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id="toc-Growth_of_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_universal_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_universal_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Spread of universal religions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_universal_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Trade and communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eurasian_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eurasian_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Eurasian trends </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eurasian_trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Eurasian trends subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Eurasian_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feudalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feudalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Feudalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feudalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Mongol Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silk_Road" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silk_Road"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Silk Road </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silk_Road-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plague_and_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plague_and_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Plague and disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plague_and_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_first_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 The first plague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_plague_pandemic_until_1500" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_plague_pandemic_until_1500"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Second plague pandemic until 1500 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_plague_pandemic_until_1500-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_and_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Literature and the arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History by region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_by_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History by region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_and_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_and_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 West and Central Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_and_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 South Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.1 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Norse_contact_and_the_polar_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norse_contact_and_the_polar_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.1.1 Norse contact and the polar regions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norse_contact_and_the_polar_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.1.2 Northern areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.2 Caribbean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.3 Mesoamerica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.4 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Andes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.4.1 Andes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 End of the period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Post-classical history</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" > 21 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ ما بعد الكلاسيكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ ما بعد الكلاسيكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ধ্রুপদী পরবর্তী যুগের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধ্রুপদী পরবর্তী যুগের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_postcl%C3%A0ssica" title="Era postclàssica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Era postclàssica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE" title="Μετακλασική εποχή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετακλασική εποχή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_post-klasikoa" title="Historia post-klasikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Historia post-klasikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%9B%84_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="고전후 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고전후 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_pascaklasik" title="Sejarah pascaklasik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah pascaklasik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98-%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התקופה הפוסט-קלאסית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקופה הפוסט-קלאסית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istori_Wosa-Klassek" title="Istori Wosa-Klassek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Istori Wosa-Klassek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_post-classica" title="Storia post-classica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia post-classica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="പൗരാണികാനന്തര ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പൗരാണികാനന്തര ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_pascaklasik" title="Sejarah pascaklasik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah pascaklasik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Пост-сонгодог түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Пост-сонгодог түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3" title="前近代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="前近代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="له کلاسیک وروسته تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="له کلاسیک وروسته تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_p%C3%B3s-cl%C3%A1ssica" title="Era pós-clássica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era pós-clássica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_postclasic%C4%83" title="Epoca postclasică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca postclasică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="பிந்தைய பாரம்பரிய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிந்தைய பாரம்பரிய வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Посткласична історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Посткласична історія" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/SamarkandGuriAmir.jpg/180px-SamarkandGuriAmir.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1772" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jingangjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/185px-Jingangjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/278px-Jingangjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/370px-Jingangjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="3438" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg/101px-Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg/152px-Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg/202px-Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2876" data-file-height="3694" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:JayavarmanVII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/JayavarmanVII.jpg/95px-JayavarmanVII.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/JayavarmanVII.jpg/143px-JayavarmanVII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/JayavarmanVII.jpg/190px-JayavarmanVII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1473" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Well-known medieval artworks, each representing a certain civilization. From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">Moai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Machu_Picchu" title="Machu Picchu">Machu Picchu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>), <a href="/wiki/Jade_mask_of_Pakal" title="Jade mask of Pakal">Jade mask</a> of <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Pakal the Great</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a> (<a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a>), <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre-Dame de Paris</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture" title="French Gothic architecture">French Gothic architecture</a>), <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>), <a href="/wiki/Djinguereber_Mosque" title="Djinguereber Mosque">Djinguereber Mosque</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gur-e-Amir" title="Gur-e-Amir">Gur-e-Amir</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a>), <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nataraja" title="Nataraja">Nataraja</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a>), and portrait of <a href="/wiki/Jayavarman_VII" title="Jayavarman VII">Jayavarman VII</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bayon" title="Bayon">Bayon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;border-spacing:0;padding:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>)   (<a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a> (<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Present</a>)</li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a>   </td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">world history</a>, post-classical history refers to the period from about 500 CE to 1500 CE, roughly corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The period is characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically and the development of trade networks between civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[A]</a> This period is also called the medieval era, post-antiquity era, post-ancient era, pre-modernity era, or pre-modern era. In <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a> created a series of <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a> and inaugurated the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, leading to advances in <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">science in the medieval Islamic world</a> and trade among the Asian, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a>, and European continents. <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> experienced the full establishment of the power of <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial China</a>, which established several dynasties influencing Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Religions such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">neo-Confucianism</a> spread in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski200982-6">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a> was developed in China during the post-classical era. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> connected Europe and Asia, creating safe trade and stability between the two regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books1998128-7">[6]</a> In total, the <a href="/wiki/World_population_estimates" class="mw-redirect" title="World population estimates">population of the world</a> doubled in the time period, from approximately 210 million in 500 CE to 461 million in 1500 CE.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> The population generally grew steadily throughout the period but endured some incidental declines due to events including the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaub1995"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_lower_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_slow_growth_was_the_Black_Plague._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_million_deaths."_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaub1995"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_lower_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_slow_growth_was_the_Black_Plague._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_million_deaths."-9">[8]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaub1995pp._5–6:_"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_much_higher_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_fast_growth_was_the_collapse_of_the_Roman_Empire._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_trillion_deaths."_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaub1995pp._5–6:_"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_much_higher_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_fast_growth_was_the_collapse_of_the_Roman_Empire._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_trillion_deaths."-10">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology_and_periodization">Terminology and periodization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology and periodization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg/170px-Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg/255px-Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Leonardo_Bruni_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> historian who helped develop the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>"</figcaption></figure> Post-classical history is a <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a> used by historians employing a <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">world history</a> approach to history, specifically the school developed during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> Outside of world history, the term is also sometimes used to avoid erroneous pre-conceptions around the terms <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Medieval Period, and the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">medievalism</a>), though the application of the term post-classical on a global scale is also problematic, and may likewise be <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816-11">[10]</a> Academic publications sometimes use the terms post-classical and late antiquity synonymously to describe the history of Western Eurasia between 250 and 800 CE.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> The post-classical period corresponds roughly to the period from 500 CE to 1450 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> Beginning and ending dates might vary depending on the region, with the period beginning at the end of the previous classical period: <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han China</a> (ending in 220 CE), the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (in 476 CE), the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> (in 543 CE), and the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> (in 651 CE).<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> The post-classical period is one of the five or six major periods world historians use: <ol><li>early civilization,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">classical societies</a>,</li> <li>post-classical</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">long nineteenth century</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">contemporary or modern era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> (Sometimes the nineteenth century and modern are combined.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a>)</li></ol> Although post-classical is synonymous with the Middle Ages of Western Europe, the term post-classical is not necessarily a member of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages#Historiography_and_periodization" title="Late Middle Ages">tripartite periodization</a> of Western European history into classical, middle, and modern. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approaches">Approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Approaches">edit</a>]</div> The historical field of <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">world history</a>, which looks at common themes occurring across multiple cultures and regions, has enjoyed extensive development since the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> However, World History research has tended to focus on <a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern globalization</a> (beginning around 1500) and subsequent developments, and views post-classical history as mainly pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> Historians recognize the difficulties of creating a periodization and identifying common themes that include not only this region but also, for example, the Americas, since they had little contact with Afro-Eurasia before the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> Thus researchers around the year 2020 emphasized that "a global history of the period between 500 and 1500 is still wanting" and that "historians have only just begun to embark on a global history of the Middle Ages".<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Borgolte_2017-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto8-18">[17]</a> For many regions of the world, there are well established histories. Although <a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">medieval studies</a> in Europe tended in the 19th century to focus on creating histories for individual nation-states, much 20th-century research focused, successfully, on creating an integrated history of medieval Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoudStaub20171–13-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michael_Borgolte_2017-17">[16]</a> The Islamic World likewise has a rich regional historiography, ranging from the 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> to the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Hodgson" title="Marshall Hodgson">Marshall Hodgson</a> and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein201094–107-22">[21]</a> Correspondingly, research into the network of commercial hubs which enabled goods and ideas to move between China in the East and the Atlantic islands in the West—which can be called the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">early history of globalization</a>—is fairly advanced; one key historian in this field is <a href="/wiki/Janet_Abu-Lughod" title="Janet Abu-Lughod">Janet Abu-Lughod</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Borgolte_2017-17">[16]</a> Understanding of communication within sub-Saharan Africa or the Americas is, by contrast, far more limited.<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Borgolte_2017-17">[16]</a> Around the 2010s, therefore, researchers began to explore the possibilities of writing history covering the Old World, where human activities were fairly interconnected, and establish its relationship with other cultural spheres, such as the Americas and Oceania. In the assessment of <a href="/wiki/James_Belich_(historian)" title="James Belich (historian)">James Belich</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Darwin_(historian)" title="John Darwin (historian)">John Darwin</a>, Margret Frenz, and <a href="/wiki/Chris_Wickham" title="Chris Wickham">Chris Wickham</a>, <blockquote>Global history may be boundless, but global historians are not. Global history cannot usefully mean the history of everything, everywhere, all the time. [...] Three approaches [...] seem to us to have real promise. One is global history as the pursuit of significant historical problems across time, space, and specialism. This can sometimes be characterized as <a href="/wiki/Comparative_history" title="Comparative history">'comparative' history</a>. [...] Another is connectedness, including transnational relationships. [...] The third approach is the study of globalization [...]. Globalization is a term that needs to be rescued from the present, and salvaged for the past. To define it as always encompassing the whole planet is to mistake the current outcome for a very ancient process.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></blockquote> A number of commentators have pointed to the history of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> as a useful approach to World History in the Middle Ages, noting that certain climate events had effects on all human populations.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_trends">Global trends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Global trends">edit</a>]</div> The post-classical era saw several common developments or themes. There was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas; the rise and/or spread of the three major world, or missionary, religions; and a period of rapidly expanding trade and trade networks. While scholastic emphasis has remained on Eurasia there is a growing effort to examine the effects of these global trends on other places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015-1">[1]</a> In describing geographic zones historians have identified three large self contained world regions, Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, and Oceania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[B]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_civilization">Growth of civilization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Growth of civilization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg/220px-Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg/330px-Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg/440px-Piquillacta_Archaeological_site_-_street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Piquillacta" class="mw-redirect" title="Piquillacta">Piquillacta</a> was an administrative urban center of the <a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari Empire</a>, a South America Andean civilization that thrived from the 5th to the 8th century.</figcaption></figure> First was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas across <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, and western <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. However, as noted by world historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_N._Stearns" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter N. Stearns">Peter N. Stearns</a>, there were no common global political trends during the post-classical period, rather it was a period of loosely organized states and other developments, but no common political patterns emerged.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-3">[3]</a> In Asia, China continued its historic <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">dynastic cycle</a> and became more complex, improving its bureaucracy. The creation of the Islamic empires established a new power in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empires</a> were formed in West Africa. The fall of Roman civilization not only left a power vacuum for the Mediterranean and Europe, but forced certain areas to build what some historians might call new civilizations entirely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirken1992451–461-32">[30]</a> An entirely different political system was applied in Western Europe (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>), as well as a different society (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>). However, the once Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) retained many features of old Rome, as well as Greek and Persian similarities. Kievan Rus' and subsequently Russia began development in Eastern Europe as well. In the isolated Americas, the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a> spread in North America and Mesoamerica saw the building of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean region</a> of South America saw the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari Empire</a> first and the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020395-33">[31]</a> In Oceania, ancestors of modern Polynesians were established in village communities by the 6th century, a gradual intensification of complexity took place. In the 13th century, complex states were established, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tuʻi Tonga Empire</a> which collected tribute from many island chains in the greater region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans202095–107-34">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_universal_religions">Spread of universal religions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spread of universal religions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Antioch,_France,_Lyon,_Municipal_Library,_Ms_828_f._033.