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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Electrically addressed</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electrically_addressed-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Electrically addressed subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Electrically_addressed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Read-only_and_read-mostly_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Read-only_and_read-mostly_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Read-only and read-mostly devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Read-only_and_read-mostly_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flash_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flash_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Flash memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flash_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ferroelectric_RAM_(F-RAM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ferroelectric_RAM_(F-RAM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ferroelectric_RAM_(F-RAM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetoresistive_RAM_(MRAM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetoresistive_RAM_(MRAM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetoresistive_RAM_(MRAM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase-change_Memory_(PCM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase-change_Memory_(PCM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Phase-change Memory (PCM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phase-change_Memory_(PCM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-FeFET_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FeFET_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>FeFET memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-FeFET_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RRAM_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RRAM_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>RRAM memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RRAM_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanically_addressed_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanically_addressed_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanically addressed systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanically_addressed_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Organic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-volatile_main_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-volatile_main_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Non-volatile main memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-volatile_main_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Енергонезависима памет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Енергонезависима памет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mem%C3%B2ria_no_vol%C3%A0til" title="Memòria no volàtil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Memòria no volàtil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichtfl%C3%BCchtiger_Speicher" title="Nichtflüchtiger Speicher – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nichtflüchtiger Speicher" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4ilm%C3%A4lu" title="Säilmälu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Säilmälu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria_no_vol%C3%A1til" title="Memoria no volátil – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Memoria no volátil" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D9%87_%D8%BA%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="حافظه غیرفرار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حافظه غیرفرار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9moire_non_volatile" title="Mémoire non volatile – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mémoire non volatile" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%ED%9C%98%EB%B0%9C%EC%84%B1_%EB%A9%94%EB%AA%A8%EB%A6%AC" title="비휘발성 메모리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비휘발성 메모리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria_non_volatile" title="Memoria non volatile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Memoria non volatile" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%99_%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A3" title="זיכרון בלתי נדיף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זיכרון בלתי נדיף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Тұрақты жад – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тұрақты жад" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C5%A1liekamoji_atmintis" title="Išliekamoji atmintis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Išliekamoji atmintis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="സ്ഥിര മെമ്മറി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ഥിര മെമ്മറി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingatan_tak_meruap" title="Ingatan tak meruap – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ingatan tak meruap" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Тогтвортой санах ой – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тогтвортой санах ой" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niet-vluchtig_geheugen" title="Niet-vluchtig geheugen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Niet-vluchtig geheugen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E6%8F%AE%E7%99%BA%E6%80%A7%E3%83%A1%E3%83%A2%E3%83%AA" title="不揮発性メモリ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="不揮発性メモリ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikke-flyktig_minne" title="Ikke-flyktig minne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ikke-flyktig minne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pami%C4%99%C4%87_nieulotna" title="Pamięć nieulotna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pamięć nieulotna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armazenamento_n%C3%A3o_vol%C3%A1til" title="Armazenamento não volátil – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Armazenamento não volátil" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorie_nevolatil%C4%83" title="Memorie nevolatilă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Memorie nevolatilă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Non-volatile memory" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DB%95%D9%81%DA%95" title="بیرگەی زوونەفڕ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بیرگەی زوونەفڕ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haihtumaton_muisti" title="Haihtumaton muisti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Haihtumaton muisti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icke-flyktigt_datorminne" title="Icke-flyktigt datorminne – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Icke-flyktigt datorminne" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_nawawalang_memorya" title="Hindi nawawalang memorya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hindi nawawalang memorya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3" title="หน่วยความจำถาวร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หน่วยความจำถาวร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_nh%E1%BB%9B_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87n_t%C4%A9nh" title="Bộ nhớ điện tĩnh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ nhớ điện