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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrogen_fixation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrogen_fixation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Nitrogen fixation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrogen_fixation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Photosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Photosynthesis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Photosynthesis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Photosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_fixation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Electron transport chain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron_transport_chain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyanobionts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanobionts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cyanobionts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanobionts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Collective behaviour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Cellular death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyanophages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanophages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Cyanophages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanophages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earth_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Earth history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_photosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_photosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Origin of photosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_photosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_chloroplasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_chloroplasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Origin of chloroplasts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_chloroplasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Marine origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-DNA_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>DNA repair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Relation to humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relation_to_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relation to humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biotechnology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotechnology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Biotechnology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biotechnology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Human nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Health risks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Chemical control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyanobacteria</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">79 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sianobakterie" title="Sianobakterie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sianobakterie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B0%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%AB%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%A8%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%93%E1%8B%B4%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%9B_%E1%8B%8B%E1%89%85%E1%88%8B%E1%88%9A%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD" title="ሰማያዊ አረንጓዴአማ ዋቅላሚዎች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሰማያዊ አረንጓዴአማ ዋቅላሚዎች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="بكتيريا زرقاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بكتيريا زرقاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sianobakteriya" title="Sianobakteriya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sianobakteriya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সায়ানোব্যাকটেরিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সায়ানোব্যাকটেরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A2-s%C3%A8-kh%C3%BAn" title="Nâ-sè-khún – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Nâ-sè-khún" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Цыянабактэрыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цыянабактэрыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Цианобактерии – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цианобактерии" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cijanobakterije" title="Cijanobakterije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Cijanobakterije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianobacteris" title="Cianobacteris – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cianobacteris" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinice" title="Sinice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sinice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobakterier" title="Cyanobakterier – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Cyanobakterier" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobakterien" title="Cyanobakterien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Cyanobakterien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%C3%BCanobakterid" title="Tsüanobakterid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tsüanobakterid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Κυανοβακτήρια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυανοβακτήρια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianobakterio" title="Cianobakterio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cianobakterio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zianobakterio" title="Zianobakterio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zianobakterio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="سیانوباکتر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیانوباکتر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianabaict%C3%A9ir" title="Cianabaictéir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cianabaictéir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianobacterias" title="Cianobacterias – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cianobacterias" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%EC%84%B8%EA%B7%A0" title="남세균 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="남세균" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ցիանոբակտերիաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցիանոբակտերիաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="नील हरित शैवाल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नील हरित शैवाल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sianobakteri" title="Sianobakteri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sianobakteri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A1gerlar" title="Blágerlar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Blágerlar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="כחוליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כחוליות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AF-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AC%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ლურჯ-მწვანე წყალმცენარეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლურჯ-მწვანე წყალმცენარეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Цианобактериялар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цианобактериялар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syanobakteri" title="Syanobakteri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Syanobakteri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BA%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Көкжашыл балырлар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Көкжашыл балырлар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zila%C4%BC%C4%A3es" title="Zilaļģes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zilaļģes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melsvabakter%C4%97s" title="Melsvabakterės – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Melsvabakterės" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianobakt%C3%A9riumok" title="Cianobaktériumok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cianobaktériumok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Цијанобактерии – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цијанобактерии" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sian%C3%B4bakteria" title="Sianôbakteria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sianôbakteria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="സയനോബാക്ടീരിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സയനോബാക്ടീരിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="بكتيريا زرقاء – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بكتيريا زرقاء" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blauwalgen" title="Blauwalgen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Blauwalgen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%8D%E8%97%BB" title="藍藻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="藍藻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A4_algen" title="Blä algen – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Blä algen" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A5gr%C3%B8nnbakterier" title="Blågrønnbakterier – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Blågrønnbakterier" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobakteriar" title="Cyanobakteriar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Cyanobakteriar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%CA%BBk-yashil_suvo%CA%BBtlar" title="Koʻk-yashil suvoʻtlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koʻk-yashil suvoʻtlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88" title="ਨੀਲ ਹਰੀ ਕਾਈ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੀਲ ਹਰੀ ਕਾਈ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_(%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%8A%D9%88_%DA%89%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%90_%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AB_%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8A)" title="ساينوباکتريا (د باکتريا يو ډول دی چې شين اسماني رنګ لري) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ساينوباکتريا (د باکتريا يو ډول دی چې شين اسماني رنګ لري)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinice" title="Sinice – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sinice" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg%C4%83_albastr%C4%83-verde" title="Algă albastră-verde – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Algă albastră-verde" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anqas_a%C3%B1aki" title="Anqas añaki – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Anqas añaki" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Цианобактерии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цианобактерии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algat_blu_t%C3%AB_gjelbra_-_Cianophyta" title="Algat blu të gjelbra - Cianophyta – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Algat blu të gjelbra - Cianophyta" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="සයනොබැක්ටීරියා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සයනොබැක්ටීරියා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A6%DA%AA%D9%BD%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سائنوبئڪٽيريا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنوبئڪٽيريا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinice" title="Sinice – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sinice" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modrozelene_cepljivke" title="Modrozelene cepljivke – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Modrozelene cepljivke" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyanobakteriya" title="Siyanobakteriya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Siyanobakteriya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Модрозелене бактерије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Модрозелене бактерије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syanobakteerit" title="Syanobakteerit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Syanobakteerit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobakterier" title="Cyanobakterier – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cyanobakterier" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="நீலப்பச்சைப்பாசி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நீலப்பச்சைப்பாசி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ไซยาโนแบคทีเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไซยาโนแบคทีเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyanobakteri" title="Siyanobakteri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Siyanobakteri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97" title="Ціанобактерії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ціанобактерії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi_khu%E1%BA%A9n_lam" title="Vi khuẩn lam – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vi khuẩn lam" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Cyanobacteria" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phylum of photosynthesising prokaryotes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Cyanobacterium" redirects here. For the genus, see <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterium_(genus)" title="Cyanobacterium (genus)">Cyanobacterium (genus)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Blue-green algae" and "Green-blue algae" redirect here. For the plant algae, see <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">Green algae</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Cyanobacteria<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">2100–0 Ma</span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; font-size:small; position:relative; z-index:0;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,192,141); left:220.50773980251px; width:15.703916975018px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,197,202); left:236.21165677753px; width:10.175705559083px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(242,249,29); left:246.38736233661px; width:3.6126376633897px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(154,217,221); left:220.50773980251px; width:29.492260197491px;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic"><span style="color:black;">Pha.</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,67,112); left:113.15766426554px; width:49.263240864406px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,180,98); left:162.42090512995px; width:32.84216057627px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,179,66); left:195.26306570622px; width:25.244674096293px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,53,99); left:113.15766426554px; width:107.35007553697px;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><span style="color:black;">Proterozoic</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(218,3,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:23.591618680621px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(244,68,159); left:52.947036542377px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,104,169); left:74.841810259891px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(249,155,193); left:96.736583977405px; width:16.421080288135px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,4,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:83.802246403783px;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:black;">Archean</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:white;">Had.</span></a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:249px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:52.947036542377px; width:197.05296345762px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:135.05243798305px; width:114.94756201695px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:136.05243798305px; width:112.94756201695px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span>(Possible Paleoarchean records)</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg/250px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg/375px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg/500px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_4203_A_bluegreen_algae_species_Cylindrospermum_sp_under_magnification.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1850" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Microscope image of <i><a href="/wiki/Cylindrospermum" title="Cylindrospermum">Cylindrospermum</a></i>, a filamentous genus of cyanobacteria </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Cyanophyceae" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Terrabacteria" title="Terrabacteria">Terrabacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria-Melainabacteria_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanobacteria-Melainabacteria group (page does not exist)">Cyanobacteria-Melainabacteria group</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanobacteria</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Roger_Stanier" title="Roger Stanier">Stanier</a>, 1973</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanophyceae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Orders<sup id="cite_ref-Komárek_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Komárek-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <p>As of 2014<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the taxonomy was under revision<sup id="cite_ref-Cyanophyceae_cladistics_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyanophyceae_cladistics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chroococcales" title="Chroococcales">Chroococcales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chroococcidiopsidales" class="mw-redirect" title="Chroococcidiopsidales">Chroococcidiopsidales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloeobacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacterales">Gloeobacterales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleurocapsales" title="Pleurocapsales">Pleurocapsales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirulinales" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirulinales">Spirulinales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechococcales" title="Synechococcales">Synechococcales</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i> <ul><li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Gunflintia" title="Gunflintia">Gunflintia</a></i></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Ozarkcollenia" title="Ozarkcollenia">Ozarkcollenia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastids" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastids">Plastids</a> (endosymbiotic)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><small>List</small></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Chloroxybacteria <small>Margulis & Schwartz 1982</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Cyanophycota" <small>Parker, Schanen & Renner 1969</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Cyanophyta" <small>Steinecke 1931</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Diploschizophyta" <small>Dillon 1963</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Endoschizophyta" <small>Dillon 1963</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Exoschizophyta" <small>Dillon 1963</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Gonidiophyta <small>Schaffner 1909</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Phycobacteria" <small>Cavalier-Smith 1998</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Phycochromaceae <small>Rabenhorst 1865</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Prochlorobacteria <small>Jeffrey 1982</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Prochlorophycota <small>Shameel 2008</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Prochlorophyta <small>Lewin 1976</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Chroococcophyceae <small>Starmach 1966</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Chamaesiphonophyceae <small>Starmach 1966</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> "Cyanobacteriia" </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cyanophyceae <small>Sachs 1874</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cyanophyta <small>Steinecke 1931</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Hormogoniophyceae <small>Starmach 1966</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Myxophyceae <small>Wallroth 1833</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Nostocophyceae <small>Christensen 1978</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Pleurocapsophyceae <small>Starmach 1966</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Prochlorophyceae <small>Lewin 1977</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Scandophyceae <small>Vologdin 1962</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Phycochromaceae <small>Rabenhorst 1865</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Oxyphotobacteria <small>Gibbons & Murray 1978</small> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Schizophyceae <small>Cohn 1879</small> </li></ul> </div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Cyanobacteria</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪər/: 'ear' in 'near'">ɪər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>), also called <b>Cyanobacteriota</b> or <b>Cyanophyta</b>, are a <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Autotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophic">autotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative bacteria</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that can obtain <a href="/wiki/Biological_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological energy">biological energy</a> via <a href="/wiki/Oxygenic_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenic photosynthesis">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>. The name "cyanobacteria" (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%8D%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:κύανος">κύανος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>kúanos</i></span>)</i> 'blue') refers to their bluish green (<a href="/wiki/Cyan" title="Cyan">cyan</a>) color,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which forms the basis of cyanobacteria's informal <a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">common name</a>, <b>blue-green algae</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-ucmp-cyanobacteria-lh_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucmp-cyanobacteria-lh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ncbi-taxonomy_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi-taxonomy-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Allaby_92_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allaby_92-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although as <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> they are not scientifically classified as <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria are probably the most numerous <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a> to have ever existed on Earth and the first organisms known to have produced <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pwc_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pwc-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> having appeared in the middle <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean eon</a> and apparently originated in a <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> or <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrestrial environment">terrestrial environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">photopigments</a> can absorb the red- and blue-spectrum frequencies of <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> (thus reflecting a greenish color) to split <a href="/wiki/Water_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Water molecule">water molecules</a> into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion" title="Hydrogen ion">hydrogen ions</a> and oxygen. The hydrogen ions are used to react with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> to produce complex <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> (a process known as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a>), and the oxygen is released as a <a href="/wiki/Byproduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Byproduct">byproduct</a>. By continuously producing and releasing oxygen over billions of years, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the <a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">early Earth</a>'s anoxic, <a href="/wiki/Reducing_atmosphere" title="Reducing atmosphere">weakly