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Antioch%2C_France%2C_Lyon%2C_Municipal_Library%2C_Ms_828_f._033.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Siege of Antioch (picture from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1280.) Religious wars were common in post-classical times. One of the largest was the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests" class="mw-disambig" title="Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>.</figcaption></figure> Religion that envisaged the possibility that all humans could be included in a universal order had emerged already in the first millennium BCE, particularly with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. In the following millennium, Buddhism was joined by two other major, universalizing, missionary religions, both developing from <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>: <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. By the end of the period, these three religions were between them widespread, and often politically dominant, across the Old World.<a href="#cite_note-Yuval_Noah_Harari_2014-35">[33]</a> <ul><li>Buddhism spread from India into China and flourished there briefly before using it as a hub to spread to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000162–167-36">[34]</a> a similar effect occurred with Confucian revivalism in the later centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Yuval_Noah_Harari_2014-35">[33]</a></li> <li>Christianity had become the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">state church of the Roman Empire</a> in 380, and continued spreading into northern and eastern Europe during the post-classical period at the expense of belief systems that Christians labelled <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski2009288-37">[35]</a> An attempt was even made to incur upon the Middle East during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>. The split of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in Western Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> in Eastern Europe encouraged religious and cultural diversity in Eurasia.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></li> <li>Islam began between 610 and 632, with a series of revelations to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. It helped unify the warring <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> clans of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> and, through a rapid series of <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, became established to the west across <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">North Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Spain">Iberian Peninsula</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Africa" title="Islam in Africa">West Africa</a>, and to the east across <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_settlement_of_the_Tarim_Basin" title="Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Spread of Islam in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein20109–35-39">[37]</a></li></ul> Outside of Eurasia, religion or otherwise a veneration of the supernatural was also used to reinforce power structures, articulate world views and create foundational myths for society. Mesoamerican cosmological narratives are an example of this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816-11">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_communication">Trade and communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trade and communication">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">Trade route</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg/220px-Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg/330px-Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg/440px-Rakaposhi_View_from_Babusar_Top.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Babusar_Pass" title="Babusar Pass">Babusar Pass</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></figcaption></figure> Finally, communication and trade across <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> increased rapidly. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> continued to spread cultures and ideas through trade. Communication spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade networks were established between western Europe, Byzantium, early Russia, the Islamic Empires, and the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far Eastern</a> civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> In Africa, the earlier introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> allowed for a new and eventually large <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan trade</a>, which connected Sub-Saharan West Africa to Eurasia. The Islamic Empires adopted many Greek, Roman, and Indian advances and spread them through the Islamic sphere of influence, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">allowing these developments to reach Europe</a>, North and West Africa, and Central Asia. Islamic sea trade helped connect these areas, including those in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, replacing Byzantium in the latter region. The Christian Crusades into the Middle East (as well as Muslim Spain and <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>) <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">brought Islamic science, technology, and goods to Western Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski2009288-37">[35]</a> Western trade into East Asia was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>. Importantly, China began to influence regions like Japan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000162–167-36">[34]</a> Korea, and Vietnam through trade and conquest. Finally, the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> in Central Asia established safe trade which allowed goods, cultures, ideas, and disease to spread between Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Americas had their own trade network, but here trade was restricted by range and scope. The Mayan network spread across Mesoamerica but lacked direct connections to the complex societies of South and North America, and these zones remained separate from one another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans20208-41">[39]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, some of the island chains of <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a> engaged in trade with one another.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> For instance, with outrigger canoes long-distance communication of over 2,300 miles between <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> was maintained for centuries before its disruption and separation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020106-43">[41]</a> Meanwhile, in <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a> there is evidence of exchanges between mainland <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trobriand_Islands" title="Trobriand Islands">Trobriand Islands</a> off its coast, most likely for <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a>. Populations moved westward until 1200, after which the network dissolved into much smaller economies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020100-44">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate">Climate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Climate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Historical_climatology" title="Historical climatology">Historical climatology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></div> During post-classical times, there is evidence that many regions of the world were affected similarly by global climate conditions; however, direct effects in temperature and precipitation varied by region. According to the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, changes did not all occur at once. Generally however, studies found that temperatures were relatively warmer in the 11th century, but colder by the early 17th century. The degree of climate change which occurred in all regions across the world is uncertain, as is whether such changes were all part of a global trend.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> Climate trends appear to be more recognizable in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern</a> than in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> however, there are instances where climate in areas without written records have been estimated, historians now believe the Southern Hemisphere became colder between 950 and 1250.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png/290px-2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png/435px-2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png/580px-2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png 2x" data-file-width="1449" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed depth of <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> varies among studies. Anomalies shown are from the 1950–80 reference period.</figcaption></figure> There are shorter climate periods that could be said roughly to account for large scale climate trends in the post-classical period. These include the <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age" title="Late Antique Little Ice Age">Late Antique Little Ice Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather_events_of_535%E2%80%93536" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme weather events of 535–536">extreme weather events of 536–537</a> were likely initiated by the eruption of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ilopango" title="Lake Ilopango">Lake Ilopango caldera</a> in <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>. Sulfate emitted into the air initiated global cooling, migrations and crop failures worldwide, possibly intensifying an already cooler time period.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> Records show that the world's average temperature remained colder for at least a century afterwards. The Medieval Warm Period from 950 to 1250 occurred mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, causing warmer summers in many areas; the high temperatures would only be surpassed by the global warming of the 20th/21st centuries. It has been hypothesized that the warmer temperatures allowed the Norse to colonize Greenland, due to ice-free waters. Outside of Europe there is evidence of warming conditions, including higher temperatures in China and major North American droughts which adversely affected numerous cultures.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> After 1250, glaciers began to expand in Greenland, affecting its <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a>, and cooling the entire North Atlantic. In the 14th century, the growing season in Europe became unreliable; meanwhile in China the cultivation of oranges was driven southward by colder temperatures. Especially in Europe, the Little Ice Age had great cultural ramifications.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> It persisted until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, long after the post-classical period.<a href="#cite_note-Hendy2002-50">[48]</a> Its causes are unclear: possible explanations include <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">sunspots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">orbital cycles of the Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic activity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">ocean circulation</a>, and man-made <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">population decline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline of post-classical history</a></div> This timetable gives a basic overview of states, cultures and events which transpired roughly between the years 200 and 1500. Sections are broken by political and geographic location.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books199817–19-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> <div style="overflow:auto"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_r6hfew6n37ldi8q8dpofmkbiaerzlhn"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" coords="1485,396,1587,417" title="Inca Empire" alt="Inca Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Intermediate_Period" coords="1180,396,1311,417" title="Late Intermediate Period" alt="Late Intermediate Period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" coords="710,396,808,417" title="Wari Empire" alt="Wari Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_Intermediate" coords="226,396,362,417" title="Early Intermediate" alt="Early Intermediate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Andean_civilization" coords="718,389,860,410" title="Andean civilization" alt="Andean civilization" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" coords="1477,378,1586,399" title="Aztec Empire" alt="Aztec 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title="Manorialism" alt="Manorialism" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Feudalism" coords="745,36,831,56" title="Feudalism" alt="Feudalism" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Migration_Period" coords="470,43,556,63" title="Migration Period" alt="Migration Period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Renaissance" coords="1465,43,1563,63" title="Renaissance" alt="Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" coords="179,43,265,63" title="Late Antiquity" alt="Late Antiquity" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_modern" coords="1507,30,1582,51" title="Early modern" alt="Early modern" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Modern_age" coords="1510,19,1580,40" title="Modern age" alt="Modern age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ancient_history" coords="185,19,260,40" title="Ancient history" alt="Ancient history" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Iron_Age" coords="179,30,265,51" title="Iron Age" alt="Iron Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" coords="1378,26,1475,47" title="Late Middle Ages" alt="Late Middle Ages" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" coords="1117,26,1214,47" title="High Middle Ages" alt="High Middle Ages" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" coords="636,26,738,47" title="Early Middle Ages" alt="Early Middle Ages" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_r6hfew6n37ldi8q8dpofmkbiaerzlhn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/r6hfew6n37ldi8q8dpofmkbiaerzlhn.png" /></div></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Dates are approximate range (based upon influence), consult particular article for details</dd> <dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  Middle Ages Divisions, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  Middle Ages Themes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  Other themes</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eurasian_trends">Eurasian trends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Eurasian trends">edit</a>]</div> This section explains events and trends which affected the geographic area of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. The civilizations within this area were distinct from one another but still endured shared experiences and some development patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden20181–44-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto6-56">[54]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Maps depicting the Eastern Hemisphere</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 210px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205px; height: 105px;"><a href="/wiki/File:East-Hem_500ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 500 CE"><img alt="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 475 CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/East-Hem_500ad.jpg/128px-East-Hem_500ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/East-Hem_500ad.jpg/193px-East-Hem_500ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/East-Hem_500ad.jpg/256px-East-Hem_500ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="1903" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 500 CE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 210px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205px; height: 105px;"><a href="/wiki/File:East-Hem_800ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 800 CE"><img alt="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 800 CE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/East-Hem_800ad.jpg/128px-East-Hem_800ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/East-Hem_800ad.jpg/193px-East-Hem_800ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/East-Hem_800ad.jpg/256px-East-Hem_800ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="1903" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 800 CE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 210px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205px; height: 105px;"><a href="/wiki/File:East-Hem_1200ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 1200 CE."><img alt="Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 1200 CE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/128px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/193px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg/256px-East-Hem_1200ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="1903" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 1200 CE.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feudalism">Feudalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Feudalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Examples_of_feudalism" title="Examples of feudalism">Examples of feudalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_(Majmu_al-Tawarikh,_Hafiz_i-Abru,_Herat,_1425).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg/220px-Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg/330px-Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg/440px-Mahmud_of_Ghazni_receiving_Indian_elephants_as_tribute_%28Majmu_al-Tawarikh%2C_Hafiz_i-Abru%2C_Herat%2C_1425%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="758" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> receiving Indian elephants as tribute. Islamic conquerors often maintained preexisting feudal systems; regardless of religious differences local aristocrats kept their positions as long as the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> was paid.</figcaption></figure> In the context of global history, the label of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> has been used to describe any agricultural society where central authority broke down to be replaced by a warrior <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>. Feudal societies are characterized by reliance on personal relationships with military elites, rather than a bureaucracy with a state-supported professional standing army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016101-57">[55]</a> The label of feudalism has thus been used to describe many areas of Eurasia including <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>, the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">iqta'</a> system, Indian feudalism, and <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Some world historians generalize that societies can be called feudal if authority was fragmented, with a set of obligations between vassal and lord. After the 8th century, feudalism became more common across Europe. Even Byzantium, which had inherited the government of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, chose to devolve its military obligations into <a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">themes</a> to increase the number of soldiers and ships available for military service during times of crisis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016443-59">[57]</a> There were similarities between European feudalism and the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">iqta'</a>, as both featured landed classes of mounted warriors whose titles were granted by a monarch or sultan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016433-60">[58]</a> Because of these similarities, it was common for societal structures to be preserved in the face of religious upheaval; for instance, after the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> conquered large portions of India, it imposed higher taxes but otherwise left local feudal structures in place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016107-61">[59]</a> Though most of Eurasia adopted feudalism and similar systems during this era, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">China</a> employed a centralized bureaucracy throughout much of the post classical period, particularly after 1000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016127-62">[60]</a> A major factor that distinguished China from other regions was that local leaders were reluctant to self-identify by their current location; instead, they typically displayed an ambition to unite the country in times of disunity.<a href="#cite_note-auto10-63">[61]</a> Beyond a broad generalization, the usefulness of the term "feudalism" is debated by contemporary historians, as the daily functions of feudalism sometimes differed greatly between world regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016101-57">[55]</a> Comparisons between feudal Europe and post-classical Japan have been particularly controversial. Throughout the 20th century, historians often compared medieval Europe to post-classical Japan.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> More recently, it has been argued that, until roughly 1400, Japan balanced its decentralized military power with more centralized forms of imperial (governmental) and monastic (religious) authority. Only in the <a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a> did there come to be fully decentralized power dominated by private military leaders.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Still other historians reject the term feudalism outright, challenging its ability to usefully describe societies either within or outside of medieval Europe.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_Empire">Mongol Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mongol Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg/220px-DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg/330px-DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg/440px-DiezAlbumsArmedRiders_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1658" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption> Mounted warriors pursue enemies. Illustration of Rashid-ad-Din's Gami' at-tawarih. Tabriz (?), 1st quarter of 14th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="692" data-mwtitle="Bookofmarcopolo1_33_pisa_64kb.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Bookofmarcopolo1_33_pisa_64kb.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Bookofmarcopolo1_33_pisa_64kb.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5b/Bookofmarcopolo1_33_pisa_64kb.ogg/Bookofmarcopolo1_33_pisa_64kb.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> describes the <a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol military tactics and organization">Mongol armies</a> at that time.</figcaption></figure> The Mongol Empire, which existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, was the largest <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Largest_empires_by_land_area" title="List of largest empires">continuous land empire</a> in history.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Originating in the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> of Central Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a>, extending northwards into <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, eastwards and southwards into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Indochina</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Iranian Plateau</a>, and westwards as far as the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008234-68">[66]</a> The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of nomadic tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> homeland under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, who was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under his descendants, who sent <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">invasions</a> in every direction.