tĩnh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%98%93%E5%A4%B1%E6%80%A7%E5%AD%98%E5%82%A8%E5%99%A8" title="非易失性存储器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="非易失性存储器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%8F%AE%E7%99%BC%E6%80%A7%E8%A8%98%E6%86%B6%E9%AB%94" title="非揮發性記憶體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="非揮發性記憶體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%8F%AE%E7%99%BC%E6%80%A7%E8%A8%98%E6%86%B6%E9%AB%94" title="非揮發性記憶體 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="非揮發性記憶體" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q10997658#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Computer memory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">data storage</a> types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_coherence" title="Memory coherence">Memory coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_coherence" title="Cache coherence">Cache coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_access_pattern" title="Memory access pattern">Memory access pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_map" title="Memory map">Memory map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Secondary_storage" title="Computer data storage">Secondary storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">MOS memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_availability" title="Continuous availability">Continuous availability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areal_density_(computer_storage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areal density (computer storage)">Areal density (computer storage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_(data_storage)" title="Block (data storage)">Block (data storage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct-attached_storage" title="Direct-attached storage">Direct-attached storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-attached_storage" title="Network-attached storage">Network-attached storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storage_area_network" title="Storage area network">Storage area network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage">Block-level storage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-instance_storage" title="Single-instance storage">Single-instance storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_model" title="Data model">Structured data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstructured_data" title="Unstructured data">Unstructured data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_corruption" title="Data corruption">Data corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_cleansing" title="Data cleansing">Data cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_degradation" title="Data degradation">Data degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">Data integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_validation" title="Data validation">Data validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_validation_and_reconciliation" title="Data validation and reconciliation">Data validation and reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_recovery" title="Data recovery">Data recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Data cluster">Data cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directory_(computing)" title="Directory (computing)">Directory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_resource" title="Shared resource">Shared resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">File system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustered_file_system" title="Clustered file system">Clustered file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustered_file_system#Distributed_file_systems" title="Clustered file system">Distributed file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_file_system_for_cloud" title="Distributed file system for cloud">Distributed file system for cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_data_store" title="Distributed data store">Distributed data store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">Distributed database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_bank" title="Data bank">Data bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data storage">Data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_store" title="Data store">Data store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_deduplication" title="Data deduplication">Data deduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">Data structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_redundancy" title="Data redundancy">Data redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)">Replication (computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_refresh" title="Memory refresh">Memory refresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_record" title="Storage record">Storage record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_repository" title="Information repository">Information repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">Knowledge base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_file" title="Computer file">Computer file</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Boot_sector" title="Boot sector">Boot sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_boot_record" title="Master boot record">Master boot record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_boot_record" title="Volume boot record">Volume boot record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_array" title="Disk array">Disk array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_image" title="Disk image">Disk image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_mirroring" title="Disk mirroring">Disk mirroring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_aggregation" title="Disk aggregation">Disk aggregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Disk partitioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_segmentation" title="Memory segmentation">Memory segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locality_of_reference" title="Locality of reference">Locality of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_disk" title="Logical disk">Logical disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_virtualization" title="Storage virtualization">Storage virtualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory-mapped_file" title="Memory-mapped file">Memory-mapped file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_entropy" class="mw-redirect" title="Software entropy">Software entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_rot" title="Software rot">Software rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-memory_database" title="In-memory database">In-memory database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-memory_processing" title="In-memory processing">In-memory processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistence_(computer_science)" title="Persistence (computer science)">Persistence (computer science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_data_structure" title="Persistent data structure">Persistent data structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAID" title="RAID">RAID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-RAID_drive_architectures" title="Non-RAID drive architectures">Non-RAID drive architectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">Bank switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">Grid computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">Cloud computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_storage" title="Cloud