reducing</a> <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">prebiotic atmosphere</a>, into an <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidizing</a> one with free gaseous oxygen (which previously would have been immediately removed by various <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's surface">surface</a> <a href="/wiki/Reductant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductant">reductants</a>), resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation Event</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">rusting of the Earth</a>" during the early <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Whitton2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitton2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dramatically changing the composition of life forms on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> of early <a href="/wiki/Single-celled_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-celled organism">single-celled organisms</a> to survive in oxygenous environments likely had led to <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">endosymbiosis</a> between <a href="/wiki/Anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobe">anaerobes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobe">aerobes</a>, and hence the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a>. </p><p>Cyanobacteria use <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment" title="Photosynthetic pigment">photosynthetic pigments</a> such as various forms of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phycobilin" title="Phycobilin">phycobilins</a> to convert the <a href="/wiki/Light_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Light energy">photonic energy</a> in sunlight to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophic</a> prokaryotes, cyanobacteria have <a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system" title="Endomembrane system">internal membranes</a>. These are flattened sacs called <a href="/wiki/Thylakoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoids">thylakoids</a> where photosynthesis is performed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph">Photoautotrophic</a> eukaryotes such as <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> perform photosynthesis in chlorophyllic <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> that are thought to have their ancestry in cyanobacteria, acquired long ago via endosymbiosis. These <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> cyanobacteria in eukaryotes then evolved and differentiated into specialized organelles such as <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">chromoplasts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etioplast" title="Etioplast">etioplasts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leucoplast" title="Leucoplast">leucoplasts</a>, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a>. </p><p>Sericytochromatia, the proposed name of the <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</a> and most basal group, is the ancestor of both the non-photosynthetic group <a href="/wiki/Melainabacteria" title="Melainabacteria">Melainabacteria</a> and the photosynthetic cyanobacteria, also called Oxyphotobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cyanobacteria <i><a href="/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cyanothece" title="Cyanothece">Cyanothece</a></i> are important model organisms with potential applications in biotechnology for <a href="/wiki/Bioethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioethanol">bioethanol</a> production, food colorings, as a source of human and animal food, dietary supplements and raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria produce a range of toxins known as <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanotoxins">cyanotoxins</a> that can cause harmful health effects in humans and animals. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/300px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/450px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/600px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption> Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere. <a href="/wiki/Sea_spray" title="Sea spray">Sea spray</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">marine microorganisms</a>, including cyanobacteria, can be swept high into the atmosphere where they become <a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">aeroplankton</a>, and can travel the globe before falling back to earth.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Cyanobacteria are a very large and diverse phylum of <a href="/wiki/Photoautotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoautotrophic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are defined by their unique combination of <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigments</a> and their ability to perform <a href="/wiki/Oxygenic_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenic photosynthesis">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>. They often live in <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial aggregates</a> that can take on a multitude of forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Donkor1991_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donkor1991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of particular interest are the <a href="/wiki/Filamentous_cyanobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Filamentous cyanobacteria">filamentous species</a>, which often dominate the upper layers of <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mats</a> found in extreme environments such as <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypersaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersaline">hypersaline water</a>, deserts and the polar regions,<sup id="cite_ref-Stal2000book_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stal2000book-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are also widely distributed in more mundane environments as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are evolutionarily optimized for environmental conditions of low oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species are <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixing">nitrogen-fixing</a> and live in a wide variety of moist soils and water, either freely or in a symbiotic relationship with plants or <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a>-forming <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> (as in the lichen genus <i><a href="/wiki/Peltigera" title="Peltigera">Peltigera</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg/300px-Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg/450px-Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg/600px-Prochlorococcus_marinus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4147" data-file-height="4285" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>, an influential marine cyanobacterium which produces much of the world's oxygen</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Cyanobacteria are globally widespread photosynthetic prokaryotes and are major contributors to global <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are the only oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes, and prosper in diverse and extreme habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are among the oldest organisms on Earth with fossil records dating back at least 2.1 billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-Schirrmeister-2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schirrmeister-2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, cyanobacteria have been essential players in the Earth's ecosystems. Planktonic cyanobacteria are a fundamental component of <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">marine food webs</a> and are major contributors to global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen fluxes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cyanobacteria form <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">harmful algal blooms</a> causing the disruption of aquatic ecosystem services and intoxication of wildlife and humans by the production of powerful toxins (<a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">cyanotoxins</a>) such as <a href="/wiki/Microcystin" title="Microcystin">microcystins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">saxitoxin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cylindrospermopsin" title="Cylindrospermopsin">cylindrospermopsin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Paerl2013_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paerl2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nowadays, cyanobacterial blooms pose a serious threat to aquatic environments and public health, and are increasing in frequency and magnitude globally.<sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous in marine environments and play important roles as <a href="/wiki/Primary_producer" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producer">primary producers</a>. They are part of the marine <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, which currently contributes almost half of the Earth's total primary production.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 25% of the global marine primary production is contributed by cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the cyanobacteria, only a few lineages colonized the open ocean: <i><a href="/wiki/Crocosphaera" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocosphaera">Crocosphaera</a></i> and relatives, <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterium_UCYN-A" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterium UCYN-A">cyanobacterium UCYN-A</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Trichodesmium" title="Trichodesmium">Trichodesmium</a></i>, as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zehr2011_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zehr2011-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2012_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2012-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2006_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2006-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scanlan2009_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scanlan2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From these lineages, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are particularly important because they exert a control on <a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">primary productivity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">export of organic carbon</a> to the deep ocean,<sup id="cite_ref-Zehr2011_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zehr2011-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by converting nitrogen gas into ammonium, which is later used to make amino acids and proteins. Marine <a href="/wiki/Picocyanobacteria" title="Picocyanobacteria">picocyanobacteria</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i>) numerically dominate most phytoplankton assemblages in modern oceans, contributing importantly to primary productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2006_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2006-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scanlan2009_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scanlan2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Present_and_future_global_distribut_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Present_and_future_global_distribut-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some planktonic cyanobacteria are unicellular and free living cells (e.g., <i>Crocosphaera</i>, <i>Prochlorococcus</i>, <i>Synechococcus</i>); others have established symbiotic relationships with <a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">haptophyte algae</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2012_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2012-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst the filamentous forms, <i>Trichodesmium</i> are free-living and form aggregates. However, filamentous heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Richelia" title="Richelia">Richelia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Calothrix" title="Calothrix">Calothrix</a></i>) are