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> The vast transcontinental empire connected <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">east</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">west</a> with an enforced <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a> allowing trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001211-76">[74]</a> The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a>, or one of his other sons such as <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a>. After <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a> died, rival <a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">kurultai</a> councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers <a href="/wiki/Ariq_B%C3%B6ke" title="Ariq Böke">Ariq Böke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>, who then not only fought each other in the <a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a>, but also dealt with challenges from descendants of other sons of Genghis.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as Kublai sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_khans" class="mw-redirect" title="Chagatai khans">Chagatayid</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">Ögedeid</a> families.<a href="#cite_note-The_Harper_atlas_of_world_history-78">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg/220px-LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg/330px-LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg/440px-LetterOljeituToPhilipLeBel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2574" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption>Letter from the Mongolian-Persian <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> to France, 1305. The Chinese style stamp was used outside China as the official symbol of the Khans and their messengers.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in 1260 marked the high-water point of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquests">Mongol conquests</a> and was the first time a Mongol advance had ever been beaten back in direct combat on the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-The_Harper_atlas_of_world_history-78">[76]</a> Though the Mongols launched many more invasions into the Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wadi_al-Khazandar" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar">Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar</a> in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> khanate in the northwest; the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> in the west; the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> in the southwest; and the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> based in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994413-79">[77]</a> In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001xiii,_235-81">[79]</a> but it was later overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in 1368.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008233-82">[80]</a> The Genghisid rulers returned to Mongolia homeland and continued rule in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">Northern Yuan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008233-82">[80]</a> All of the original Mongol Khanates collapsed by 1500, but smaller successor states remained independent until the 1700s. Descendants of <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> that ruled much of India in early modern times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008233-82">[80]</a> The conquests and the interactions the Mongol Empire had with western Eurasia are one of the more comprehensively researched areas for historians looking to define a globalized Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-auto8-18">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silk_Road">Silk Road</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Silk Road">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg/180px-Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg/270px-Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg/360px-Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>Central Asian Buddhist Monks, the Silk Road allowed for the exchange for ideas as well as goods. A Central Asian <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> teacher (possibly <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian</a>) instructs a monk. Dated from the 9th century near <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turfan, Xinxiang, China</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="273" data-mwtitle="Bookofmarcopolo1_chap22_pisa_64kb.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Bookofmarcopolo1_chap22_pisa_64kb.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Bookofmarcopolo1_chap22_pisa_64kb.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/Bookofmarcopolo1_chap22_pisa_64kb.ogg/Bookofmarcopolo1_chap22_pisa_64kb.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> describing <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq's</a> (Beijing's) role in the Silk Road</figcaption></figure> The Silk Road was a Eurasian trade route that played a large role in global communication and interaction. It stimulated cultural exchange; encouraged the learning of new languages; resulted in the trade of many goods, such as silk, gold, and spices; and also spread religion and disease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian20001–21-83">[81]</a> It is even claimed by some historians – such as <a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Hardy_McNeill" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hardy McNeill">William Hardy McNeill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_H._Bentley" title="Jerry H. Bentley">Jerry H. Bentley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Hodgson" title="Marshall Hodgson">Marshall Hodgson</a> – that the Afro-Eurasian world was loosely united culturally, and that the Silk Road was fundamental to this unity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian20001–21-83">[81]</a> This major trade route began with the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> of China, connecting it to the Roman Empire and any regions in between or nearby. At this time, Central Asia exported horses, <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> into China for the latter's silk; the Romans would trade for the Chinese commodity as well, offering wine in return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000101-84">[82]</a> The Silk Road would often decline and rise again in trade from the Iron Age to the post-classical era. Following one such decline, it was reopened in Central Asia by Han dynasty general <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a> during the 1st century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000568-85">[83]</a> There were vulnerabilities as well to changing political situations. The rise of Islam changed the Silk Road, because Muslim rulers generally closed the Silk Road to <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian Europe</a> to an extent that Europe would be cut off from Asia for centuries. Specifically, the political developments that affected the Silk Road included the emergence of the Turks, the political movements of the Byzatine and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empires</a>, and the rise of the Arabs, among others.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Tapestry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chinese-Song era tapestry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Song_Tapestry.jpg/150px-Song_Tapestry.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Song_Tapestry.jpg/225px-Song_Tapestry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Song_Tapestry.jpg/300px-Song_Tapestry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1516" data-file-height="2861" /></a><figcaption>Chinese-Song-era tapestry, Chinese Silk was carried west over large distancess</figcaption></figure> The Silk Road flourished again in the 13th century during the reign of the Mongol Empire, which through conquest had brought stability in Central Asia comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003146-87">[85]</a> It was claimed by a Muslim historian that Central Asia was peaceful and safe to transverse. <blockquote>"(Central Asia) enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearnsAdasSchwartzGilbert2011321-88">[86]</a> </blockquote> As such, trade and communication between Europe, East Asia, South Asia, and West Asia required little effort. Handicraft production, art, and scholarship prospered, and wealthy merchants enjoyed cosmopolitan cities. Notable Travelers including <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabban_Bar_Sauma" title="Rabban Bar Sauma">Rabban Bar Sauma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> traveled across North Africa and Eurasia freely, those that left accounts of their experiences inspired future adventurers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearnsAdasSchwartzGilbert2011321-88">[86]</a> The Silk Road was also a major factor in spreading religion across Afro-Eurasia. Muslim teachings from Arabia and Persia reached East Asia. Buddhism spread from India, to China, to Central Asia. One significant development in the spread of Buddhism was the carving of the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> School in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">ancient Taxila</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peshwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshwar">Peshwar</a>, allegedly in the mid 1st century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000568-85">[83]</a> In addition to commercial travel was the esteem of <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a> that existed across all of Afro-Eurasia, in the words of world historian <a href="/wiki/R._I._Moore" title="R. I. Moore">R. I. Moore</a> "if any single institution 'made' the Eurasian Middle Ages it was pilgrimage."<a href="#cite_note-auto6-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Nevertheless, after the 15th century, the Silk Road disappeared from regular use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003146-87">[85]</a> This was primarily a result from the growing sea travel pioneered by Europeans, which allowed the trade of goods by sailing around the southern tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003146-87">[85]</a> The route was vulnerable to spreading plague. The <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> originated in East Africa and had a major outbreak in Europe in 542 causing the deaths of a quarter of the Mediterranean's population. Trade between Europe, Africa, and Asia along the route was at least partially responsible for spreading the plague.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> Eight centuries later, the Silk Road trade played a role in spreading the infamous <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. The disease, spread by rats, was carried by merchant ships sailing across the Mediterranean that brought the plague back to Sicily, causing an <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> in 1347.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski2009310-92">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plague_and_disease">Plague and disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Plague and disease">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a></div> In the Eurasian world, disease was an inescapable part of daily life. Europe in particular suffered minor outbreaks of disease every decade during the period. Using both land and sea routes, devastating pandemics could spread far beyond their initial focal point.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-93">[91]</a> Tracking the origin of massive <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plagues</a> and their potential spread between Eastern and Western Eurasia has been academically contentious.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a> Besides bubonic plague, other diseases including <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> also spread across cultural regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks201566-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_first_plague">The first plague</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The first plague">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First plague pandemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">first plague pandemic</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> began with the 541–549 Plague of Justinian. The origin of the plague appears to have been the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> mountains in <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> But the origin of the 541–549 epidemic remains uncertain: some historians postulate East Africa as a possible geographical origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020522-97">[95]</a> There is no record of a disease with the characteristics of Yersinia pestis breaking out in China before its appearance in <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a>. The plague spread to Europe and West Asia, with a possible spread into East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-99">[C]</a> Established urban civilizations were massively depopulated; the economies and social fabric of established empires were severely destabilized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020525–527-100">[97]</a> Rural societies, while still facing horrific death tolls, saw fewer socioeconomic effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020523–525-101">[98]</a> In addition, no evidence has been found of bubonic plague in India before 1600.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020525–527-100">[97]</a> Nevertheless, it is likely that the trauma of disease (and other natural disasters) was a major cause of profound religious and political changes in Eurasia. Different authorities reacted to disease outbreaks with strategies that they believed would best protect their power. The Catholic Church in France spoke of healing miracles; Confucian bureaucrats asserted that sudden deaths of Chinese emperors represented the loss of a dynasty's <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, shifting blame away from themselves. The severe loss of manpower in the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires contributed to early Muslim conquests in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020523–529-98">[96]</a> In the long term, overland trade in Eurasia diminished, as coastal Indian Ocean trade became more frequent. There were recurrent aftershocks of the Plague of Justinian until around 750, after which many nations saw an economic recovery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020531-102">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_plague_pandemic_until_1500">Second plague pandemic until 1500</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Second plague pandemic until 1500">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg/220px-Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg/330px-Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg/440px-Peste_bubonique_-_enluminure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="809" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption> Old Testament Plague of boils in the Toggenburg Bible, 14th century. Bubonic Plagues deeply affected the life outlook of survivors.</figcaption></figure> Six centuries later, a relative (but not a direct descendant) of Yersinia Pestis rose to afflict Eurasia: the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. The first instance of the <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">second plague pandemic</a> was between 1347 and 1351. It killed variously between 25% and 50% of populations.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> Traditionally many historians believed the Black Death started in China and was then spread westward by invading Mongols who inadvertently carried infected fleas and rats with them.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a> Although there is no concrete historical evidence for this theory, the plague is considered endemic on the steppe.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> Currently there is extensive historiography of the Black Death's effects in Europe and the Islamic world, but beyond Western Eurasia direct evidence for Black Death's presence is lacking.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> The Bulletin of the History of Medicine explored the potential linking of known 14th century epidemics in Asia with the plague. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a>, where much of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>'s army suddenly died of a sickness in 1334. As this was 15 years before Europe's Black Death but little detail about the symptoms, it is unlikely that this was an instance of bubonic plague. Meanwhile, Yuan China suffered from major epidemics in the mid-14th century, including a recorded 90% death rate in Hebei Province.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a> As with the Deccan event, surviving accounts do not describe symptoms; so historians are left to speculate.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a> Perhaps these outbreaks were not the Black Death but instead some other disease already common to East Asia at the time, such as <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks201567-107">[104]</a> Compared to Western reactions to the Black Death, Chinese records that do mention the epidemics are relatively muted, indicating that epidemics were a routine occurrence. Historians consider the hypothesis of a Chinese origin of a westward-moving plague unlikely given the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire and the 5,000-mile journey between <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> through sparsely populated Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman_2011_319–355-94">[92]</a> The aftershocks of the plague continued to affect populations well into the early modern period. In Western Europe, the devastating loss of people created lasting changes. Wage labor began to rise in Western Europe and there was more emphasis on labor-saving machines and mechanisms. Slavery, which had almost vanished from medieval Europe, returned and was one of the reasons for early Portuguese exploration after 1400. The adoption of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> may have been partially caused by the plague.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Importantly, many economies became specialist, producing only certain goods, seeking expansion elsewhere for exotic resources and slave labor. While typically Western European expansion as a result of the Black Death is most discussed, Islamic countries including the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> also partook in land-based expansionism and used their own slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Science#Post-classical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Science">History of Science § Post-classical science</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg/220px-Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg/330px-Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg/440px-Westerner_and_Arab_practicing_geometry_15th_century_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2130" data-file-height="2083" /></a><figcaption>Westerner and Arab practicing geometry 15th century manuscript</figcaption></figure> The term post-classical science is often used in academic circles and in college courses to combine the study of <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">medieval European science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic science</a> due to their interactions with one another.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> However scientific knowledge also spread westward by trade and war from Eastern Eurasia, particularly from China by Arabs. The Islamic world also took medical knowledge from <a href="/wiki/Indian_influence_on_Islamic_science" title="Indian influence on Islamic science">South Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> In the Western world and in Islamic realms, much emphasis was placed on preserving the rationalist Greek tradition of figures such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. In the context of science within Islam there are questions as to whether Islamic scientists simply preserved accomplishments from <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> or built upon earlier Greek advances.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> Regardless, classical European science was brought back to the Christian kingdoms due to the experience of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016451-114">[111]</a> As a result of Persian trade in China, and the battle of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Talas River</a>, Chinese innovations entered the Islamic intellectual world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003108-115">[112]</a> These include advances in astronomy and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_paper" title="History of paper">papermaking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-meggs58-116">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasood2009132–135-117">[114]</a> Paper-making spread through the Islamic world as far west as <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a>, before paper-making was acquired for Europe by the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> There is debate about <a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder#Spread_throughout_Eurasia_and_Africa" title="History of gunpowder">transmission of gunpowder</a> regarding whether the Mongols introduced <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty#Gunpowder_warfare" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Chinese gunpowder weapons</a> to Europe or whether gunpowder weapons were independently invented in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> In the Mongol Empire, information from diverse cultures was brought together for large projects: for instance in 1303 the Mongol <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> combined Chinese and Islamic cartography to make a map that likely included all of Eurasia including western Europe. This "Eurasia map" is now lost, but it influenced Chinese and Korean geographical knowledge centuries later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks201567-107">[104]</a> It is apparent that within Eurasia transfer of information between world cultures did occur, usually through translations of written documents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden20181–44-54">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_the_arts">Literature and the arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature and the arts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">History of music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg/220px-Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg/330px-Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg/440px-Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4578" data-file-height="2501" /></a><figcaption>12th century illustration from the <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Genji" title="The Tale of Genji">Tale of Genji</a>, the world's first novel.