storage">Cloud storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_computing" title="Fog computing">Fog computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_computing" title="Edge computing">Edge computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_computing" title="Dew computing">Dew computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amdahl%27s_law" title="Amdahl's law">Amdahl's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Kryder#Kryder's_law_projection" title="Mark Kryder">Kryder's law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cache_(computing)#HARDWARE" title="Cache (computing)">Hardware cache</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratchpad_memory" title="Scratchpad memory">Scratchpad memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EDRAM" title="EDRAM">eDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory#Synchronous_Graphics_RAM_(SGRAM)" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SGRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPDDR" title="LPDDR">LPDDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quad_Data_Rate_SRAM" title="Quad Data Rate SRAM">QDRSRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory#Extended_data_out_DRAM" title="Dynamic random-access memory">EDO DRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XDR_DRAM" title="XDR DRAM">XDR DRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RDRAM" title="RDRAM">RDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDR_SDRAM" title="DDR SDRAM">DDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GDDR_SDRAM" title="GDDR SDRAM">GDDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Bandwidth_Memory" title="High Bandwidth Memory">HBM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1T-SRAM" title="1T-SRAM">1T-SRAM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">QRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content-addressable_memory" title="Content-addressable memory">Content-addressable memory</a> (CAM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_RAM" title="Computational RAM">Computational RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_random_access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Video random access memory">VRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-ported_RAM" title="Dual-ported RAM">Dual-ported RAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_RAM_(dual-ported_DRAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)">Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams–Kilburn tube</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">Delay-line memory</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellon_optical_memory" title="Mellon optical memory">Mellon optical memory</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-RAM" title="T-RAM">T-RAM</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a> (2002–2010)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Non-volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diode_matrix" title="Diode matrix">Diode matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory#Factory-programmed" title="Read-only memory">MROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_ROM" title="Programmable ROM">PROM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">ROM cartridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_storage" title="Solid-state storage">Solid-state storage</a> (SSS) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> is used in:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">Solid-state drive</a> (SSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">Solid-state hybrid drive</a> (SSHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_FlashSystem" title="IBM FlashSystem">IBM FlashSystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_Core_Module" title="Flash Core Module">Flash Core Module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_Stick" title="Memory Stick">Memory Stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CompactFlash" title="CompactFlash">CompactFlash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PC_Card" title="PC Card">PC Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MultiMediaCard" title="MultiMediaCard">MultiMediaCard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SD_card" title="SD card">SD card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIM_card" title="SIM card">SIM card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SmartMedia" title="SmartMedia">SmartMedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Flash_Storage" title="Universal Flash Storage">Universal Flash Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SxS" title="SxS">SxS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroP2" title="MicroP2">MicroP2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XQD_card" title="XQD card">XQD card</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">Programmable metallization cell</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PCM</a> (<a href="/wiki/3D_XPoint" title="3D XPoint">3D XPoint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">Electrochemical RAM</a> (ECRAM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">Nano-RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early-stage <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FeRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fe_FET" title="Fe FET">FeFET memory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog recording</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder" title="Phonograph cylinder">Phonograph cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">Phonograph record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadruplex_videotape" title="Quadruplex videotape">Quadruplex videotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_Electronic_Recording_Apparatus" title="Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus">Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic recording">Magnetic recording</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage">Magnetic storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic-tape data storage">Magnetic-tape data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_drive" title="Tape drive">Tape drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_library" title="Tape library">Tape library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Data_Storage" title="Digital Data Storage">Digital Data Storage</a> (DDS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videotape" title="Videotape">Videotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videocassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Videocassette">Videocassette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open" title="Linear Tape-Open">Linear Tape-Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betamax" title="Betamax">Betamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8_mm_video_format" title="8 mm video format">8 mm video format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DV_(video_format)" title="DV (video format)">DV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiniDV" class="mw-redirect" title="MiniDV">MiniDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroMV" title="MicroMV">MicroMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-matic" title="U-matic">U-matic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VHS" title="VHS">VHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-VHS" title="S-VHS">S-VHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VHS-C" title="VHS-C">VHS-C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D-VHS" title="D-VHS">D-VHS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drive</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Optical_storage" title="Optical