found in association with <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> such as <i>Hemiaulus</i>, <i>Rhizosolenia</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known photosynthetic organisms. The smallest of all, <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of numbers of individuals, <i>Prochlorococcus</i> is possibly the most plentiful genus on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells of this genus or more. Worldwide there are estimated to be several <a href="/wiki/Octillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Octillion">octillion</a> (10<sup>27</sup>, a billion billion billion) individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Prochlorococcus</i> is ubiquitous between latitudes 40°N and 40°S, and dominates in the <a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a> (nutrient-poor) regions of the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Partensky-1999_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partensky-1999-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bacterium accounts for about 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-npr_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterial_morphology" title="Cyanobacterial morphology">Cyanobacterial morphology</a></div> <p>Cyanobacteria are variable in morphology, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filamentous_cyanobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Filamentous cyanobacteria">filamentous</a> to <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial forms</a>. Filamentous forms exhibit functional cell differentiation such as <a href="/wiki/Heterocyst" title="Heterocyst">heterocysts</a> (for nitrogen fixation), <a href="/wiki/Akinetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Akinetes">akinetes</a> (resting stage cells), and <a href="/wiki/Hormogonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormogonia">hormogonia</a> (reproductive, motile filaments). These, together with the intercellular connections they possess, are considered the first signs of multicellularity.<sup id="cite_ref-Claessen2014_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claessen2014-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herrero2016_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrero2016-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many cyanobacteria form motile filaments of cells, called <a href="/wiki/Hormogonium" title="Hormogonium">hormogonia</a>, that travel away from the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cells in a hormogonium are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be tapered. To break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Diversity in cyanobacteria morphology</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:310px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg/217px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg/326px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg/434px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4862" data-file-height="6954" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Unicellular and colonial cyanobacteria.<br /><small>scale bars about 10 μm</small></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:310px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simplefilaments022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplefilaments022.jpg/217px-Simplefilaments022.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplefilaments022.jpg/326px-Simplefilaments022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplefilaments022.jpg/434px-Simplefilaments022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4862" data-file-height="6954" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Simple cyanobacterial filaments <i><a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Spirulinales" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirulinales">Spirulinales</a></i></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg/400px-Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg/600px-Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg/800px-Morphological_variation_within_cyanobacterial_genera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3632" data-file-height="2743" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Morphological variations</b> <sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div>• Unicellular: (a) <i><a href="/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></i> and (b) <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus_elongatus" title="Synechococcus elongatus">Synechococcus elongatus</a></i><br />• Non-<a href="/wiki/Heterocyst" title="Heterocyst">heterocytous</a>: (c) <i><a href="/wiki/Arthrospira" title="Arthrospira">Arthrospira maxima</a></i>,<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">(d) <i><a href="/wiki/Trichodesmium" title="Trichodesmium">Trichodesmium</a></i> and (e) <i>Phormidium</i></div>• False- or non-branching heterocytous: (f) <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc" title="Nostoc">Nostoc</a></i><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">and (g) <i>Brasilonema octagenarum</i></div>• True-branching heterocytous: (h) <i>Stigonema</i> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><small>(ak) akinetes (fb) false branching (tb) true branching</small></div></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg/192px-Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg/288px-Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg/384px-Gloeotrichia_in_Sytox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1360" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Ball-shaped colony of <a href="/wiki/Gloeotrichia" title="Gloeotrichia">Gloeotrichia echinulata</a> stained with <a href="/wiki/SYTOX" title="SYTOX">SYTOX</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg/202px-CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg/303px-CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg/404px-CyanobacteriaColl1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="984" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Colonies of <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc_pruniforme" title="Nostoc pruniforme">Nostoc pruniforme</a></i></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Some filamentous species can differentiate into several different <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> types: </p> <ul><li>Vegetative cells – the normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under favorable growing conditions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinete" title="Akinete">Akinetes</a> – climate-resistant spores that may form when environmental conditions become harsh</li> <li>Thick-walled <a href="/wiki/Heterocysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocysts">heterocysts</a> – which contain the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Nitrogenase" title="Nitrogenase">nitrogenase</a> vital for <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Golden_1998_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden_1998-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fay_1992_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fay_1992-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in an anaerobic environment due to its sensitivity to oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Fay_1992_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fay_1992-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Each individual cell (each single cyanobacterium) typically has a thick, gelatinous <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They lack <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagella</a>, but hormogonia of some species can move about by <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_gliding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial gliding">gliding</a> along surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the multicellular filamentous forms of <i><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoria" title="Oscillatoria">Oscillatoria</a></i> are capable of a waving motion; the filament oscillates back and forth. In water columns, some cyanobacteria float by forming <a href="/wiki/Gas_vesicle" title="Gas vesicle">gas vesicles</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These vesicles are not <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> as such. They are not bounded by <a href="/wiki/Lipid_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid membranes">lipid membranes</a>, but by a protein sheath. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nitrogen_fixation">Nitrogen fixation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nitrogen fixation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png/220px-Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png/330px-Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png/440px-Nitrogen-fixing_cyanobacteria.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Some cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> in anaerobic conditions by means of specialized cells called <a href="/wiki/Heterocyst" title="Heterocyst">heterocysts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Golden_1998_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden_1998-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fay_1992_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fay_1992-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heterocysts may also form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) when fixed nitrogen is scarce. Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas into <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub></span>), <a href="/wiki/Nitrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrites">nitrites</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>2</span></span></span>) or <a href="/wiki/Nitrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrates">nitrates</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>3</span></span></span>), which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids (atmospheric nitrogen is not <a href="/wiki/Bioavailable" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioavailable">bioavailable</a> to plants, except for those having endosymbiotic <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixing bacteria">nitrogen-fixing bacteria</a>, especially the family <a href="/wiki/Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a>, among others). </p><p>Free-living cyanobacteria are present in the water of <a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">rice paddies</a>, and cyanobacteria can be found growing as <a href="/wiki/Epiphyte" title="Epiphyte">epiphytes</a> on the surfaces of the green alga, <i><a href="/wiki/Chara_(alga)" title="Chara (alga)">Chara</a></i>, where they may fix nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria such as <i><a href="/wiki/Anabaena" title="Anabaena">Anabaena</a></i> (a symbiont of the aquatic fern <i><a href="/wiki/Azolla" title="Azolla">Azolla</a></i>) can provide rice plantations with <a href="/wiki/Biofertilizer" title="Biofertilizer">biofertilizer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Azolla-Anabaena_as_a_Biofertilizer_for_Rice_Paddy_Fields_in_the_Po_Valley,_a_Temperate_Rice_Area_in_Northern_Italy_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azolla-Anabaena_as_a_Biofertilizer_for_Rice_Paddy_Fields_in_the_Po_Valley,_a_Temperate_Rice_Area_in_Northern_Italy-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Photosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacterium-inline.