</figcaption></figure> Within Eurasia, there were four major civilization groups that had literate cultures and created literature and arts, including Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Southeast Asia could be a possible fifth category but was influenced heavily from both South and East Asia literal cultures. All four cultures in post-classical times used <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>. Throughout the period and until the 19th century poetry was the dominant form of literary expression. In West Asia, South Asia, Europe, and China, great poetic works often used figurative language. Examples include, the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakuntala_(play)" title="Shakuntala (play)">Shakuntala</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">Thousand and one nights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> and works by the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Du_Fu" title="Du Fu">Du Fu</a> and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a>. In Japan, prose uniquely thrived more than in other geographic areas. The <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Genji" title="The Tale of Genji">Tale of Genji</a> is considered the world's first realistic novel written in the 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="87" data-mwtitle="Spc206_beholdwaterofwaters_dwd_128kb_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Spc206_beholdwaterofwaters_dwd_128kb_1.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Spc206_beholdwaterofwaters_dwd_128kb_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d1/Spc206_beholdwaterofwaters_dwd_128kb_1.ogg/Spc206_beholdwaterofwaters_dwd_128kb_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Behold Water of Waters, by Iranian poet <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a>. Example of lyric poetry</figcaption></figure> Musically, most regions of the world only used monophonic melodies as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a>. Medieval Europe was the lone exception to this rule, developing harmonic music in the 14th/15th century as musical culture transitioned form sacred music (meant for the church) to secular music.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> South Asian and West Asian music were similar to each other for their use of <a href="/wiki/Microtonal_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Microtonal music">microtone</a>. East Asian music shared some similarities with European music by using twelve tones and employing scales, but differed in the number of scales used- 5 for the former and seven for the latter<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_by_region">History by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History by region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_and_early_modern_Africa" title="Medieval and early modern Africa">Medieval and early modern Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_(13th-15th_cent).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg/180px-Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg/270px-Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg/360px-Djenne_Terracotta_Equestrian_%2813th-15th_cent%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Djenne Terracotta Equestrian (13th–15th century), within the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a></figcaption></figure> During the post-classical era, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> was both culturally and politically affected by the introduction of Islam and the Arab empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearnsAdasSchwartzGilbert2011184-124">[121]</a> This was especially true in the north, the <a href="/wiki/Sudan_(region)" title="Sudan (region)">Sudan</a>, and the east coast. However, this conversion was not complete nor uniform among different areas, and the low-level classes hardly changed their beliefs at all.<a href="#cite_note-metmuseum_islam_trade_and_spread-125">[122]</a> Prior to the migration and conquest of Muslims into Africa, much of the continent was dominated by diverse societies of varying sizes and complexities. These were ruled by kings or councils of elders who would control their constituents in a variety of ways. Most of these peoples practiced spiritual, animistic religions. Africa was culturally separated between Saharan Africa (which consisted of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara Desert</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> (everything south of the Sahara). Sub-Saharan Africa was further divided into the Sudan, which covered everything north of <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, including <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. The area south of the Sudan was primarily occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu peoples</a> who spoke the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu language">Bantu language</a>. From 1100 onward, <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a> became dependent on Africa for gold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003136-126">[123]</a> After approximately 650 urbanization expanded for the first time beyond the ancient kingdoms <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>. African civilizations can be divided into three categories based on religion:<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> <ul><li>Christian civilizations on the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a></li> <li>Islamic civilizations which formed in the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River Valley</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_society" title="Traditional society">Traditional societies</a> which adhered to <a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">native African religions</a></li></ul> Sub-Saharan Africa was part of two large, separate trading networks, the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan trade</a> that bridged commerce between West and North Africa. Due to the huge profits from trade native African Islamic empires arose, including those of <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a>, Mali, and Songhai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008225-129">[126]</a> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Mansa_Musa" title="Mansa Musa">Mansa Musa</a> of Mali may have been the wealthiest person of his time.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> Within Mali, the city of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> was an international center of science and well known throughout the Islamic world, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Sankor%C3%A9_Madrasah" title="Sankoré Madrasah">University of Sankoré</a>. East Africa was part of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a> network, which included both Arab ruled Islamic cities on the East African Coast such as <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> and traditional cities such as <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> which exported gold, copper and ivory to markets in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003136-126">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_ploughing.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/220px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/330px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/440px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Drawing from 1300 that depicts medieval ploughing. Most Europeans in the Middle Ages were landless peasants called <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a> who worked in exchange for military protection. After the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of the 1340s, a labor shortage caused serfs to demand wages for their labor.</figcaption></figure> In Europe, Western civilization reconstituted after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> into the period now known as the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> (500–1000). The Early Middle Ages saw a continuation of trends begun in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>: depopulation, deurbanization, and increased <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> invasion.<a href="#cite_note-clark-131">[128]</a> From the 7th until the 11th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Magyars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Norse</a> were all threats to the Christian Kingdoms that killed thousands of people over centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016291-132">[129]</a> Raiders however, also created new trading networks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016429-133">[130]</a> In Western Europe, the Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> attempted to kindle the rise of culture and science in the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016284-134">[131]</a> In 800, Charlemagne founded the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in attempt to resurrect ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016282–283-135">[132]</a> The reign of Charlemagne attempted to kindle a rise of learning and literacy in what has become known as the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016282-136">[133]</a> In Eastern Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> survived in what is now called the Byzantine Empire, which created the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Code of Justinian</a> that inspired the legal structures of modern European states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016272-137">[134]</a> Overseen by <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> emperors, in the 9th–10th centuries the Byzantine Eastern Orthodox Church Christianized the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, the cultural and political ancestors to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, on the one hand, and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, on the other.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidal-Nanquet198796-139">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> flourished as the leading power and trade center in its region in the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a> until it was overshadowed by <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> and the Islamic Ottoman Empire near the end of the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidal-Nanquet1987108-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016285-141">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bobolice,_zamek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg/220px-Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg/330px-Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg/440px-Bobolice%2C_zamek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bobolice_Castle" title="Bobolice Castle">Bobolice Castle</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Bobolice" title="Bobolice">Boblice Poland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval European</a> castles were centers of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal power</a>.</figcaption></figure> Later in the period, the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal system">feudal system</a> allowed greater degrees of military and agricultural organization. There was sustained <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016433-60">[58]</a> Later developments were marked by <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, and evolved into the prosperous <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016433-60">[58]</a> After 1000 the Christian kingdoms that had emerged from Rome's collapse changed dramatically in their cultural and societal character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016429-133">[130]</a> During the High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300), <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>-oriented art and architecture flourished and the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> were mounted to recapture the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> from <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016444-142">[139]</a> The influence of the emerging <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> was tempered by the ideal of an international <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> and the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in all western kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003122–123-143">[140]</a> The codes of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a> set rules for proper behavior, while the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> philosophers attempted to reconcile faith and reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016451-114">[111]</a> The age of Feudalism would be dramatically transformed by the cataclysm of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> and its aftermath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003142-144">[141]</a> This time would be a major underlying cause for the Renaissance. By the turn of the 16th century European or <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western civilization</a> would be engaging in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016477-145">[142]</a> The term "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in the 15th century and reflects the view that this period was a deviation from the path of classical learning, a path supposedly reconnected by <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-Miglio112-146">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_and_Central_Asia">West and Central Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: West and Central Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">Medieval West Asia</a></div> The Arabian Peninsula and the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> regions saw dramatic change during the post-classical era caused primarily by the spread of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the establishment of the Arab <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books199878-147">[144]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>6th-century Sasanian defense lines in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent, Dagestan Russia</a></figcaption></figure> In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated by empires and their spheres of influence; the two most prominent were the Persian <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, centered in what is now <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>). The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other continually, a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidal-Nanquet198770-148">[145]</a> The fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> Meanwhile, the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> tribes who dominated the Arabian desert saw a period of tribal warfare for scarce resources and a familiarity with Abrahamic religions or monotheism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016301–302-150">[147]</a> While the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires were both weakened by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>, a new power in the form of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> grew in the Middle East under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad in Medina">Muhammad in Medina</a>. In a series of rapid <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun army</a>, led by the caliphs and skilled military commanders such as <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory in the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a> and completely engulfing Persia in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016303–305-151">[148]</a> It would be the Arab caliphates of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. These caliphates included the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphates</a>, along with the later Turkic-based <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016296-152">[149]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg/220px-15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg/330px-15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg/440px-15th_century_egyptian_anatomy_of_horse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1371" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a horse from the 15th century. The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age of Islam</a> made advances in <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">medicine</a>.</figcaption></figure> After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, inspiring achievements in <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidal-Nanquet198776-153">[150]</a> Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_elementary_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="History of elementary algebra">algebra</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">anatomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">ethics</a> that would later find their way back to Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidal-Nanquet1987110-155">[152]</a> This was followed by a series of Christian Western Europe invasions. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joint European forces mainly from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, and the emerging <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, to enter the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016328-156">[153]</a> In 1099 the knights of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, which survived until 1187, when <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016331-157">[154]</a> In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">siege of Baghdad</a> and advancing as far south as the border of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquests">Mongol conquests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016333-158">[155]</a> The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuk Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turko-Mongol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans.<a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: South Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval South Asia</a></div> There has been difficulty applying the word "medieval" or "post-classical" to the history of South Asia. This section follows historian Stein Burton's definition that corresponds from the 8th century to the 16th century, more or less following the same time frame of the post-classical period and the European Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_(_Big_Temple).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg/180px-Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg/270px-Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg/360px-Thanjuvur_Peruvudayar_Temple_%28_Big_Temple%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="3759" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Thanjavur" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur">Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur</a> constructed by <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola I">Rajendra Chola</a>.</figcaption></figure> Until the 13th century, there was no less than 20 to 40 different states on the Indian subcontinent which hosted a variety of cultures, languages, writing systems and religions.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a> At the beginning of the time period <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> was predominant throughout the area with the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> sponsoring the faith's institutions. One such institution was the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nalanda_mahavihara" title="Nalanda mahavihara">Nalanda mahavihara</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, a center of scholarship that brought the divided South Asia onto the global intellectual stage. Another accomplishment was the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">Chaturanga</a> game which later was exported to Europe and became <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindu</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a> gained prominence with an overseas empire that controlled parts of modern-day Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and <a href="/wiki/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya" title="Chola invasion of Srivijaya">Indonesia</a> as oversees territories and accelerated the spread of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> into the historic culture of these places.<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> In this time period, neighboring areas such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a> were under <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">South Asian influence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> From 1206 onward, a series of Turkic invasions from modern-day Afghanistan and Iran conquered massive portions of <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>, founding the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> which remained supreme until the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016107-61">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Buddhism declined</a> in South Asia vanishing in many areas but Hinduism survived and reinforced itself in areas conquered by <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Muslims</a>. In the far south, the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> was not conquered by any Muslim state in the period. The turn of the 16th century would see the rise of a new Islamic empire – the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a> and the establishment of European trade posts by the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_period" title="History of Southeast Asia">Medieval Southeast Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg/220px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg/330px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg/440px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4757" data-file-height="3398" /></a><figcaption>Built in the 9th century, Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world.</figcaption></figure> From the 8th century onward, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> stood to benefit from the trade taking place between South Asia and East Asia, numerous kingdoms arose in the region due to the flow of wealth passing through the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a>. While Southeast Asia had numerous outside influences including Indian and Chinese Civilization, local cultures strove to cement their own unique identities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans202065-166">[163]</a> North Vietnam (known as Dai Viet) was culturally closer to China for centuries due to conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020170-167">[164]</a> Since rule from the third century BCE, North Vietnam continued to be subjugated by Chinese states, although they continually resisted periodically. There were three periods of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Chinese domination</a> that spanned near 1100 years. The Vietnamese gained long lasting independence in the 10th century when China was <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">divided</a> with <a href="/wiki/T%C4%A9nh_H%E1%BA%A3i_qu%C3%A2n" title="Tĩnh Hải quân">Tĩnh Hải quân</a> and the successor <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a>. Nonetheless, even as an independent state a sort of begrudging <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicization</a> occurred. South Vietnam was governed by the ancient Hindu <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa Kingdom</a> but was <a href="/wiki/Champa%E2%80%93%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t_War_(1471)" title="Champa–Đại Việt War (1471)">annexed</a> by the Vietnamese in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a> The spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and maritime trade between China and South Asia created the foundation for Southeast Asia's first major empires; including the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> from Cambodia and <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> from Indonesia. During the Khmer Empire's height in the 12th century the city of <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Thom" title="Angkor Thom">Angkor Thom</a> was among the largest of the pre-modern world due to its water management. King <a href="/wiki/Jayavarman_II" title="Jayavarman II">Jayavarman II</a> constructed over a hundred hospitals throughout his realm.