storage">Optical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a> (CDDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD_Video" title="CD Video">CD Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_CD" title="Video CD">Video CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">Super Video CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_optical_discs" title="Nintendo optical discs">Nintendo optical discs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyper_CD-ROM" title="Hyper CD-ROM">Hyper CD-ROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD_recordable#DVD+R_and_DVD+RW_(DVD_"plus")" title="DVD recordable">DVD+R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD_card" title="DVD card">DVD card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD-RAM" title="DVD-RAM">DVD-RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiniDVD" title="MiniDVD">MiniDVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray" title="Ultra HD Blu-ray">Ultra HD Blu-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_Versatile_Disc" title="Holographic Versatile Disc">Holographic Versatile Disc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Write_once_read_many" title="Write once read many">WORM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">In development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterned_media" title="Patterned media">Patterned media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_quantum_holography" title="Electronic quantum holography">Electronic quantum holography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5D_optical_data_storage" title="5D optical data storage">5D optical data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_digital_data_storage" title="DNA digital data storage">DNA digital data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_memory" title="Universal memory">Universal memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">Quantum memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_data_storage" title="Paper data storage">Paper data storage</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">Punched tape</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plugboard" title="Plugboard">Plugboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plated-wire_memory" title="Plated-wire memory">Plated-wire memory</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_rope_memory" title="Core rope memory">Core rope memory</a> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_memory" title="Thin-film memory">Thin-film memory</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a> (~1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_memory" title="Bubble memory">Bubble memory</a> (~1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a> (1971)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory_types" title="Template:Memory types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory_types" title="Template talk:Memory types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Non-volatile memory</b> (<b>NVM</b>) or <b>non-volatile storage</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a> that can retain stored information even after power is removed. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile memory</a> needs constant power in order to retain data. </p><p>Non-volatile memory typically refers to storage in <a href="/wiki/Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">memory chips</a>, which store data in <a href="/wiki/Floating-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating-gate">floating-gate</a> <a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cells</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate MOSFETs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors</a>), including <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory storage</a> such as <a href="/wiki/NAND_flash" class="mw-redirect" title="NAND flash">NAND flash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">solid-state drives</a> (SSD). </p><p>Other examples of non-volatile memory include <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM), <a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a> (erasable <a href="/wiki/Programmable_ROM" title="Programmable ROM">programmable ROM</a>) and <a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> (electrically erasable programmable ROM), <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">ferroelectric RAM</a>, most types of <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">computer data storage</a> devices (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Disk_storage" title="Disk storage">disk storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical discs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>), and early computer storage methods such as <a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">punched tape</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">cards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary storage">secondary storage</a> or long-term persistent storage. The most widely used form of <a href="/wiki/Primary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary storage">primary storage</a> today<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2023)">as of?</span></a></i>]</sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Random_access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Random access memory">random access memory</a> (RAM), meaning that when the <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. However, most forms of non-volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary storage. Typically, non-volatile memory costs more, provides lower performance, or has a limited lifetime compared to volatile random access memory. </p><p>Non-volatile data storage can be categorized into electrically addressed systems, for example, <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a>) and mechanically addressed systems (<a href="/wiki/Hard_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard disk">hard disks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical discs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holographic_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Holographic memory">holographic memory</a>, and such).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally speaking, electrically addressed systems are expensive, and have limited capacity, but are fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems cost less per bit, but are slower. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrically_addressed">Electrically addressed</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Electrically addressed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">Non-volatile random-access memory</a></div> <p>Electrically addressed semiconductor non-volatile memories can be categorized according to their write mechanism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Read-only_and_read-mostly_devices">Read-only and read-mostly devices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Read-only and read-mostly devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mask_ROM" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask ROM">Mask ROMs</a> are factory programmable only and typically used for large-volume products which are not required to be updated after the memory device is manufactured. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Programmable_read-only_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmable read-only memory">Programmable read-only memory</a> (PROM) can be altered once after the memory device is manufactured using a <a href="/wiki/PROM_programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="PROM programmer">PROM programmer</a>. Programming is often done before the device is installed in its target system, typically an <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded system</a>. The programming is permanent, and further changes require the replacement of the device. Data is stored by physically altering (burning) storage sites in the device. </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a> is an erasable ROM that can be changed more than once. However, writing new data to an EPROM requires a special programmer circuit. EPROMs have a quartz window that allows them to be erased with ultraviolet light, but the whole device is cleared at one time. A <a href="/wiki/One-time_programmable" class="mw-redirect" title="One-time programmable">one-time programmable</a> (OTP) device may be implemented using an EPROM chip without the quartz window; this is less costly to manufacture. An electrically erasable programmable read-only memory <a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> uses voltage to erase memory. These erasable memory devices require a significant amount of time to erase data and write new data; they are not usually configured to be programmed by the processor of the target system. Data is stored using <a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating-gate transistor">floating-gate transistors</a>, which require special operating voltages to trap or release electric charge on an insulated control gate to store information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flash_memory">Flash memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Flash memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> is a solid-state chip that maintains stored data without any external power source. It is a close relative to the EEPROM; it differs in that erase operations must be done on a block basis, and its capacity is substantially larger than that of an EEPROM. Flash memory devices use two different technologies—NOR and NAND—to map data. NOR flash provides high-speed random access, reading and writing data in specific memory locations; it can retrieve as little as a single byte. NAND flash reads and writes sequentially at high speed, handling data in blocks. However, it is slower on reading when compared to NOR. NAND flash reads faster than it writes, quickly transferring whole pages of data. Less expensive than NOR flash at high densities, NAND technology offers higher capacity for the same-size silicon.<sup id="cite_ref-Flash1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flash1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ferroelectric_RAM_(F-RAM)"><span id="Ferroelectric_RAM_.28F-RAM.29"></span>Ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">Ferroelectric RAM</a></div> <p><b>Ferroelectric RAM</b> (<b>FeRAM</b>, <b>F-RAM</b> or <b>FRAM</b>) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> similar in construction to <a href="/wiki/DRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAM">DRAM</a>, both use a capacitor and transistor but instead of using a simple <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> layer the capacitor, an F-RAM cell contains a thin ferroelectric film of lead zirconate titanate <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">[Pb(Zr,Ti)O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>]</span>, commonly referred to as PZT. The Zr/Ti atoms in the PZT change polarity in an electric field, thereby producing a binary switch. Due to the PZT crystal maintaining polarity, F-RAM retains its data memory when power is shut off or interrupted. </p><p>Due to this crystal structure and how it is influenced, F-RAM offers distinct properties from other nonvolatile memory options, including extremely high, although not infinite, endurance (exceeding 10<sup>16</sup> read/write cycles for 3.3 V devices), ultra-low power consumption (since F-RAM does not require a charge pump like other non-volatile memories), single-cycle write speeds, and gamma radiation tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetoresistive_RAM_(MRAM)"><span id="Magnetoresistive_RAM_.28MRAM.29"></span>Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_random-access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetoresistive random-access memory">Magnetoresistive random-access memory</a></div> <p>Magnetoresistive RAM stores data in magnetic storage elements called <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tunnel_junctions" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic tunnel junctions">magnetic tunnel junctions</a> (MTJs). The first generation of MRAM, such as <a href="/wiki/Everspin_Technologies" title="Everspin Technologies">Everspin Technologies</a>' 4 Mbit, utilized field-induced writing. The second generation is developed mainly through two approaches: <a href="/wiki/Thermal-assisted_switching" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal-assisted switching">Thermal-assisted switching</a> (TAS)<sup id="cite_ref-white_paper_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white_paper-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is being developed by <a href="/wiki/Crocus_Technology" title="Crocus Technology">Crocus Technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spin-transfer_torque" title="Spin-transfer torque">Spin-transfer torque</a> (STT) which <a href="/wiki/Crocus_Technology" title="Crocus Technology">Crocus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hynix" class="mw-redirect" title="Hynix">Hynix</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, and several other companies are developing.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phase-change_Memory_(PCM)"><span id="Phase-change_Memory_.28PCM.29"></span>Phase-change Memory (PCM)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phase-change Memory (PCM)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">Phase-change memory</a></div> <p>Phase-change memory stores data in <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">chalcogenide glass</a>, which can reversibly change the phase between the amorphous and the <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline state</a>, accomplished by heating and cooling the glass. The <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> state has low resistance, and the amorphous phase has high resistance, which allows currents to be switched ON and OFF to represent digital 1 and 0 states.