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cyanobacterium-inline.svg/330px-Cyanobacterium-inline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cyanobacterium-inline.svg/495px-Cyanobacterium-inline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cyanobacterium-inline.svg/660px-Cyanobacterium-inline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Diagram of a typical cyanobacterial cell</b></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png/330px-Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png/495px-Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png/660px-Cyanobacterial_thylakoid_membrane.png 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Cyanobacterial thylakoid membrane</b> <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> Outer and plasma membranes are in blue, thylakoid membranes in gold, glycogen granules in cyan, <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysomes</a> (C) in green, and a large dense polyphosphate granule (G) in pink</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_fixation">Carbon fixation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Carbon fixation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyanobacteria use the energy of <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> to drive <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, a process where the energy of light is used to synthesize <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> from carbon dioxide. Because they are aquatic organisms, they typically employ several strategies which are collectively known as a "CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentrating mechanism" to aid in the acquisition of inorganic carbon (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> or <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a>). Among the more specific strategies is the widespread prevalence of the bacterial microcompartments known as <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysomes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-KerfeldHeinhorst2010_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KerfeldHeinhorst2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which co-operate with active transporters of CO<sub>2</sub> and bicarbonate, in order to accumulate bicarbonate into the cytoplasm of the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carboxysomes are <a href="/wiki/Icosahedron" title="Icosahedron">icosahedral</a> structures composed of hexameric shell proteins that assemble into cage-like structures that can be several hundreds of nanometres in diameter. It is believed that these structures tether the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>-fixing enzyme, <a href="/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO">RuBisCO</a>, to the interior of the shell, as well as the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_channeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic channeling">metabolic channeling</a> to enhance the local CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentrations and thus increase the efficiency of the RuBisCO enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-LongBadger2007_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LongBadger2007-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electron_transport">Electron transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electron transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">purple bacteria</a> and other bacteria performing <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic photosynthesis</a>, thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria are not continuous with the plasma membrane but are separate compartments.<sup id="cite_ref-Vothknecht&Westhoff20012_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vothknecht&Westhoff20012-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The photosynthetic machinery is embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid" title="Thylakoid">thylakoid</a> membranes, with <a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">phycobilisomes</a> acting as <a href="/wiki/Light-harvesting_complex" title="Light-harvesting complex">light-harvesting antennae</a> attached to the membrane, giving the green pigmentation observed (with wavelengths from 450 nm to 660 nm) in most cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Sobiechowska-Sasim_2014_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sobiechowska-Sasim_2014-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most of the high-energy <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> derived from water are used by the cyanobacterial cells for their own needs, a fraction of these electrons may be donated to the external environment via <a href="/wiki/Electrogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrogenic">electrogenic</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pisciotta_JM,_Zou_Y,_Baskakov_IV_2010_e108212_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pisciotta_JM,_Zou_Y,_Baskakov_IV_2010_e108212-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Respiration">Respiration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Respiration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Respiration</a> in cyanobacteria can occur in the thylakoid membrane alongside photosynthesis,<sup id="cite_ref-Vermaas_2001_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermaas_2001-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with their photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport</a> sharing the same compartment as the components of respiratory electron transport. While the goal of photosynthesis is to store energy by building carbohydrates from CO<sub>2</sub>, respiration is the reverse of this, with carbohydrates turned back into CO<sub>2</sub> accompanying energy release. </p><p>Cyanobacteria appear to separate these two processes with their plasma membrane containing only components of the respiratory chain, while the thylakoid membrane hosts an interlinked respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport chain.<sup id="cite_ref-Vermaas_2001_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermaas_2001-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria use electrons from <a href="/wiki/Succinate_dehydrogenase" title="Succinate dehydrogenase">succinate dehydrogenase</a> rather than from <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">NADPH</a> for respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Vermaas_2001_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermaas_2001-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria only respire during the night (or in the dark) because the facilities used for electron transport are used in reverse for photosynthesis while in the light.<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_2014_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong_2014-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electron_transport_chain">Electron transport chain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Electron transport chain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many cyanobacteria are able to reduce nitrogen and carbon dioxide under <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_cellular_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic cellular respiration">aerobic</a> conditions, a fact that may be responsible for their evolutionary and ecological success. The water-oxidizing photosynthesis is accomplished by coupling the activity of <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">photosystem</a> (PS) II and I (<a href="/wiki/Z-scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Z-scheme">Z-scheme</a>). In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green sulfur bacteria</a> which only use one photosystem, the use of water as an electron donor is energetically demanding, requiring two photosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Klatt_2016_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klatt_2016-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Attached to the thylakoid membrane, <a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">phycobilisomes</a> act as <a href="/wiki/Light-harvesting_complex" title="Light-harvesting complex">light-harvesting antennae</a> for the photosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phycobilisome components (<a href="/wiki/Phycobiliprotein" title="Phycobiliprotein">phycobiliproteins</a>) are responsible for the blue-green pigmentation of most cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The variations on this theme are due mainly to <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phycoerythrin" title="Phycoerythrin">phycoerythrins</a> that give the cells their red-brownish coloration. In some cyanobacteria, the color of light influences the composition of the phycobilisomes.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In green light, the cells accumulate more phycoerythrin, which absorbs green light, whereas in red light they produce more <a href="/wiki/Phycocyanin" title="Phycocyanin">phycocyanin</a> which absorbs red. Thus, these bacteria can change from brick-red to bright blue-green depending on whether they are exposed to green light or to red light.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of "complementary chromatic adaptation" is a way for the cells to maximize the use of available light for photosynthesis. </p><p>A few genera lack phycobilisomes and have <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_b" title="Chlorophyll b">chlorophyll b</a> instead (<i><a href="/wiki/Prochloron" title="Prochloron">Prochloron</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>, <i>Prochlorothrix</i>). These were originally grouped together as the <a href="/wiki/Prochlorophyta" title="Prochlorophyta">prochlorophytes</a> or chloroxybacteria, but appear to have developed in several different lines of cyanobacteria. For this reason, they are now considered as part of the cyanobacterial group.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, photosynthesis in cyanobacteria uses water as an <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">electron donor</a> and produces <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> as a byproduct, though some may also use <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a><sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_Y,_Jørgensen_BB,_Revsbech_NP,_Poplawski_R_19862_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen_Y,_Jørgensen_BB,_Revsbech_NP,_Poplawski_R_19862-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process which occurs among other photosynthetic bacteria such as the <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple sulfur bacteria</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> is reduced to form <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere are considered to have been first created by the activities of ancient cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Och_2012_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Och_2012-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are often found as <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbionts</a> with a number of other groups of organisms such as fungi (lichens), <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pteridophyte" title="Pteridophyte">pteridophytes</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Azolla" title="Azolla">Azolla</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Gunnera" title="Gunnera">Gunnera</a></i>), etc.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The carbon metabolism of cyanobacteria include the incomplete <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">Krebs cycle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">pentose phosphate pathway</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are some groups capable of <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> growth,<sup id="cite_ref-CarrWhitton1973_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarrWhitton1973-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others are <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a>, causing diseases in invertebrates or algae (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">black band disease</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png/440px-Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png/660px-Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png/880px-Environmental_impact_of_aquatic_photosynthetic_microorganisms.png 2x" data-file-width="2540" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption>Environmental impact of cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic microorganisms in aquatic systems. Different classes of photosynthetic microorganisms are found in aquatic and marine environments where they form the base of healthy food webs and participate in symbioses with other organisms. However, shifting environmental conditions can result in community dysbiosis, where the growth of opportunistic species can lead to harmful blooms and toxin production with negative consequences to human health, livestock and fish stocks. Positive interactions are indicated by arrows; negative interactions are indicated by closed circles on the ecological model.