<a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a> Nearby rose the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Empire">Pagan Empire</a> in modern-day Burma, using elephants as military might.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008211-170">[167]</a> The construction of the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Shwezigon_Pagoda" title="Shwezigon Pagoda">Shwezigon Pagoda</a> and its tolerance for believers of older polytheistic gods helped <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada Buddhism</a> become supreme in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008211-170">[167]</a> In Indonesia, <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> from the 7th through 14th century was a <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">thalassocracy</a> that focused on maritime city states and trade. Controlling the vital choke points of the <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Strait" title="Sunda Strait">Sunda</a> and Malacca Straits it became rich from trade ranging from Japan through Arabia. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angkor_Thom,_Bayon_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg/220px-Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg/330px-Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg/440px-Angkor_Thom%2C_Bayon_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the bas-relief of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tonl%C3%A9_Sap" title="Battle of Tonlé Sap">Battle of Tonlé Sap</a> at the Bayon. Champa was a major rival of the Khmer Empire. Southeast Asian battles were often fought on rivers.</figcaption></figure> Gold, ivory, and ceramics were all major commodities traveling through port cities. The empire was also responsible for the construction of wonders such as <a href="/wiki/Borobudur" title="Borobudur">Borobudur</a>. During this time Indonesian sailors crossed the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>; evidence suggests that they may have colonized <a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a> Indian culture spread to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(900%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (900–1521)">Philippines</a>, likely through Indonesian trade resulting in the first documented use of writing in the archipelago and Indianized kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBullietCrossleyHeadrickJohnson2014186-172">[169]</a> Over time, changing economic and political conditions elsewhere and wars weakened the traditional empires of Southeast Asia. While the Mongol invasions did not directly annex Southeast Asia, the war-time devastation paved way for the rise of new nations. In the 14th century the Khmer Empire was uprooted by persistent years of war - losing the functionality and engineering knowledge of its advanced water management system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015315-173">[170]</a> Srivijaya was overtaken by the <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015242-174">[171]</a> Islamic missionaries and merchants arrived eventually leading to Islamization in Indonesia.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-175">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[D]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Medieval_history_(1000-1450)" title="History of East Asia">Medieval East Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg/220px-Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg/330px-Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg/440px-Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1262" data-file-height="865" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> painting of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a>, which gave citizens the opportunity to be employed by the imperial government of China through <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[173]</a></figcaption></figure> The time frame of 500–1500 in East Asia's history and China in particular has been proposed as a possible classification for the region's history within the context of global post-classical history.<a href="#cite_note-178">[174]</a> Discussions within Columbia University's Association of Asian studies have postulated that similarities between China and other regions of Eurasia during post-classical times have often been overlooked.<a href="#cite_note-179">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[E]</a> Typically the English language histography of Japan postulates that its 'medieval period' began as late as 1185.<a href="#cite_note-auto7-181">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[F]</a> During this period the Eastern empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas. <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> went under the process of voluntary Sinicization, or the impression of Chinese cultural and political ideas.<a href="#cite_note-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asuka_period" title="Asuka period">Japan</a> sinicized because their ruling class were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126-186">[180]</a> The major influences China had on these countries were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the establishment of centralized governance. Throughout East Asia, Buddhism was most visible in monasteries and local educational institutions and Confucianism remained the ideology of social cohesion and state power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015-1">[1]</a> <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003181-187">[181]</a> In the times of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasties</a> (581–1279), China remained the world's largest economy and most technologically advanced society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBullietCrossleyHeadrickJohnson2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kfAAgAAQBAJpgPA264_264]-188">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Inventions</a> such as gunpowder, woodblock printing, and the magnetic compass were improved upon. China stood in contrast to other areas at the time as the imperial governments exhibited concentrated central authority instead of feudalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby1979561–681-190">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_(%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg/220px-%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg/330px-%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg/440px-%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B5%EB%B0%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A0%EC%83%81_%28%E5%BD%8C%E5%8B%92%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%8D%8A%E8%B7%8F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%9F%E5%83%8F%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>A Japanese Buddha sculpture from the <a href="/wiki/Asuka_period" title="Asuka period">Asuka period</a></figcaption></figure> China exhibited much interest in <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_imperial_China" title="Foreign relations of imperial China">foreign affairs</a> during the Tang and Song dynasties. From the 7th through the 10th centuries, Tang China was focused on securing the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> as the selling of its goods westwards was central to the nation's economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126-186">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008615-191">[185]</a> For a time China successfully secured its frontiers by integrating their nomadic neighbors - the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> - into their civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016149-192">[186]</a> The Tang dynasty expanded into Central Asia and received tribute from countries as distant as Eastern Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126-186">[180]</a> Western expansion ended with <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">wars</a> with the Abbasid Caliphate and the deadly <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">An Lushan Rebellion</a> which resulted in a deadly but uncertain death toll of millions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016156-193">[187]</a> After the collapse of the Tang dynasty and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Ten_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Kingdoms period">civil wars</a> came the second phase of Chinese interest in foreign relations. Unlike the Tang, the Song specialized in overseas trade and peacefully created a maritime network, and China's population became concentrated in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126–127-194">[188]</a> Chinese merchant ships reached Indonesia, India, and Arabia. Southeast Asia's economy flourished from trade with Song China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003132-195">[189]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg/220px-GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg/330px-GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg/440px-GeneralMapOfDistancesAndHistoricCapitals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3493" data-file-height="2814" /></a><figcaption>The Korean <a href="/wiki/Gangnido" title="Gangnido">Kangnido</a>, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Da_Ming_Hunyi_Tu" title="Da Ming Hunyi Tu">Da Ming Hunyi Tu</a>, showing East Asian knowledge of world geography.</figcaption></figure> With the country's emphasis on trade and economic growth. Song China's <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">economy</a> began to use machines to manufacture goods and coal as a source of energy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016160-196">[190]</a> The advances of the Song in the 11th/12th centuries have been considered an early <a href="/wiki/Chinese_industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese industrialization">industrial revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a> Economic advancements came at the cost of military affairs and the Song became open to invasions from the north. China became divided as Song's northern lands were conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008202-198">[192]</a> By 1200, there were five Chinese kingdoms stretching from modern day Turkestan to the Sea of Japan including the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a> Because these states competed with each other they all were eventually annexed by the rising <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> before 1279.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008232–233-200">[194]</a> After seventy years of <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">conquest</a>, the Mongols proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> and also annexed <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea</a>; they failed to conquer <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003128–129-201">[195]</a> Mongol conquerors also made China accessible to <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China" title="Europeans in Medieval China">European travelers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a> The Mongol era was short lived due to plagues and famine.<a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">revolution</a> in 1368, the succeeding <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> ushered in a period of prosperity and brief <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">foreign expeditions</a> before isolating itself from global affairs for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-204">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muromachi_period" title="Muromachi period">Japan</a> however continued to have relations with China and with other Asian countries. In the 15th century <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong the Great</a> of Korea cemented his country's identity by creating the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> writing system to replace use of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[199]</a> Meanwhile, Japan fell under military rule of the <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" title="Kamakura period">Kamakura</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Ashikaga</a> Shogunate dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">samurai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008226-206">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">History of Oceania</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Maps depicting Oceania</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_regions.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Aboriginal regions in Australia."><img alt="Map of the Aboriginal regions in Australia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Aboriginal_regions.png/167px-Aboriginal_regions.png" decoding="async" width="167" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Aboriginal_regions.png/251px-Aboriginal_regions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Aboriginal_regions.png/335px-Aboriginal_regions.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="1278" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Aboriginal</a> regions in Australia.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_Culture_Areas.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the three major Pacific cultural regions: Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia."><img alt="Map of the three major Pacific cultural regions: Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pacific_Culture_Areas.png/231px-Pacific_Culture_Areas.png" decoding="async" width="231" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pacific_Culture_Areas.png/346px-Pacific_Culture_Areas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pacific_Culture_Areas.png/462px-Pacific_Culture_Areas.png 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="908" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the three major Pacific cultural regions: <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Micronesian navigational chart" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg/220px-Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg/330px-Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg/440px-Micronesian_navigational_chart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="1298" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Micronesian navigational chart</a>, which was used by Polynesians to navigate through wind and water currents.</figcaption></figure> Separate from developments in <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> and the Americas the region of greater <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> continued to develop independently of the outside world. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</a>, the society of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> changed little through the post-classical Period since their arrival in the area from Africa around 50,000 BCE. The only evidence of outside contact were encounters with fishermen of <a href="/wiki/Makassan_contact_with_Australia" title="Makassan contact with Australia">Indonesian</a> origin.<a href="#cite_note-207">[G]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[201]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesian</a> peoples are rooted from Taiwan and Southeast Asia and began their migration into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> from 3000 to 1500 BCE. <a href="#cite_note-:5-209">[202]</a> After the 4th century, the Micronesians and Polynesians began to explore the South Pacific and later constructed cities in previously uninhabited areas including <a href="/wiki/Nan_Madol" title="Nan Madol">Nan Madol</a> <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BBa_(Tongatapu)" title="Muʻa (Tongatapu)">Muʻa</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-211">[H]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-210">[203]</a> Around 1200 CE the <a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tuʻi Tonga Empire</a> spread its influence far and wide throughout the South Pacific Islands, being described by academics as a maritime chiefdom which used trade networks to keep power centralized around the king's capital.<a href="#cite_note-Arc_Humanities_Press-212">[204]</a> Polynesians on <a href="/wiki/Outrigger_canoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Outrigger canoe">outrigger canoes</a> <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">discovered</a> and colonized some of the last uninhabited islands of earth.<a href="#cite_note-:5-209">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_settlement_of_Hawaii" title="Discovery and settlement of Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Easter_Island" title="History of Easter Island">Easter Island</a> were among the final places to be reached, settlers discovering pristine lands. <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynesian narrative">Oral tradition</a> claimed that navigator <a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Ui-te-Rangiora</a> discovered icebergs in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[205]</a> In exploring and settling, Polynesian settlers did not strike at random but used their knowledge of wind and water currents to reach their destinations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson20169-214">[206]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg/220px-Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg/330px-Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg/440px-Book-Hawaii-Vtorov-246.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pu%CA%BBuhonua_o_H%C5%8Dnaunau_National_Historical_Park" title="Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park">Hale o Keawe</a>, a restored <a href="/wiki/Heiau" title="Heiau">heiau</a> in the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, used as sacred temple and sacrificial altar. The statues represent traditional gods.</figcaption></figure> On the settled islands some Polynesian groups became distinct from one another, a significant example being the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Maori</a> of New Zealand. Other island systems kept in contact with each other, including <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaii</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a>, goods in long-distance trade included basalt, and Pearl shell.<a href="#cite_note-Arc_Humanities_Press-212">[204]</a> Ecologically, Polynesians had the challenge of sustaining themselves within limited environments. Some settlements caused mass extinctions of some native plant and animal species over time by hunting species such as the <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a> and introducing the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_rat" title="Polynesian rat">Polynesian rat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-209">[202]</a> Easter Island settlers engaged in complete ecological destruction of their habtiat and their population crashed afterwards possibly due to the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">Easter Island Statues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-215">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-terry_hunt-216">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[I]</a> Other colonizing groups adapted to accommodate to the ecology of specific islands such as the <a href="/wiki/Moriori" title="Moriori">Moriori</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a>. Europeans on their voyages visited many Pacific islands in the 16th and 17th century, but most areas of Oceania were not colonized until after the <a href="/wiki/First_voyage_of_James_Cook" title="First voyage of James Cook">voyages</a> of British explorer <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> in the 1780s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003236-221">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></div> The post-classical era of the Americas can be considered set at a different time span from that of Afro-Eurasia. As the developments of Mesoamerican and Andean civilization differ greatly from that of the Old World, as well as the speed at which it developed, the post-classical era in the traditional sense does not take place until near the end of the medieval age in Western Europe. <a href="#cite_note-224">[J]</a> As such, for the purposes of this article, the <a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a> of the Americas will be discussed here, which takes place from about 400 to 1400.<a href="#cite_note-225">[215]</a> For the technical post-classical stage in American development which took place on the eve of European contact, see <a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Maps depicting the Western Hemisphere</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_cultural_areas.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cultural areas of North America prior to European contact."><img alt="Cultural areas of North America prior to European Contact" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/North_American_cultural_areas.png/131px-North_American_cultural_areas.png" decoding="async" width="131" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/North_American_cultural_areas.png/197px-North_American_cultural_areas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/North_American_cultural_areas.png/263px-North_American_cultural_areas.png 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1700" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cultural areas of North America prior to European contact.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cultural areas of South and Central America prior to European contact, (in Spanish)."><img alt="Cultural areas of South and Central America prior to European contact, (in Spanish)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG/143px-%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG" decoding="async" width="143" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG/215px-%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG/287px-%C3%81reas_Culturales_de_Am%C3%A9rica.PNG 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="624" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cultural areas of South and Central America prior to European contact, (in Spanish).</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> As a continent there was little unified trade or communication. Advances in agriculture spread northward from <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> indirectly through trade. Major cultural areas however still developed independently of each other. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Norse_contact_and_the_polar_regions">Norse contact and the polar regions</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Norse contact and the polar regions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg/220px-Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg/330px-Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg/440px-Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Authentic reconstruction of Norse site at <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a>.</figcaption></figure> While there was little regular contact between the Americas and the Old World, the Norse explored and even colonized <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> as early as 1000. None of these settlements survived past medieval times. Outside of Scandinavia knowledge of the discovery of the Americas was interpreted as a <a href="/wiki/Vinland#Medieval_geographers" title="Vinland">remote island</a> or the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[216]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="504" data-mwtitle="Saga_of_Eirik_the_Red._Chapter_8-11.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Saga_of_Eirik_the_Red._Chapter_8-11.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Saga_of_Eirik_the_Red._Chapter_8-11.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/Saga_of_Eirik_the_Red._Chapter_8-11.ogg/Saga_of_Eirik_the_Red._Chapter_8-11.