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="FeFET_memory">FeFET memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: FeFET memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/FeFET_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="FeFET memory">FeFET memory</a> uses a transistor with <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferroelectric">ferroelectric</a> material to permanently retain state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RRAM_memory">RRAM memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: RRAM memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">Resistive random-access memory</a></div> <p>RRAM (ReRAM) works by changing the resistance across a dielectric solid-state material often referred to as a memristor. ReRAM involves generating defects in a thin oxide layer, known as oxygen vacancies (oxide bond locations where the oxygen has been removed), which can subsequently charge and drift under an electric field. The motion of oxygen ions and vacancies in the oxide would be analogous to the motion of electrons and holes in a semiconductor. </p><p>Although ReRAM was initially seen as a replacement technology for flash memory, the cost and performance benefits of ReRAM have not been enough for companies to proceed with the replacement. Apparently, a broad range of materials can be used for ReRAM. However, the discovery <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the popular high-κ gate dielectric HfO<sub>2</sub> can be used as a low-voltage ReRAM has encouraged researchers to investigate more possibilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanically_addressed_systems">Mechanically addressed systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mechanically addressed systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/IBM_Millipede" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Millipede">IBM Millipede</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holographic_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Holographic memory">holographic memory</a></div> <p>Mechanically addressed systems use a <a href="/wiki/Recording_head" title="Recording head">recording head</a> to read and write on a designated storage medium. Since the access time depends on the physical location of the data on the device, mechanically addressed systems may be <a href="/wiki/Sequential_access" title="Sequential access">sequential access</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a> stores data as a sequence of bits on a long tape; transporting the tape past the recording head is required to access any part of the storage. Tape media can be removed from the drive and stored, giving indefinite capacity at the cost of the time required to retrieve a dismounted tape.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drives</a> use a rotating magnetic disk to store data; access time is longer than for semiconductor memory, but the cost per stored data bit is very low, and they provide random access to any location on the disk. Formerly, removable <a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">disk packs</a> were common, allowing storage capacity to be expanded. <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical discs</a> store data by altering a pigment layer on a plastic disk and are similarly random access. Read-only and read-write versions are available; removable media again allows indefinite expansion, and some automated systems (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Optical_jukebox" title="Optical jukebox">optical jukebox</a>) were used to retrieve and mount disks under direct program control.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Domain-wall_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain-wall memory">Domain-wall memory (DWM)</a> stores data in a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tunnel_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic tunnel junction">magnetic tunnel junctions</a> (MTJs), which works by controlling <a href="/wiki/Domain_wall_(magnetism)" title="Domain wall (magnetism)">domain wall (DW)</a> motion in ferromagnetic nanowires.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organic">Organic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Organic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Organic_electronics" title="Organic electronics">Organic electronics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thinfilm" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinfilm">Thinfilm</a> produces rewriteable non-volatile organic <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferroelectric memory">ferroelectric memory</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_polymer" title="Ferroelectric polymer">ferroelectric polymers</a>. Thinfilm successfully demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Roll-to-roll" class="mw-redirect" title="Roll-to-roll">roll-to-roll</a> <a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">printed</a> memories in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Thinfilm's organic memory the ferroelectric polymer is sandwiched between two sets of electrodes in a passive matrix. Each crossing of metal lines is a <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_capacitor" title="Ferroelectric capacitor">ferroelectric capacitor</a> and defines a memory cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-volatile_main_memory">Non-volatile main memory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Non-volatile main memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non-volatile main memory (NVMM) is <a href="/wiki/Primary_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary storage">primary storage</a> with non-volatile attributes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This application of non-volatile memory presents security challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/NVDIMM" title="NVDIMM">NVDIMM</a> is one example of the non-volatile main memory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPattersonHennessy2005" class="citation book cs1">Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1lD9LZRcIZ8C&pg=PA23"><i>Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080502571" title="Special:BookSources/9780080502571"><bdi>9780080502571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design%3A+The+Hardware%2FSoftware+Interface&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780080502571&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Hennessy%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1lD9LZRcIZ8C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANon-volatile+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techrepublic.com/blog/it-security/i-nvmm-securing-non-volatile-memory-on-the-fly/">"i-NVMM: Securing non-volatile memory on the fly"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Techrepublic" class="mw-redirect" title="Techrepublic">Techrepublic</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=snia.org&rft.atitle=Tape+Drives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snia.org%2Feducation%2Fstorage_networking_primer%2Fstor_devices%2Ftape_drives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANon-volatile+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/h/harddriv.htm">"What is hard drive?"</a>. <i>computerhope.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150708081114/http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/h/harddriv.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ncl.ac.uk&rft.atitle=IBM+2314+Disk+Drives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.staff.ncl.ac.uk%2Froger.broughton%2Fmuseum%2FDASD%2F200426.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANon-volatile+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kintronics.com/jukebox.html">"Optical Blu-ray Jukeboxes and Libraries Systems for Archiving Storage – Kintronics"</a>. <i>kintronics.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150720184226/http://www.kintronics.com/jukebox.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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of Emerging Nonvolatile Main Memories and Countermeasures"</a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 2–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCAD.2014.2369741">10.1109/TCAD.2014.2369741</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14712674">14712674</a> – via IEEE Xplore.