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Cyanobacteria can be found in almost every terrestrial and <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_habitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic habitat">aquatic habitat</a> – <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>, damp soil, temporarily moistened rocks in <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>, bare rock and soil, and even <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> rocks. They can occur as <a href="/wiki/Planktonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Planktonic">planktonic</a> cells or form <a href="/wiki/Phototrophic_biofilms" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototrophic biofilms">phototrophic biofilms</a>. They are found inside stones and shells (in <a href="/wiki/Endolithic_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Endolithic ecosystem">endolithic ecosystems</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few are <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>, plants, various <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sea_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea sponge">sponges</a> and provide energy for the <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a>. Some live in the fur of <a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloths</a>, providing a form of <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aquatic cyanobacteria are known for their extensive and highly visible <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a> that can form in both <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> and marine environments. The blooms can have the appearance of blue-green paint or scum. These blooms can be <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a>, and frequently lead to the closure of recreational waters when spotted. <a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophages</a> are significant <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a> of unicellular marine cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacterial growth is favoured in ponds and lakes where waters are calm and have little turbulent mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-Jöhnk_2008_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jöhnk_2008-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their lifecycles are disrupted when the water naturally or artificially mixes from churning currents caused by the flowing water of streams or the churning water of fountains. For this reason blooms of cyanobacteria seldom occur in rivers unless the water is flowing slowly. Growth is also favoured at higher temperatures which enable <i><a href="/wiki/Microcystis" title="Microcystis">Microcystis</a></i> species to outcompete <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, and potentially allow development of toxins.<sup id="cite_ref-Jöhnk_2008_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jöhnk_2008-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on environmental trends, models and observations suggest cyanobacteria will likely increase their dominance in aquatic environments. This can lead to serious consequences, particularly the contamination of sources of <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>. Researchers including <a href="/wiki/Linda_Lawton" title="Linda Lawton">Linda Lawton</a> at <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gordon_University" title="Robert Gordon University">Robert Gordon University</a>, have developed techniques to study these.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria can interfere with <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">water treatment</a> in various ways, primarily by plugging filters (often large beds of sand and similar media) and by producing <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">cyanotoxins</a>, which have the potential to cause serious illness if consumed. Consequences may also lie within fisheries and waste management practices. Anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, rising temperatures, vertical stratification and increased <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric carbon dioxide">atmospheric carbon dioxide</a> are contributors to cyanobacteria increasing dominance of aquatic ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg/170px-Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg/255px-Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg/340px-Cyanobacteriaassociatedwithtufa014_Microcoleus_v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1763" data-file-height="2153" /></a><figcaption>Diagnostic Drawing: Cyanobacteria associated with tufa: <i>Microcoleus vaginatus</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Cyanobacteria have been found to play an important role in terrestrial habitats and organism communities. It has been widely reported that cyanobacteria <a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">soil crusts</a> help to stabilize soil to prevent <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and retain water.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a cyanobacterial species that does so is <i>Microcoleus vaginatus</i>. <i>M. vaginatus</i> stabilizes soil using a <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> sheath that binds to sand particles and absorbs water.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>M. vaginatus</i> also makes a significant contribution to the cohesion of <a href="/wiki/Biological_soil_crust" title="Biological soil crust">biological soil crust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SpatialSelfSegregation_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpatialSelfSegregation-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these organisms contribute significantly to global ecology and the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">oxygen cycle</a>. The tiny marine cyanobacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">Circadian rhythms</a> were once thought to only exist in eukaryotic cells but many cyanobacteria display a <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_circadian_rhythm" title="Bacterial circadian rhythm">bacterial circadian rhythm</a>. </p> <blockquote><p>"Cyanobacteria are arguably the most successful group of <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> on earth. They are the most genetically diverse; they occupy a broad range of habitats across all latitudes, widespread in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, and they are found in the most extreme niches such as hot springs, salt works, and hypersaline bays. <a href="/wiki/Photoautotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoautotrophic">Photoautotrophic</a>, oxygen-producing cyanobacteria created the conditions in the planet's early atmosphere that directed the evolution of aerobic metabolism and eukaryotic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria fulfill vital ecological functions in the world's oceans, being important contributors to global carbon and nitrogen budgets." – Stewart and Falconer<sup id="cite_ref-WalshSmith2011_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WalshSmith2011-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyanobionts">Cyanobionts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cyanobionts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg/440px-Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg/660px-Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg/880px-Leaf_and_root_colonization_by_cyanobacteria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="1667" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Symbiosis with land plants</b> <sup id="cite_ref-Lee2021_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2021-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Leaf and root colonization by cyanobacteria</div> (1) Cyanobacteria enter the leaf tissue through the <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> and colonize the intercellular space, forming a cyanobacterial loop.<br /> (2) On the root surface, cyanobacteria exhibit two types of colonization pattern; in the <a href="/wiki/Root_hair" title="Root hair">root hair</a>, filaments of <i><a href="/wiki/Anabaena" title="Anabaena">Anabaena</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc" title="Nostoc">Nostoc</a></i> species form loose colonies, and in the restricted zone on the root surface, specific <i>Nostoc</i> species form cyanobacterial colonies.<br /> (3) Co-inoculation with <a href="/wiki/2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic_acid" title="2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid">2,4-D</a> and <i>Nostoc</i> spp. increases para-nodule formation and nitrogen fixation. A large number of <i>Nostoc</i> spp. isolates colonize the root <a href="/wiki/Endosphere" title="Endosphere">endosphere</a> and form para-nodules.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2021_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2021-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></div> <p>Some cyanobacteria, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">cyanobionts</a> (cyanobacterial symbionts), have a <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationship with other organisms, both unicellular and multicellular.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim2020_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim2020-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As illustrated on the right, there are many examples of cyanobacteria interacting <a href="/wiki/Symbiotically" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotically">symbiotically</a> with <a href="/wiki/Land_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Land plant">land plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Treves2016_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treves2016-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria can enter the plant through the <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> and colonize the intercellular space, forming loops and intracellular coils.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Anabaena" title="Anabaena">Anabaena</a></i> spp. colonize the roots of wheat and cotton plants.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Babu2015_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babu2015-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bidyarani2015_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bidyarani2015-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Calothrix" title="Calothrix">Calothrix</a></i> sp. has also been found on the root system of wheat.<sup id="cite_ref-Babu2015_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babu2015-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bidyarani2015_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bidyarani2015-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Monocot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocot">Monocots</a>, such as wheat and rice, have been colonised by <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc" title="Nostoc">Nostoc</a></i> spp.,<sup id="cite_ref-Gantar1991_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gantar1991-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, Ganther and others isolated diverse <a href="/wiki/Heterocystous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocystous">heterocystous</a> nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, including <i>Nostoc</i>, <i>Anabaena</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cylindrospermum" title="Cylindrospermum">Cylindrospermum</a></i>, from plant root and soil. Assessment of wheat seedling roots revealed two types of association patterns: loose colonization of root hair by <i>Anabaena</i> and tight colonization of the root surface within a restricted zone by <i>Nostoc</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gantar1991_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gantar1991-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee2021_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2021-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png/440px-Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png/660px-Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png/880px-Cyanobacterial_symbionts_of_Ornithocercus_dinoflagellate_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Cyanobionts of <i>Ornithocercus</i> dinoflagellates</b> <sup id="cite_ref-Kim2020_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim2020-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> Live cyanobionts (cyanobacterial symbionts) belonging to <i><a href="/wiki/Ornithocercus" title="Ornithocercus">Ornithocercus</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellate</a> host consortium<br />(a) <i>O. magnificus</i> with numerous cyanobionts present in the upper and lower girdle lists (black arrowheads) of the cingulum termed the symbiotic chamber.