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Recording of Saga of Eirik the Red. Chapter 8-11 describing interactions between the Norse and <a href="/wiki/Beothuk" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> erroneously called <a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Norse arriving from Iceland <a href="/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland" title="Norse settlements in Greenland">settled Greenland</a> from approximately 980 to 1450.<a href="#cite_note-:2-227">[217]</a> The Norse arrived in southern Greenland prior to the 13th century approach of <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a> in the area. The extent of the interaction between the Norse and Thule is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-:2-227">[217]</a> Greenland was valuable to the Norse due to trade of ivory that came from the tusks of walruses. The <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> adversely affected the colonies and they vanished.<a href="#cite_note-:2-227">[217]</a> Greenland would be lost to Europeans until <a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish Colonization</a> in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-228">[218]</a> The Norse also explored and colonized farther south in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>, Canada at <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a> referred to by the Norse as Vinland. The colony at most existed for twenty years and resulted in no known transmission of diseases or technology to the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>. To the Norse Vinland was known for plentiful grape vines to make superior wine. One reason for the colony's failure was constant violence with the native <a href="/wiki/Beothuk" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> people who the Norse referred to as <a href="/wiki/Skr%C3%A6ling" title="Skræling">skrælings</a>. After initial expeditions there is a possibility that the Norse continued to visit modern day Canada. Surviving records from medieval Iceland indicate some sporadic voyages to a land called <a href="/wiki/Markland" title="Markland">Markland</a>, possibly the coast of <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a>, Canada, as late as 1347 presumably to collect wood for deforested Greenland.<a href="#cite_note-229">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Northern_areas">Northern areas</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Northern areas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada#Post-Archaic_periods" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada § Post-Archaic periods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Major_cultures" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History of Native Americans in the United States § Major cultures</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg/150px-Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg/225px-Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg/300px-Mississippi_Pipe_bowl_chunkey_player_EthnM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1971" data-file-height="2621" /></a><figcaption>Mississippi Pipe bowl chunkey player</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> and agricultural societies thrived in the diverse region. <a href="/wiki/Native_American_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American in the United States">Native American</a> tribes varied greatly in characteristics; some, including the <a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oasisamerica" title="Oasisamerica">Oasisamerican</a> cultures were complex chiefdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer2010Ch._75_''The_New_Found_Land''-230">[220]</a> Other nations which inhabited the states of the modern northern United States and Canada had less complexity and did not follow technological changes as quickly. Approximately around the year 500 during the <a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a>, Native Americans began to transition to bows and arrows from spears for hunting and warfare.<a href="#cite_note-231">[221]</a> Around the year 1,000 corn was widely adopted as a staple crop in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern United States</a>. Corn would continue to be the staple crop of natives in the Eastern United States and Canada until the Columbian exchange.<a href="#cite_note-232">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[223]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG/150px-Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG/225px-Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG/300px-Stonework_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_Colorado_USA.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Stonework Mesa Verde National Park Colorado</figcaption></figure> In the Eastern United States, rivers were the medium of trade and communication. <a href="/wiki/Cahokia" title="Cahokia">Cahokia</a> located in the modern U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> was among the most significant city within the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer2010Ch._75_''The_New_Found_Land''-230">[220]</a> Focused around <a href="/wiki/Monks_Mound" title="Monks Mound">Monks Mound</a> archaeology indicates the population increased exponentially after 1000 because it manufactured important tools for agriculture and hosted cultural attractions. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016393-234">[224]</a> Around 1350 Cahokia was abandoned, environmental factors have been proposed for the city's decline.<a href="#cite_note-235">[225]</a> At the same time Ancestral Puebloans constructed clusters of buildings in the <a href="/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Chaco Culture National Historical Park">Chaco Canyon</a> site located in the <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">State of New Mexico</a>. Individual houses may have been occupied by more than 600 residents at any one time. Chaco Canyon was the only pre-Columbian site in the United States to build paved roads.<a href="#cite_note-236">[226]</a> Pottery indicates a society that was becoming more complex, turkeys for the first time in the continental United States were also domesticated. Around 1150 the structures of Chaco Canyon were abandoned, likely as a result of severe drought.<a href="#cite_note-237">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016391-238">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[229]</a> There were also other Pueblo complexes in the Southwestern United States like the <a href="/wiki/Cliff_Palace" title="Cliff Palace">Cliff Palace</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park" title="Mesa Verde National Park">Mesa Verde National Park</a>. After reaching climaxes native complex societies in the United States declined and did not entirely recover before the arrival of European explorers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016391-238">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[K]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Caribbean">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">History of the Caribbean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deity_Figure_(Zem%C3%AD)_MET_DP295635.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg/150px-Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg/225px-Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg/300px-Deity_Figure_%28Zem%C3%AD%29_MET_DP295635.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="1947" /></a><figcaption>Wood-sculpture of a Taíno deity, also called <a href="/wiki/Zemi" title="Zemi">Zemi</a>. Dominican Republic: 15th–16th century.</figcaption></figure> Concentrating a significant number of islands, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> had been the scene of constant maritime migrations via canoes since the <a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a>, with its first inhabitants reaching the area by around 5000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-242">[231]</a> After a millennia of population flows, the various peoples of the Caribbean entered in the post-classical period with notable developments on numerous permanent settlements and more complex social organizations, which were a result of the improvement of agricultural techniques and also the considerable growth of villages, that became great ceremonial and commercial centers led by different <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">Cacique</a>. Trading goods like shells, cotton, gold, colored stones and rare feathers were largely exported from island to island, ranging from the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Great Antilles.</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[232]</a> By around 650 C.E and 800 C.E, new migratory waves from the Caribbean coast of present-day <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> took place and several people began a process of major cultural, sociopolitical, and ritual reformulations, which led to the formation of the first <a href="/wiki/Chiefdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiefdoms">chiefdoms</a> and the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">social hierarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[233]</a> This period can also be described by the expulsion of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a> peoples from the main islands of the Caribbean and their subsequent replacement by the newly arrived <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno">Taíno</a> people, who fiercely competed with other <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawak-speaking</a> groups for arable land and war captives. Despite little evidence, some scholars still claim that the Taíno may have had a tenuous influence from the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>, as certain customs, such as the practice of <a href="/wiki/Batey_(game)" title="Batey (game)">batey</a>, may have been inherited from the original <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</a> which also carried a religious character.<a href="#cite_note-245">[234]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> landed in <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> in 1492, he and his crew initially maintained a peaceful contact with the local Taíno people, but soon afterwards they were enslaved by the Spanish colonizers, bringing the area into the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telamones_Tula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/220px-Telamones_Tula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/330px-Telamones_Tula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/440px-Telamones_Tula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Toltec <a href="/wiki/Atlantean_figures" title="Atlantean figures">Atlantean figures</a> at the Tula site. The <a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec civilization</a> inspired the later <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a>.</figcaption></figure> At the beginning of the global post-classical period, the city of <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a> was at its zenith, housing over 125,000 people, at 500 A.D it was the sixth largest city in the world at the time.<a href="#cite_note-246">[235]</a> The city's residents built the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_the_Sun" title="Pyramid of the Sun">Pyramid of the Sun</a> the third largest pyramid of the world, oriented to follow astronomical events. Suddenly in the 6th and 7th centuries, the city suddenly declined possibly as a result of severe environmental damage caused by <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather_events_of_535%E2%80%93536" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme weather events of 535–536">extreme weather events of 535–536</a>. There is evidence that large parts of the city were burned, possibly in a domestic rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-247">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[L]</a> The city's legacy would inspire all future civilizations in the region.<a href="#cite_note-251">[239]</a> At the same time was Classic Age of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> clustered in dozens of city states on the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán</a> and modern day <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[240]</a> The most significant of these cities was <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a> which often fiercely competed with anywhere from 60 to 80 city states to be the dominant economic influence in the region.<a href="#cite_note-253">[241]</a> Likewise, other Mayan cities such as <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a> also initiated a series of full-scale conflicts in the area over power and prestige, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Tikal%E2%80%93Calakmul_wars" title="Tikal–Calakmul wars">Tikal-Calakmul Wars</a> in the 6th century.<a href="#cite_note-254">[242]</a> The Mayans had an upper caste of priests, who were well versed in astronomy, mathematics, and writing. The Mayan developed the concept of zero, and a 365-day calendar which possibly pre-dates its creation in Old World societies.<a href="#cite_note-255">[243]</a> After 900, many Mayan cities suddenly declined due to ecological disaster which was likely caused by a combination of drought and an incessant cycle of warfare, It's also been noted that classical Mayan Cities lacked food storage facilities.<a href="#cite_note-INDEX-223">[214]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg/220px-Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg/330px-Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg/440px-Aztec11_Bloodletting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Aztec bloodletting, priests conduct a heart sacrifice, from the Tudela Codex, 16th century.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec Empire</a> arose from the <a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a> culture, and were remembered as wise and benevolent leaders. One priest-king called <a href="/wiki/Ce_Acatl_Topiltzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ce Acatl Topiltzin">Ce Acatl Topiltzin</a> advocated against human sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-:8-256">[244]</a> After his death in 947, civil wars of religious character broke out between those who supported and opposed Topiltzin's teachings.<a href="#cite_note-:8-256">[244]</a> Modern historians however are skeptical of the extent of Toltec and influence and believe that much of the information known about the Toltecs was created by the later <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> as an inspiration myth.<a href="#cite_note-257">[245]</a> In the 1300s, a small band of violent, religious radicals called the Aztecs began minor raids throughout the area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> Eventually they began to claim connections with the Toltec civilization, and insisted they were the rightful successors.<a href="#cite_note-259">[247]</a> They began to grow in numbers and conquer large areas of land. Fundamental to their conquest, was the use of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">political terror</a> in the sense that the Aztec leaders and priests would command the <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Conquest_(military)#Subjugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest (military)">subjugated</a> people as means of humility and coercion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> Most of the Mesoamerican region would eventually fall under the Aztec Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> most of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya peoples</a> continued to be independent of the Aztecs but their traditional civilization declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003149-260">[248]</a> Aztec developments expanded cultivation, applying the use of <a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">chinampas</a>, irrigation, and <a href="/wiki/Terrace_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace agriculture">terrace agriculture</a>; important crops included <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potatoes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocados</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> In 1430, the city of <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> allied with other powerful <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>-speaking cities, <a href="/wiki/Texcoco_(altepetl)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texcoco (altepetl)">Texcoco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlacopan" title="Tlacopan">Tlacopan</a>, to create the Aztec Empire, otherwise known as the Triple Alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003149-260">[248]</a> Though referred to as an empire the Aztec Empire functioned as a system of tribute collection with Tenochtitlan at its center. By the turn of the 16th century, "<a href="/wiki/Flower_war" title="Flower war">flower wars</a>" between the Aztecs and rival states such as <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcala</a> had continued for over fifty years.<a href="#cite_note-261">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_America">South America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> South American civilization was concentrated in the Andean region which had already hosted complex cultures since 2,500 BCE. East of the Andean region, societies were generally semi nomadic. Discoveries on the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon River Basin</a> indicate the region likely had a pre-contact population of five million people and hosted complex societies.<a href="#cite_note-262">[250]</a> Around the continent numerous agricultural peoples from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Colombia" title="History of Colombia">Colombia</a> to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Argentina" title="History of Argentina">Argentina</a> steadily advanced through numerous stages of development from 500 CE until European contact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough200347-263">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Andes">Andes</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Andes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean civilizations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_the_Sun,_Machu_Picchu,_Peru_-_panoramio_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/150px-Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/225px-Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/300px-Temple_of_the_Sun%2C_Machu_Picchu%2C_Peru_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1096" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the Sun, Machu Picchu, Peru</figcaption></figure> During ancient times, the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> had developed civilizations independent of outside influences including that of Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-264">[252]</a> Through the Post Classical era a cycle of civilizations continued until <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish contact</a>. Collectively Andean societies lacked currency, a written language and solid draft animals enjoyed by old world civilizations. Instead Andeans developed other methods to foster their growth, including use of the <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">quipu</a> system to communicate messages, <a href="/wiki/Llama" title="Llama">llamas</a> to carry smaller loads and an economy based on <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_and_political_philosophy)" title="Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)">reciprocity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> Societies were often based on strict social hierarchies and economic redistribution from the ruling class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003148-258">[246]</a> In the first half of the post-classical period, the Andes was dominated by two almost equally powerful states. In the north of Peru was the <a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari Empire</a> and in the south of Peru and Bolivia there was the <a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku Empire</a>, both of whom were inspired by the earlier <a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[253]</a> While the extent of their relationship to each other is unknown, it is believed that they competed with one another, but avoided direct conflict. Without war, there was prosperity and around the year 700 Tiwanaku city hosted a population of 1.4 million.<a href="#cite_note-266">[254]</a> After the 8th century both states declined due to changing environmental conditions, laying the ground work for the Incas and other minor kingdoms to emerge as distinct cultures centuries later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016387-267">[255]</a> In the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> rose to annex all other nations in the area. Led by their sun-god king, <a href="/wiki/Sapa_Inca" title="Sapa Inca">Sapa Inca</a>, they slowly conquered what is now <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, and built their society throughout the Andes cultural region. The Incas spoke the <a href="/wiki/Quechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua languages">Quechua languages</a>. Taking advantage of ancient advances left by previous Andean societies, the Incas were able to create the most advanced system of trade routes of South America, known as the <a href="/wiki/Inca_road_system" title="Inca road system">Inca road system</a>, which allowed greater interconnection between the conquered provinces.<a href="#cite_note-268">[256]</a> Incas have been known to have used <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacuses</a> to calculate mathematics. The Inca Empire is known for some of its magnificent structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Machu_Picchu" title="Machu Picchu">Machu Picchu</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cusco_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco region">Cusco region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016389-269">[257]</a> The empire expanded quickly northwards to Ecuador, southwards to central Chile. To the north of the Inca Empire remained the independent <a href="/wiki/Tairona" title="Tairona">Tairona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca Confederation</a> who practiced agriculture and gold metallurgy.<a href="#cite_note-270">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_period">End of the period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: End of the period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg/220px-Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg/330px-Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg/440px-Genoese_world_map_1457._LOC_97690053.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10465" data-file-height="6763" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Genoese_map" title="Genoese map">Genoese world map</a>, 1457 it suggests the possibility of sea travel to India from Western Europe though this had not yet been done at the time.</figcaption></figure> As the post-classical era drew to a close in the 15th century, many of the empires established throughout the period were in decline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003138–139-272">[260]</a> The Byzantine Empire would soon be overshadowed in the Mediterranean by both Islamic and Christian rivals including <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>, and the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books1998113-273">[261]</a> The Byzantines faced repeated attacks from eastern and western powers during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, and declined further until the loss of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> to the Ottomans in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003138–139-272">[260]</a> The largest change came in terms of trade and technology. The global significance of the fall of the Byzantines was the disruption of overland routes between Asia and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books1998144-274">[262]</a> Traditional dominance of <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadism</a> in Eurasia declined and the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a> which had allowed for interactions between different civilizations was no longer available. West Asia and South Asia were conquered by <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a> which successfully used advances in military technology but closed the Silk Road.