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Computer-Aided+Design+of+Integrated+Circuits+and+Systems&rft.atitle=Security+Vulnerabilities+of+Emerging+Nonvolatile+Main+Memories+and+Countermeasures&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-15&rft.date=2015-01-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTCAD.2014.2369741&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14712674%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kannan&rft.aufirst=Sachhidh&rft.au=Karimi%2C+Naghmeh&rft.au=Sinanoglu%2C+Ozgur&rft.au=Karri%2C+Ramesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F6952995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANon-volatile+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-volatile_memory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181221121125/https://lwn.net/Articles/610174/">Supporting filesystems in persistent memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/LWN.net" title="LWN.net">LWN.net</a>, 2 September 2014, by Jonathan Corbet</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13406">Research paper about perspective usage of magnetic photoconductors in magneto-optical data storage.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Primary_storage_technologies" title="Template:Primary storage technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Primary_storage_technologies" title="Template talk:Primary storage technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Primary_storage_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Primary storage technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_computer_data_storage_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Primary_storage" title="Computer data storage">Primary computer data storage</a> technologies</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a> <ul><li>e.g., <a href="/wiki/DDR_SDRAM" title="DDR SDRAM">DDR SDRAM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Future</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">Delay-line memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Non-volatile memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">RRAM</a> ( <a href="/wiki/3D_XPoint" title="3D XPoint">3D XPoint</a> )</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EAROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_read-only_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmable read-only memory">PROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Future</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FeRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_random-access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetoresistive random-access memory">MRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_memory" title="Bubble memory">Bubble memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Operating_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Operating_systems" title="Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Operating_systems" title="Template talk:Operating systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Operating_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Operating_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_software_engineering" title="Forensic software engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_operating_systems" title="List of operating systems">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of user features of operating systems">User features comparison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">Disk operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_operating_system" title="Distributed operating system">Distributed operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobbyist_operating_system" title="Hobbyist operating system">Hobbyist operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_enough_operating_system" title="Just enough operating system">Just enough operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_operating_system" title="Mobile operating system">Mobile operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">Network operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_operating_system" title="Object-oriented operating system">Object-oriented operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer_operating_system" title="Supercomputer operating system">Supercomputer operating system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_kernel" title="Hybrid kernel">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multikernel" title="Multikernel">Multikernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vkernel" title="Vkernel">vkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rump_kernel" title="Rump kernel">Rump kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unikernel" title="Unikernel">Unikernel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">User space and kernel space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">Context switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">IPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control_block" title="Process control block">Process control block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling<br />algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling" title="Fixed-priority pre-emptive scheduling">Fixed-priority preemptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilevel_feedback_queue" title="Multilevel feedback queue">Multilevel feedback queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">Round-robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortest_job_next" title="Shortest job next">Shortest job next</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_(operating_systems)" title="Memory management (operating systems)">Memory management</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/System_resource" title="System resource">resource</a> protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bus_error" title="Bus error">Bus error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_protection_fault" title="General protection fault">General protection fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_ring" title="Protection ring">Protection ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">Segmentation fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Storage</a> access,<br /><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booting#BOOT-LOADER" title="Booting">Boot loader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defragmentation" title="Defragmentation">Defragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_file" title="Device file">Device file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_attribute" title="File attribute">File attribute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inode" title="Inode">Inode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journaling_file_system" title="Journaling file system">Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_tape_library" title="Virtual tape library">Virtual tape library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supporting concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/API" title="API">API</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_abstraction" title="Hardware abstraction">HAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_CD" title="Live CD">Live CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_USB" title="Live USB">Live USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(computing)" title="Shell 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