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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="No"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977 | Journal of the History of Biology</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Journal of the History of Biology - Fred Sanger, the inventor of the first protein, RNA and DNA sequencing methods, has traditionally been seen as a technical scientist, engaged in laboratory bench..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/10739"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="10739"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Journal of the History of Biology 2009 43:2"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2009-04-23"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V."/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V."/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Fred Sanger, the inventor of the first protein, RNA and DNA sequencing methods, has traditionally been seen as a technical scientist, engaged in laboratory bench work and not interested at all in intellectual debates in biology. In his autobiography and commentaries by fellow researchers, he is portrayed as having a trajectory exclusively dependent on technological progress. The scarce historical scholarship on Sanger partially challenges these accounts by highlighting the importance of professional contacts, institutional and disciplinary moves in his career, spanning from 1940 to 1983. This paper will complement such literature by focusing, for the first time, on the transition of Sanger’s sequencing strategies from degrading to copying the target molecule, which occurred in the late 1960s as he was shifting from protein and RNA to DNA sequencing, shortly after his move from the Department of Biochemistry to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, both based in Cambridge (UK). Through a reinterpretation of Sanger’s papers and retrospective accounts and a pioneering investigation of his laboratory notebooks, I will claim that sequencing shifted from the working procedures of organic chemistry to those of the emergent molecular biology. I will also argue that sequencing deserves a history in its own right as a practice and not as a technique subordinated to the development of molecular biology or genomics. My proposed history of sequencing leads to a reappraisal of current STS debates on bioinformatics, biotechnology and biomedicine."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1573-0387"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Journal of the History of Biology"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2009-04-23"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="43"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="2"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="265"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="323"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V."/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Journal of the History of Biology"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="J Hist Biol"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Netherlands"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1573-0387"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="43"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="2"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2010/05"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2009/04/23"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="265"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="323"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Article"/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="size" content="314992"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Fred Sanger, the inventor of the first protein, RNA and DNA sequencing methods, has traditionally been seen as a technical scientist, engaged in laboratory"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="García-Sancho, Miguel"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="History of Science"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Philosophy of Biology"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Social Studies of Science; citation_title=The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation ‹Policy’ in Molecular Biology; citation_author=P. 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In his autobiography and commentaries by fellow researchers, he is portrayed as having a trajectory exclusively dependent on technological progress. The scarce historical scholarship on Sanger partially challenges these accounts by highlighting the importance of professional contacts, institutional and disciplinary moves in his career, spanning from 1940 to 1983. This paper will complement such literature by focusing, for the first time, on the transition of Sanger’s sequencing strategies from degrading to copying the target molecule, which occurred in the late 1960s as he was shifting from protein and RNA to DNA sequencing, shortly after his move from the Department of Biochemistry to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, both based in Cambridge (UK). Through a reinterpretation of Sanger’s papers and retrospective accounts and a pioneering investigation of his laboratory notebooks, I will claim that sequencing shifted from the working procedures of organic chemistry to those of the emergent molecular biology. I will also argue that sequencing deserves a history in its own right as a practice and not as a technique subordinated to the development of molecular biology or genomics. My proposed history of sequencing leads to a reappraisal of current STS debates on bioinformatics, biotechnology and biomedicine."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/10739"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" 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In his autobiography and commentaries by fellow researchers, he is portrayed as having a trajectory exclusively dependent on technological progress. The scarce historical scholarship on Sanger partially challenges these accounts by highlighting the importance of professional contacts, institutional and disciplinary moves in his career, spanning from 1940 to 1983. This paper will complement such literature by focusing, for the first time, on the transition of Sanger’s sequencing strategies from degrading to copying the target molecule, which occurred in the late 1960s as he was shifting from protein and RNA to DNA sequencing, shortly after his move from the Department of Biochemistry to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, both based in Cambridge (UK). Through a reinterpretation of Sanger’s papers and retrospective accounts and a pioneering investigation of his laboratory notebooks, I will claim that sequencing shifted from the working procedures of organic chemistry to those of the emergent molecular biology. I will also argue that sequencing deserves a history in its own right as a practice and not as a technique subordinated to the development of molecular biology or genomics. My proposed history of sequencing leads to a reappraisal of current STS debates on bioinformatics, biotechnology and biomedicine.","datePublished":"2009-04-23T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2009-04-23T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"265","pageEnd":"323","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1","keywords":["Sanger","sequencing","molecular biology","biochemistry","genomics","recombinant DNA","proteins","History of Science","Philosophy of Biology"],"image":[],"isPartOf":{"name":"Journal of the History of Biology","issn":["1573-0387","0022-5010"],"volumeNumber":"43","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer Netherlands","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Miguel García-Sancho","affiliation":[{"name":"Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)","address":{"name":"Department of Science, Technology and Society, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"miguel.garciasancho@cchs.csic.es","@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":false,"hasPart":{"isAccessibleForFree":false,"cssSelector":".main-content","@type":"WebPageElement"},"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="" >  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>   <noscript data-test="gtm-body"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>  <div class="u-visually-hidden" aria-hidden="true" data-test="darwin-icons"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" 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Biology</span> </a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10739/aims-and-scope" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_aims_and_scope" data-track-action="aims and scope" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> Aims and scope <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> <a href="https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/10739/3" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_submit_manuscript" data-track-context="article masthead on springerlink article page" data-track-action="submit manuscript" data-track-label="link"> Submit manuscript <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="u-serif js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Miguel-Garc_a_Sancho-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Miguel-Garc_a_Sancho-Aff1" data-author-search="García-Sancho, Miguel" data-corresp-id="c1">Miguel García-Sancho<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>828 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-citations-medium"></use> </svg>26 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>4 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Fred Sanger, the inventor of the first protein, RNA and DNA sequencing methods, has traditionally been seen as a technical scientist, engaged in laboratory bench work and not interested at all in intellectual debates in biology. In his autobiography and commentaries by fellow researchers, he is portrayed as having a trajectory exclusively dependent on technological progress. The scarce historical scholarship on Sanger partially challenges these accounts by highlighting the importance of professional contacts, institutional and disciplinary moves in his career, spanning from 1940 to 1983. This paper will complement such literature by focusing, for the first time, on the transition of Sanger’s sequencing strategies from degrading to copying the target molecule, which occurred in the late 1960s as he was shifting from protein and RNA to DNA sequencing, shortly after his move from the Department of Biochemistry to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, both based in Cambridge (UK). Through a reinterpretation of Sanger’s papers and retrospective accounts and a pioneering investigation of his laboratory notebooks, I will claim that sequencing shifted from the working procedures of organic chemistry to those of the emergent molecular biology. I will also argue that sequencing deserves a history in its own right as a practice and not as a technique subordinated to the development of molecular biology or genomics. 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A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977. <i>J Hist Biol</i> <b>43</b>, 265–323 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2009-04-23">23 April 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class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Sanger&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Sanger</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=sequencing&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">sequencing</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=molecular%20biology&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">molecular biology</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=biochemistry&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">biochemistry</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=genomics&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">genomics</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=recombinant%20DNA&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">recombinant DNA</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=proteins&facet-discipline="History"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">proteins</a></span></li></ul><div data-component="article-info-list"></div></div></div></div></div></section> </div> </main> <div class="c-article-sidebar u-text-sm u-hide-print l-with-sidebar__sidebar" id="sidebar" data-container-type="reading-companion" data-track-component="reading companion"> <aside> <div data-test="collections"> </div> <div data-test="editorial-summary"> </div> <div class="c-reading-companion"> <div class="c-reading-companion__sticky" data-component="reading-companion-sticky" 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