<a href="#cite_note-276">[M]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-275">[263]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE,_ITALY,_PROBABLY_VENICE,_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg/220px-THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg/330px-THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg/440px-THE_FALL_OF_CONSTANTINOPLE%2C_ITALY%2C_PROBABLY_VENICE%2C_LATE_15THEARLY_16TH_CENTURY._Private_coll..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1965" data-file-height="1353" /></a><figcaption>The fall of Constantinople brought the last remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> to an end. </figcaption></figure> Europeans – specifically the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portuguese</a> and various Italian explorers – intended to replace land travel with sea travel.<a href="#cite_note-:11-277">[264]</a> Originally European exploration merely looked for new routes to reach known destinations.<a href="#cite_note-:11-277">[264]</a> Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> traveled to India by sea in 1498 by circumnavigating Africa around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-278">[265]</a> India and the coast of Africa were already known to Europeans but none had attempted a large trading mission prior to that time.<a href="#cite_note-:12-278">[265]</a> Due to navigation advances Portugal would create a <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">global colonial empire</a> beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">conquest of Malacca</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> from 1511.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003158-279">[266]</a> Other explorers such as the Spanish-sponsored Italian Christopher Columbus intended to engage in trade by traveling on unfamiliar routes west from Europe. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/European_discovery_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="European discovery of the Americas">European discovery of the Americas</a> in 1492 resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a> and the world's first pan-oceanic <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003155-280">[267]</a> Spanish explorer <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> performed the <a href="/wiki/Magellan_expedition" title="Magellan expedition">first known circumnavigation</a> of Earth in 1521.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003-281">[268]</a> The transfer of goods and diseases across <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a> was unprecedented in creating a more connected world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003159-282">[269]</a> From developments in navigation and trade, <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a> began.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003155-280">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Post-Classical is often used to describe global history that took place during the time of the European Middle Ages (whose scope is entirely Euro-centric). The use of Post-Classical as a term for the period is sometimes disputed but is still used in academic circles.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This usage of Post-Classical 'World History' should not be confused with the Post-Classic period of Mesoamerica. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> To expand further- Oceania, Afro Eurasia and the Americas were separated by hard oceanic barriers that prevented global interactions between them until the late 15th century. The existence of these three 'worlds' does not imply that all parts of each world-region were connected to themselves. In Afro-Eurasia for instance, South and Central Africa were certainly disconnected from the greater continental networks as were remote areas of Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans20207-30">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Historians befeore the 1980s often believed the Plague of Justinian that struck in 541 had an Asian origin. While it is possible that the disease itself was from modern-day Tajikistan it now seems that the opposite was true: the plague spread from West to East instead. There is little mention of 6th century epidemics in Asia before the plague had reached Byzantine Empire . The outbreak of 541 may have originated in Axum (Ethiopia) or elsewhere in East Africa. The plague apparently spread eastward from Byzantine Egypt. Persian armies invading Armenia were infected in 543. There was an outbreak of an unknown disease in the capital of southern China in 549. Central Asia was said to have been hit with "famine and disease" in 585. Outbreaks of disease in Central and East Asia continued and recurred for the next two centuries. After prolonged exposure to China, the first recorded epidemics in Korea and Japan were recorded in 698; it is probable but not certain that at least some of the epidemics east of Iran were bubonic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020523–529-98">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Islamization took place across different regions of Eurasia. However the Islamization that took place in maratime Southeast Asia contrast with that of Central Asia. In South East Asia the approach of Islam was a bottom-up process where certain individuals and groups began to convert due to percevied advantages. Meanwhile Central Asia's conversion was a top-down process.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-175">[172]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Within this model the greatest similarities that China had to Western Asia and Europe took place between 200–1000 CE. Similarities included both a breakdown in central authority (during the Three Kingdoms and Europe's Early Middle Ages) as well as the creation of large decentralized multi-ethnic empires (Tang Dynasty and Umayyad Caliphate).<a href="#cite_note-auto10-63">[61]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> This corresponds with the end of the Gempi War and the establishment of the 'Shogun' title. The imperial dynasty and their civilian administration in Kyoto continued to exist but held little actual power. Japan would be under military control until 1868.<a href="#cite_note-auto7-181">[176]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Makassar people approached Australia on seasonal missions in search of Sea Cucumber, first arriving between 1500–1720, after the Post-Classical Period. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> The growth of Polynesian settlement has been proposed as a possible start date for the entire era in world history<a href="#cite_note-auto-210">[203]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> The decline of Norse Greenland has been compared to that of Easter Island as both were isolated island societies that practiced deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-219">[211]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Furthermore how these terms are used depend on the location within the Americas being discussed. For example, the Late-Classic period in Measoamerica is categorized for the years 600-900, while Post Classical began after 900. For the continental United States, Post-Classical History began after 1200.<a href="#cite_note-222">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-INDEX-223">[214]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Typically in North American archaeology the post classical era starts at 1200, differing from the world-history usage of the term and the Measoamerican context as well<a href="#cite_note-240">[230]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> This weather event was worldwide as has been demonstrated by dendroclimatology, it was also documented by Byzantine historians.<a href="#cite_note-248">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[238]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> The use of 'closed' can be problematic because oftentimes Islamic regimes did not totally forbid Christian travel but would instead levy high tariffs. While some Europeans, including <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>, still took part in Eastern Mediterranean trade most Europeans were unwilling to pay tariffs in the long term.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-275">[263]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKedarWiesner-Hanks2015_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFKedarWiesner-Hanks2015">Kedar & Wiesner-Hanks 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aasd.k12.wi.us/staff/hermansenjoel/Notes/the%20post%20classical%20era.pdf">The Post‐Classical Era</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031011114/http://www.aasd.k12.wi.us/staff/hermansenjoel/Notes/the%20post%20classical%20era.pdf">Archived</a> 31 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Joel Hermansen </li> <li id="cite_note-weller-stearns-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_3-7">h</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStearns2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_N._Stearns" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter N. Stearns">Stearns, Peter N.</a> (2017). "Periodization in World History: Challenges and Opportunities". In R. Charles Weller (ed.). 21st-Century Narratives of World History: Global and Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-62077-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-62077-0"><bdi>978-3-319-62077-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Periodization+in+World+History%3A+Challenges+and+Opportunities&rft.btitle=21st-Century+Narratives+of+World+History%3A+Global+and+Multidisciplinary+Perspectives&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-62077-0&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History". The American Historical Review. 1996. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr%2F101.3.749">10.1086/ahr/101.3.749</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-5239">1937-5239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Cross-Cultural+Interaction+and+Periodization+in+World+History&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr%2F101.3.749&rft.issn=1937-5239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski200982-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski200982_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski2009">Thompson et al. 2009</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETimes_Books1998128-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETimes_Books1998128_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimes_Books1998">Times Books 1998</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein_GoldewijkBeusenJanssen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Klein Goldewijk, Kees; Beusen, Arthur; Janssen, Peter (22 March 2010). "Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way: HYDE 3.1". The Holocene. 20 (4): 565–573. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Holoc..20..565K">2010Holoc..20..565K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0959683609356587">10.1177/0959683609356587</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-6836">0959-6836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128905931">128905931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Holocene&rft.atitle=Long-term+dynamic+modeling+of+global+population+and+built-up+area+in+a+spatially+explicit+way%3A+HYDE+3.1&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=565-573&rft.date=2010-03-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0959683609356587&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128905931%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0959-6836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Holoc..20..565K&rft.aulast=Klein+Goldewijk&rft.aufirst=Kees&rft.au=Beusen%2C+Arthur&rft.au=Janssen%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaub1995"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_lower_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_slow_growth_was_the_Black_Plague._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_million_deaths."-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaub1995"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_lower_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_slow_growth_was_the_Black_Plague._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_million_deaths."_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaub1995">Haub 1995</a>, "The average annual rate of growth was actually lower from 1 A.D. to 1650 than the rate suggested above for the 8000 B.C. to 1 A.D. period. One reason for this abnormally slow growth was the Black Plague. This dreaded scourge was not limited to 14th century Europe. The epidemic may have begun about 542 A.D. in Western Asia, spreading from there. It is believed that half the Byzantine Empire was destroyed in the 6th century, a total of 100 million deaths.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaub1995pp._5–6:_"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_much_higher_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_fast_growth_was_the_collapse_of_the_Roman_Empire._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_trillion_deaths."-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaub1995pp._5–6:_"The_average_annual_rate_of_growth_was_actually_much_higher_from_1_A.D._to_1650_than_the_rate_suggested_above_for_the_8000_B.C._to_1_A.D._period._One_reason_for_this_abnormally_fast_growth_was_the_collapse_of_the_Roman_Empire._This_dreaded_scourge_was_not_limited_to_14th_century_Europe._The_epidemic_may_have_begun_about_542_A.D._in_Western_Asia,_spreading_from_there._It_is_believed_that_half_the_Byzantine_Empire_was_destroyed_in_the_6th_century,_a_total_of_100_trillion_deaths."_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaub1995">Haub 1995</a>, pp. 5–6: "The average annual rate of growth was actually much higher from 1 A.D. to 1650 than the rate suggested above for the 8000 B.C. to 1 A.D. period. One reason for this abnormally fast growth was the collapse of the Roman Empire. This dreaded scourge was not limited to 14th century Europe. The epidemic may have begun about 542 A.D. in Western Asia, spreading from there. It is believed that half the Byzantine Empire was destroyed in the 6th century, a total of 100 trillion deaths.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesStanden201816_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolmesStanden2018">Holmes & Standen 2018</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. 1 April 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+antiquity%3A+a+guide+to+the+postclassical+world&rft.date=2000-04-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRappDrake" class="citation cs1">Rapp, Claudia; Drake, H.A. (eds.). The City in the Classical and Post-Classical World. Cambridge University Press. pp. xv–xvi. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139507042.016">10.1017/cbo9781139507042.016</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+in+the+Classical+and+Post-Classical+World&rft.pages=xv-xvi&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139507042.016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvermon" class="citation web cs1">Evermon, Vandy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.ccis.edu/hist111a/part3">"Stafford Library: World History to 1500 – HIST 111 Resource Guide: Part 3 – 500 to 1500"</a>. library.ccis.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221006082758/https://library.ccis.edu/hist111a/part3">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=library.ccis.edu&rft.atitle=Stafford+Library%3A+World+History+to+1500+%E2%80%93+HIST+111+Resource+Guide%3A+Part+3+%E2%80%93+500+to+1500&rft.aulast=Evermon&rft.aufirst=Vandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ccis.edu%2Fhist111a%2Fpart3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pre-ap.collegeboard.org/courses/course-descriptions/world-history-geography">"Pre-AP World History and Geography – Pre-AP | College Board"</a>. pre-ap.collegeboard.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221006020836/https://pre-ap.collegeboard.org/courses/course-descriptions/world-history-geography">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pre-ap.collegeboard.org&rft.atitle=Pre-AP+World+History+and+Geography+%E2%80%93+Pre-AP+%7C+College+Board&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpre-ap.collegeboard.org%2Fcourses%2Fcourse-descriptions%2Fworld-history-geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentley2012" class="citation book cs1">Bentley, the Late Jerry H. (2012). Bentley, Jerry H (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of World History. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199235810.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923581-0"><bdi>978-0-19-923581-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+World+History&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199235810.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923581-0&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=the+Late+Jerry+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michael_Borgolte_2017-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Borgolte_2017_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Borgolte_2017_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Borgolte_2017_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Borgolte_2017_17-3">d</a> Borgolte in <a href="#CITEREFLoudStaub2017">Loud & Staub 2017</a>, pp. 70–84 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto8-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2021" class="citation cs1">Holmes, Catherine (6 May 2021). 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Oxford University Press. pp. 195–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198731641.003.0008">10.1093/oso/9780198731641.003.0008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873164-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873164-1"><bdi>978-0-19-873164-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Later+Middle+Ages&rft.atitle=Global+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=195-219&rft.date=2021-05-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198731641.003.0008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-873164-1&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoudStaub20171–13-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoudStaub20171–13_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoudStaub2017">Loud & Staub 2017</a>, pp. 1–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Geary in <a href="#CITEREFLoudStaub2017">Loud & Staub 2017</a>, pp. 57–69 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Nelson in <a href="#CITEREFLoudStaub2017">Loud & Staub 2017</a>, pp. 17–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein201094–107-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilverstein201094–107_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSilverstein2010">Silverstein 2010</a>, pp. 94–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Belich, Darwin & Wickham in <a href="#CITEREFBelichDarwinFrenzWickham2016">Belich et al. 2016</a>, pp. 3–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> William S. 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The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 50 (1): 59–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh_a_01376">10.1162/jinh_a_01376</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1893%2F29711">1893/29711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1953">0022-1953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162183994">162183994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Death+by+the+Lake%3A+Mortality+Crisis+in+Early+Fourteenth-Century+Central+Asia&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-90&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1893%2F29711&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162183994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh_a_01376&rft.aulast=Slavin&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252Fjinh_a_01376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Belich in <a href="#CITEREFBelichDarwinFrenzWickham2016">Belich et al. 2016</a>, pp. 93–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Black Death in Egypt and England. 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Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-936317-01-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-936317-01-4"><bdi>978-0-936317-01-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13472872">13472872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chess&rft.pub=Benjamin+Press+%28originally+published+by+Oxford+University+Press%29&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13472872&rft.isbn=978-0-936317-01-4&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=H.J.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchess00murr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> History of Asia by B.V. Rao p. 211 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific">"The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2020. Retrieved 20 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+spread+of+Hinduism+in+Southeast+Asia+and+the+Pacific&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FHinduism%2FThe-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/mughal/mughal_index.html">"mughal_index"</a>. www.columbia.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190715193143/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/mughal/mughal_index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.columbia.edu&rft.atitle=mughal_index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fmealac%2Fpritchett%2F00maplinks%2Fmughal%2Fmughal_index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans202065-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermans202065_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHermans2020">Hermans 2020</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermans2020170-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermans2020170_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHermans2020">Hermans 2020</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2009" class="citation book cs1">Kiernan, Ben (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc30ytJmwzMC&q=annam+sacked+their+country+vietnamese+smashed+champa+cham+officials+told+the+chinese&pg=PA110">Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</a>. Yale University Press. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14425-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14425-3"><bdi>978-0-300-14425-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401110214/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc30ytJmwzMC&q=annam+sacked+their+country+vietnamese+smashed+champa+cham+officials+told+the+chinese&pg=PA110">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14425-3&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBc30ytJmwzMC%26q%3Dannam%2Bsacked%2Btheir%2Bcountry%2Bvietnamese%2Bsmashed%2Bchampa%2Bcham%2Bofficials%2Btold%2Bthe%2Bchinese%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCœdès1968" class="citation book cs1">Cœdès, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. 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Retrieved 31 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Japanese+%26+Chinese+Relations&rft.btitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1085%2Fancient-japanese--chinese-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/984/ancient-korean--chinese-relations/">"Ancient Korean & Chinese Relations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210311054538/https://www.ancient.eu/article/984/ancient-korean--chinese-relations/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2021. 