p> </div> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yT050063_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AMÉRICAIN CINÉMA" href="/index/cinema-americain/"> <span class="rg">AMÉRICAIN </span><span class="pc">CINÉMA</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : EXPLOITATION, cinéma" href="/index/exploitation-cinema/"> <span class="rg">EXPLOITATION, </span><em class="it">cinéma</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : STUDIO DE CINÉMA & DE TÉLÉVISION" href="/index/studio-de-cinema-et-de-television/"> <span class="rg">STUDIO DE CINÉMA & DE TÉLÉVISION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MAJOR COMPANIES" href="/index/major-companies/"> <span class="rg">MAJOR COMPANIES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CINÉMA HISTOIRE DU" href="/index/histoire-du-cinema/"> <span class="rg">CINÉMA </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DU</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DISTRIBUTION, cinéma" href="/index/distribution-cinema/"> <span class="rg">DISTRIBUTION, </span><em class="it">cinéma</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MULTIMÉDIAS GROUPES" href="/index/groupes-multimedias/"> <span class="rg">MULTIMÉDIAS </span><span class="pc">GROUPES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ENTREPRISES HISTOIRE DES" href="/index/histoire-des-entreprises/"> <span class="rg">ENTREPRISES </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DES</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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