<br />(b) <i>O. steinii</i> with numerous cyanobionts inhabiting the symbiotic chamber.<br />(c) Enlargement of the area in (b) showing two cyanobionts that are being divided by binary transverse fission (white arrows).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png/220px-Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png/330px-Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Cyanobacteria_in_symbiosis_with_a_diatom.png 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Epiphytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiphytic">Epiphytic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Calothrix" title="Calothrix">Calothrix</a> </i>cyanobacteria (arrows) in symbiosis with a <i><a href="/wiki/Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></i> diatom. Scale bar 50 μm.</div></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>The relationships between <a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">cyanobionts</a> (cyanobacterial symbionts) and protistan hosts are particularly noteworthy, as some nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (<a href="/wiki/Diazotroph" title="Diazotroph">diazotrophs</a>) play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">primary production</a>, especially in nitrogen-limited <a href="/wiki/Oligotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligotrophic">oligotrophic</a> oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria, mostly <a href="/wiki/Pico-" class="mw-redirect" title="Pico-">pico-sized</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>, are ubiquitously distributed and are the most abundant photosynthetic organisms on Earth, accounting for a quarter of all carbon fixed in marine ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Present_and_future_global_distribut_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Present_and_future_global_distribut-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Partensky-1999_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partensky-1999-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to free-living marine cyanobacteria, some cyanobionts are known to be responsible for nitrogen fixation rather than carbon fixation in the host.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the physiological functions of most cyanobionts remain unknown. Cyanobionts have been found in numerous protist groups, including <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tintinnid" title="Tintinnid">tintinnids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">radiolarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amoebae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebae">amoebae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">haptophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these cyanobionts, little is known regarding the nature (e.g., genetic diversity, host or cyanobiont specificity, and cyanobiont seasonality) of the symbiosis involved, particularly in relation to dinoflagellate host.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim2020_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim2020-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_behaviour">Collective behaviour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Collective behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Collective_behaviour_and_lifestyle_choices_in_single-celled_cyanobacteria.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Collective_behaviour_and_lifestyle_choices_in_single-celled_cyanobacteria.webp/440px-Collective_behaviour_and_lifestyle_choices_in_single-celled_cyanobacteria.webp.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Collective_behaviour_and_lifestyle_choices_in_single-celled_cyanobacteria.webp/617px-Collective_behaviour_and_lifestyle_choices_in_single-celled_cyanobacteria.webp.png 1.5x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Collective behaviour and buoyancy strategies in single-celled cyanobacteria <sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Some cyanobacteria – even single-celled ones – show striking collective behaviours and form colonies (or <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a>) that can float on water and have important ecological roles. For instance, billions of years ago, communities of marine <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> cyanobacteria could have helped create the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> as we know it by burying carbon compounds and allowing the initial build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">toxic cyanobacterial blooms</a> are an increasing issue for society, as their toxins can be harmful to animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extreme blooms can also deplete water of oxygen and reduce the penetration of sunlight and visibility, thereby compromising the feeding and mating behaviour of light-reliant species.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As shown in the diagram on the right, bacteria can stay in suspension as individual cells, adhere collectively to surfaces to form biofilms, passively sediment, or flocculate to form suspended aggregates. Cyanobacteria are able to produce sulphated <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (yellow haze surrounding clumps of cells) that enable them to form floating aggregates. In 2021, Maeda et al. discovered that oxygen produced by cyanobacteria becomes trapped in the network of polysaccharides and cells, enabling the microorganisms to form buoyant blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-Maeda2021_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maeda2021-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought that specific protein fibres known as <a href="/wiki/Pilus" title="Pilus">pili</a> (represented as lines radiating from the cells) may act as an additional way to link cells to each other or onto surfaces. Some cyanobacteria also use sophisticated intracellular <a href="/wiki/Gas_vesicle" title="Gas vesicle">gas vesicles</a> as floatation aids.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp/300px-Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp/450px-Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp/600px-Model_of_a_clumped_cyanobacterial_mat.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Model of a clumped cyanobacterial mat <sup id="cite_ref-Sim2012_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sim2012-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/250px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/375px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/500px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption> Light microscope view of cyanobacteria from a <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mat</a></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>The diagram on the left above shows a proposed model of microbial distribution, spatial organization, carbon and O<sub>2</sub> cycling in clumps and adjacent areas. (a) Clumps contain denser cyanobacterial filaments and heterotrophic microbes. The initial differences in density depend on cyanobacterial motility and can be established over short timescales. Darker blue color outside of the clump indicates higher oxygen concentrations in areas adjacent to clumps. Oxic media increase the reversal frequencies of any filaments that begin to leave the clumps, thereby reducing the net migration away from the clump. This enables the persistence of the initial clumps over short timescales; (b) Spatial coupling between photosynthesis and respiration in clumps. Oxygen produced by cyanobacteria diffuses into the overlying medium or is used for aerobic respiration. <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">Dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC) diffuses into the clump from the overlying medium and is also produced within the clump by respiration. In oxic solutions, high O<sub>2</sub> concentrations reduce the efficiency of CO<sub>2</sub> fixation and result in the excretion of glycolate. Under these conditions, clumping can be beneficial to cyanobacteria if it stimulates the retention of carbon and the assimilation of inorganic carbon by cyanobacteria within clumps. This effect appears to promote the accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate organic carbon">particulate organic carbon</a> (cells, sheaths and heterotrophic organisms) in clumps.<sup id="cite_ref-Sim2012_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sim2012-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been unclear why and how cyanobacteria form communities. Aggregation must divert resources away from the core business of making more cyanobacteria, as it generally involves the production of copious quantities of extracellular material. In addition, cells in the centre of dense aggregates can also suffer from both shading and shortage of nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Conradi2019_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conradi2019-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, what advantage does this communal life bring for cyanobacteria?<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg/440px-Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="371" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg/660px-Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg/880px-Cell_death_in_eukaryotes_and_cyanobacteria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1559" data-file-height="1314" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Cell death in eukaryotes and cyanobacteria</b> <sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> Types of cell death according to the <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_Committee_on_Cell_Death" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death">Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death</a> (upper panel;<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and proposed for cyanobacteria (lower panel). Cells exposed to extreme injury die in an uncontrollable manner, reflecting the loss of structural integrity. This type of cell death is called "accidental cell death" (ACD). “Regulated cell death (RCD)” is encoded by a genetic pathway that can be modulated by genetic or pharmacologic interventions. <a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> (PCD) is a type of RCD that occurs as a developmental program, and has not been addressed in cyanobacteria yet. RN, regulated necrosis.</figcaption></figure> <p>New insights into how cyanobacteria form blooms have come from a 2021 study on the cyanobacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></i>. These use a set of genes that regulate the production and export of sulphated <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, chains of sugar molecules modified with <a href="/wiki/Sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphate">sulphate</a> groups that can often be found in marine algae and animal tissue. Many bacteria generate extracellular polysaccharides, but sulphated ones have only been seen in cyanobacteria. In <i>Synechocystis</i> these sulphated polysaccharide help the cyanobacterium form buoyant aggregates by trapping oxygen bubbles in the slimy web of cells and polysaccharides.<sup id="cite_ref-Maeda2021_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maeda2021-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Previous studies on <i>Synechocystis</i> have shown <a href="/wiki/Type_IV_pili" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IV pili">type IV pili</a>, which decorate the surface of cyanobacteria, also play a role in forming blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conradi2019_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conradi2019-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These retractable and adhesive protein fibres are important for motility, adhesion to substrates and DNA uptake.