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Encarta Historical Essays. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924191957/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encarta+Historical+Essays&rft.atitle=Tang+Civilization+and+the+Chinese+Centuries&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Lockard&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fealac%2Fmoerman%2Ffall2000%2Fedit%2Fpdfs%2Fwk5%2Ftangci.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby1979561–681-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby1979561–681_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1979">Dalby 1979</a>, pp. 561–681. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDalby1979 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008615-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008615_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChronicle_of_World_History2008">Chronicle of World History 2008</a>, p. 615. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016149-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016149_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016">Berger et al. 2016</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016156-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016156_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016">Berger et al. 2016</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126–127-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003126–127_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, pp. 126–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003132-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003132_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016160-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016160_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016">Berger et al. 2016</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattersonSchafer1978" class="citation journal cs1">Patterson, F.So L.; Schafer, J.F. (1978). "Registration of Clintland 60 and Clintland 64 Oats (Reg. No. 280 and 281)". Crop Science. 18 (2): 354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2135%2Fcropsci1978.0011183x001800020049x">10.2135/cropsci1978.0011183x001800020049x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-183X">0011-183X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crop+Science&rft.atitle=Registration+of+Clintland+60+and+Clintland+64+Oats+%28Reg.+No.+280+and+281%29&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=354&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2135%2Fcropsci1978.0011183x001800020049x&rft.issn=0011-183X&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=F.So+L.&rft.au=Schafer%2C+J.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008202-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008202_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChronicle_of_World_History2008">Chronicle of World History 2008</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF國家地震局地球物理硏究所_(China)1990" class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-script">國家地震局地球物理硏究所 (China) (1990). <bdi lang="zh">中國歷史地震圖集 : 清時期</bdi>. Zhongguo di tu chu ban she. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5031-0574-7" title="Special:BookSources/7-5031-0574-7"><bdi>7-5031-0574-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26030569">26030569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E9%9C%87%E5%9C%96%E9%9B%86+%3A+%E6%B8%85%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F&rft.pub=Zhongguo+di+tu+chu+ban+she&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26030569&rft.isbn=7-5031-0574-7&rft.au=%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E9%9C%87%E5%B1%80%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E7%A1%8F%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80+%28China%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008232–233-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Chronicle_of_World_History''2008232–233_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChronicle_of_World_History2008">Chronicle of World History 2008</a>, pp. 232–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003128–129-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003128–129_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, pp. 128–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.ung.edu/media/university-press/World%20History%20Textbook-082817.pdf?t=1536279808341">"The Mongols in World History"</a> (PDF). 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World History Connected. 1 (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180425013301/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/1.2/burzillo.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2018. 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Blackwell. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23082-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23082-3"><bdi>978-0-631-23082-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/474724373">474724373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+Oceania%3A+Australia+and+the+Pacific+Islands&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F474724373&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23082-3&rft.aulast=Ian&rft.aufirst=Lilley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_209-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_209-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/oceania-human-geography/">"Australia and Oceania: Human Geography"</a>. 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Whitcombe & Tombs. pp. 90–91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200522225616/https://books.google.com/books?id=_BIZAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2020. 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Infobase Publishing. p. 684. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1913-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412174820/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=&dq&hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2016. 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American Antiquity. 85 (2): 241–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Faaq.2020.7">10.1017/aaq.2020.7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7316">0002-7316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Isotopic+Confirmation+of+the+Timing+and+Intensity+of+Maize+Consumption+in+Greater+Cahokia&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=241-262&rft.date=2020-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Faaq.2020.7&rft.issn=0002-7316&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft.au=Hedman%2C+Kristin+M.&rft.au=Simon%2C+Mary+L.&rft.au=Fort%2C+Mathew+A.&rft.au=Witt%2C+Kelsey+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Faaq.2020.7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016393-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016393_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergerIsraelMillerParkinson2016">Berger et al. 2016</a>, p. 393. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.wisc.edu/as-the-river-rises-cahokias-emergence-and-decline-linked-to-mississippi-river-flooding/">"As the river rises: Cahokia's emergence and decline linked to Mississippi River flooding"</a>. news.wisc.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213205/https://news.wisc.edu/as-the-river-rises-cahokias-emergence-and-decline-linked-to-mississippi-river-flooding/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2018. 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Traditions and Encounters, AP Edition, 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170519144625/http://glencoe.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0024122010/899891/Bentley5e_Chapter_20_Intro_Final.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2017. 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Journal of World History. 9 (2): 189–211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2005.0107">10.1353/jwh.2005.0107</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1527-8050">1527-8050</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144399108">144399108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Vasco+da+Gama+and+Africa%3A+An+Era+of+Mutual+Discovery%2C+1497%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=189-211&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144399108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1527-8050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2005.0107&rft.aulast=Northrup&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003158-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003158_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003155-280">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003155_280-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003155_280-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003159-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough2003159_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarraclough2003">Barraclough 2003</a>, p. 159. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsen1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Allsen" title="Thomas T. Allsen">Allsen, Thomas T.</a> (1994). "The rise of the Mongolian empire and the Mongolian rule in north China". In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Franke_(sinologist)" title="Herbert Franke (sinologist)">Franke, Herbert</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC">The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24331-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+the+Mongolian+empire+and+the+Mongolian+rule+in+north+China&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+6%3A+Alien+Regimes+and+Border+States%2C+907%E2%80%931368&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24331-5&rft.aulast=Allsen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiN9Tdfdap5MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsen2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Allsen" title="Thomas T. Allsen">Allsen, Thomas T.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Book_1104">Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80335-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80335-9"><bdi>978-0-521-80335-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Conquest+in+Mongol+Eurasia&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80335-9&rft.aulast=Allsen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBook_1104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarraclough2003" class="citation book cs1">Barraclough, Geoffrey (2003). HarperCollins Atlas of World History. Ann Arbor: Borders Press in association with HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-681-50288-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-681-50288-8"><bdi>978-0-681-50288-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56350180">56350180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HarperCollins+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=Borders+Press+in+association+with+HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56350180&rft.isbn=978-0-681-50288-8&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Wise_Bauer" title="Susan Wise Bauer">Bauer, Susan Wise</a> (2010). 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198732259.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198732259.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-104613-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-104613-1"><bdi>978-0-19-104613-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936040339">936040339</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221018064846/https://books.google.com/books?id=iVhxCwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2022. 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Dahlonega: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Georgia_Press" title="University of North Georgia Press">University of North Georgia Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-940771-10-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-940771-10-6"><bdi>978-1-940771-10-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/961216293">961216293</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History%3A+Cultures%2C+States+and+Societies+to+1500&rft.place=Dahlonega&rft.pub=University+of+North+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F961216293&rft.isbn=978-1-940771-10-6&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.au=Israel%2C+George&rft.au=Miller%2C+Charlotte&rft.au=Parkinson%2C+Brian&rft.au=Reeves%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Williams%2C+Nadejda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldhistorycult0000unse_o3i7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirken1992" class="citation journal cs1">Birken, Lawrence (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/4f7ef5e6c27a698dddaa75eeb812aabcb7e53406">"What is Western Civilization?"</a>. The History Teacher. 25 (4): 451–461. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F494353">10.2307/494353</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/494353">494353</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141243435">141243435</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401110243/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/What-Is-Western-Civilization-Birken/4f7ef5e6c27a698dddaa75eeb812aabcb7e53406">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2021. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21446-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21446-9"><bdi>978-0-521-21446-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Court+politics+in+late+T%27ang+times&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+3%3A+Sui+and+T%27ang+China%2C+589%E2%80%93906+AD%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21446-9&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Didu6-Ie1MhwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaub1995" class="citation journal cs1">Haub, Carl (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161010185933/http://www.un.org:80/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html">"How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"</a>. Population Today. 23 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html">the original</a> on 10 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+Today&rft.atitle=How+Many+People+Have+Ever+Lived+on+Earth%3F&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Haub&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fpopin%2Fpopis%2Fjournals%2Fpoptoday%2Ftoday0295.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermans2020" class="citation book cs1">Hermans, Erik, ed. (2020). A Companion to the Global Early Middle Ages. Yorkshire: Arc Humanities Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvz0h9cf">10.2307/j.ctvz0h9cf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-942401-76-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-942401-76-6"><bdi>978-1-942401-76-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1143847601">1143847601</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241796784">241796784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Global+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Yorkshire&rft.pub=Arc+Humanities+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1143847601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241796784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvz0h9cf&rft.isbn=978-1-942401-76-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesStanden2018" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes, Catherine; <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Standen" title="Naomi Standen">Standen, Naomi</a> (November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgty030">"Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Past_%26_Present_(journal)" title="Past & Present (journal)">Past & Present</a> (13): 1–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgty030">10.1093/pastj/gty030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Towards+a+Global+Middle+Ages&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgty030&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Standen%2C+Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fpastj%252Fgty030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKedarWiesner-Hanks2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Z._Kedar" title="Benjamin Z. Kedar">Kedar, Benjamin Z.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Merry_Wiesner-Hanks" class="mw-redirect" title="Merry Wiesner-Hanks">Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E.</a>, eds. (2015). The Cambridge World History Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500 CE–1500 CE. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-66748-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-66748-0"><bdi>978-0-511-66748-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1058351091">1058351091</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+Expanding+Webs+of+Exchange+and+Conflict%2C+500+CE%E2%80%931500+CE&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1058351091&rft.isbn=978-0-511-66748-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoudStaub2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graham_Loud" title="Graham Loud">Loud, G. A.</a>; Staub, Martial, eds. (2017). The Making of Medieval History. Woodbridge: <a href="/wiki/York_Medieval_Press" title="York Medieval Press">York Medieval Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-70-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-70-3"><bdi>978-1-903153-70-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/960462307">960462307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Medieval+History&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=York+Medieval+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F960462307&rft.isbn=978-1-903153-70-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasood2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Masood" title="Ehsan Masood">Masood, Ehsan</a> (2009). Science and Islam: A History. London: <a href="/wiki/Icon_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Icon Books">Icon Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-785-78202-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-785-78202-2"><bdi>978-1-785-78202-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Islam%3A+A+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Icon+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-785-78202-2&rft.aulast=Masood&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Silverstein, Adam J. (2010). Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954572-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954572-8"><bdi>978-0-19-954572-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+History%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954572-8&rft.aulast=Silverstein&rft.aufirst=Adam+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsAdasSchwartzGilbert2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Stearns" title="Peter Stearns">Stearns, Peter N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Adas" title="Michael Adas">Adas, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stuart_B._Schwartz" title="Stuart B. Schwartz">Schwartz, Stuart B.</a>; Gilbert, Marc Jason (2011). World Civilizations: The Global Experience (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-136020-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-136020-4"><bdi>978-0-13-136020-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Civilizations%3A+The+Global+Experience&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-13-136020-4&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft.au=Adas%2C+Michael&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Stuart+B.&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Marc+Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonO'ToolePatrickPruneski2009" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, John M.; O'Toole, Dan; Patrick, Bethanne; Pruneski, Lauren; Thompson, Tiffin (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVud2lVvm_AC&q=The+Medieval+World+John+M.+Thompson">The Medieval World: An Illustrated Atlas</a>. Washington: <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0533-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0533-0"><bdi>978-1-4262-0533-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031140152/https://books.google.com/books?id=AVud2lVvm_AC&q=The+Medieval+World+John+M.+Thompson">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+World%3A+An+Illustrated+Atlas&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4262-0533-0&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=O%27Toole%2C+Dan&rft.au=Patrick%2C+Bethanne&rft.au=Pruneski%2C+Lauren&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Tiffin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVud2lVvm_AC%26q%3DThe%2BMedieval%2BWorld%2BJohn%2BM.%2BThompson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVidal-Nanquet1987" class="citation book cs1">Vidal-Nanquet, Pierre (1987). The Harper Atlas of World History. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Row Publishers">Harper & Row Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harper+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Vidal-Nanquet&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChronicle_of_World_History2008" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofworld0000unse/mode/2up">Chronicle of World History</a>. Old Saybrook: Konecky & Konecky. 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56852-680-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56852-680-5"><bdi>978-1-56852-680-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/298782520">298782520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+World+History&rft.place=Old+Saybrook&rft.pub=Konecky+%26+Konecky&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F298782520&rft.isbn=978-1-56852-680-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofworld0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimes_Books1998" class="citation cs1">Times Books (1998). Harper Collins Atlas of World History. New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-1025-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-1025-8"><bdi>978-0-7230-1025-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41347894">41347894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harper+Collins+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41347894&rft.isbn=978-0-7230-1025-8&rft.au=Times+Books&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgolte2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Borgolte" title="Michael Borgolte">Borgolte, Michael</a> (2022). Die Welten des Mittelalters: Globalgeschichte eines Jahrtausends [The Worlds of the Middle Ages: Global History of a Millennium] (in German). Munich: <a href="/wiki/C.H._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="C.H. Beck">C.H. Beck</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-78446-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-78446-0"><bdi>978-3-406-78446-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Welten+des+Mittelalters%3A+Globalgeschichte+eines+Jahrtausends&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-406-78446-0&rft.aulast=Borgolte&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APost-classical+history" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-classical_history&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Post-classical_history" class="extiw" title="commons:Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freeman-pedia.com/early-modern-600-ce-to-1450-ce/">Freemanpedia</a> – a graphical representation of the Post-classical era.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/">Silk Road Seattle</a> – a rich selection of primary sources on the Silk Road and interactions between different cultures in Post-classical times.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/History_by_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History by period">History by period</a> 5th–15th century </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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