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formation of blooms may require both type IV pili and Synechan – for example, the pili may help to export the polysaccharide outside the cell. Indeed, the activity of these protein fibres may be connected to the production of extracellular polysaccharides in filamentous cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Khayatan2015_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khayatan2015-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more obvious answer would be that pili help to build the aggregates by binding the cells with each other or with the extracellular polysaccharide. As with other kinds of bacteria,<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> certain components of the pili may allow cyanobacteria from the same species to recognise each other and make initial contacts, which are then stabilised by building a mass of extracellular polysaccharide.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bubble flotation mechanism identified by Maeda et al. joins a range of known strategies that enable cyanobacteria to control their buoyancy, such as using gas vesicles or accumulating carbohydrate ballasts.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Type IV pili on their own could also control the position of marine cyanobacteria in the water column by regulating viscous drag.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extracellular polysaccharide appears to be a multipurpose asset for cyanobacteria, from floatation device to food storage, defence mechanism and mobility aid.<sup id="cite_ref-Khayatan2015_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khayatan2015-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux2021_124-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux2021-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular_death">Cellular death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cellular death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxins-11-00706-g001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Toxins-11-00706-g001.png/220px-Toxins-11-00706-g001.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Toxins-11-00706-g001.png/330px-Toxins-11-00706-g001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Toxins-11-00706-g001.png/440px-Toxins-11-00706-g001.png 2x" data-file-width="3701" data-file-height="2597" /></a><figcaption>The hypothetical conceptual model coupling programmed cell death (PCD) and the role of microcystins (MCs) in Microcystis. (1) The extracellular stressor (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) acts on the cell. (2) Intracellular oxidative stress increases; the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) content exceeds the antioxidative capacity of the cell (mediated mostly by an enzymatic system involving a superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)) and causes molecular damage. (3) The damage further activates the caspase-like activity, and apoptosis-like death is initiated. Simultaneously, intracellular MCs begin to be released into the extracellular environment. (4) The extracellular MCs have been significantly released from dead Microcystis cells. (5) They act on the remaining Microcystis cells, and exert extracellular roles, for example, extracellular MCs can increase the production of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) that are involved in colony formation. Eventually, the colonial form improves the survival of the remaining cells under stressful conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Programmed_Cell_Death-Like_and_Acco_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Programmed_Cell_Death-Like_and_Acco-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most critical processes determining cyanobacterial eco-physiology is <a href="/wiki/Cellular_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular death">cellular death</a>. Evidence supports the existence of controlled cellular demise in cyanobacteria, and various forms of cell death have been described as a response to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, cell death research in cyanobacteria is a relatively young field and understanding of the underlying mechanisms and molecular machinery underpinning this fundamental process remains largely elusive.<sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, reports on cell death of marine and freshwater cyanobacteria indicate this process has major implications for the ecology of microbial communities/<sup id="cite_ref-Agustí2004_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agustí2004-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Agustí2006_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agustí2006-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Franklin2006_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin2006-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sigee2007_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sigee2007-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different forms of cell demise have been observed in cyanobacteria under several stressful conditions,<sup id="cite_ref-BermanFrank2004_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BermanFrank2004-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hu2019_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hu2019-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cell death has been suggested to play a key role in developmental processes, such as akinete and heterocyst differentiation, as well as strategy for population survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Programmed_Cell_Death-Like_and_Acco_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Programmed_Cell_Death-Like_and_Acco-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Meeks-2001_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meeks-2001-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Claessen2014_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claessen2014-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aguilera2021_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aguilera2021-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyanophages">Cyanophages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cyanophages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyanophage" title="Cyanophage">Cyanophage</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:157px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanophages.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/230px-Cyanophages.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/345px-Cyanophages.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/460px-Cyanophages.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="961" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron micrograph">Electron micrograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Negative-stained" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative-stained">negative-stained</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Myovirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Myovirus">myoviruses</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:206px;max-width:206px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:157px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg/204px-Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg/306px-Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg/408px-Structure_of_a_Myoviridae_bacteriophage_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="334" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Typical structure of a myovirus</div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyanophage" title="Cyanophage">Cyanophages</a> are viruses that infect cyanobacteria. Cyanophages can be found in both freshwater and marine environments.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine and freshwater cyanophages have <a href="/wiki/Regular_icosahedron" title="Regular icosahedron">icosahedral</a> heads, which contain double-stranded DNA, attached to a tail by connector proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-Suttle1993_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suttle1993-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of the head and tail vary among species of cyanophages. Cyanophages, like other <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>, rely on <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> to collide with bacteria, and then use receptor binding proteins to recognize cell surface proteins, which leads to adherence. Viruses with contractile tails then rely on receptors found on their tails to recognize highly conserved proteins on the surface of the host cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Fokine-2014_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fokine-2014-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanophages infect a wide range of cyanobacteria and are key regulators of the cyanobacterial populations in aquatic environments, and may aid in the prevention of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater and marine ecosystems. These blooms can pose a danger to humans and other animals, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Eutrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutrophic">eutrophic</a> freshwater lakes. Infection by these viruses is highly prevalent in cells belonging to <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> spp. in marine environments, where up to 5% of cells belonging to marine cyanobacterial cells have been reported to contain mature phage particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first cyanophage, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanophage_LPP-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanophage LPP-1 (page does not exist)">LPP-1</a>, was discovered in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanophages are classified within the <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> families <i><a href="/wiki/Myoviridae" title="Myoviridae">Myoviridae</a></i> (e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanophage_AS-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanophage AS-1 (page does not exist)">AS-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanophage_N-1" title="Cyanophage N-1">N-1</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Podoviridae" title="Podoviridae">Podoviridae</a></i> (e.g. LPP-1) and <i><a href="/wiki/Siphoviridae" title="Siphoviridae">Siphoviridae</a></i> (e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanophage_S-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanophage S-1 (page does not exist)">S-1</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Movement">Movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg/220px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg/330px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg/440px-Cyanobacteriaunicellularandcolonial020_Synechococcus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> uses a gliding technique to move at 25 μm/s. Scale bar is about 10 μm.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterial_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterial movement">Cyanobacterial movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_motility" title="Bacterial motility">Bacterial motility</a></div> <p>It has long been known that <a href="/wiki/Filamentous_cyanobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Filamentous cyanobacteria">filamentous cyanobacteria</a> perform surface motions, and that these movements result from <a href="/wiki/Type_IV_pili" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IV pili">type IV pili</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khayatan2015_133-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khayatan2015-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i>, a marine cyanobacteria, is known to swim at a speed of 25 μm/s by a mechanism different to that of bacterial flagella.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formation of waves on the cyanobacteria surface is thought to push surrounding water backwards.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miyata2020_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miyata2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cells are known to be <a href="/wiki/Motile" class="mw-redirect" title="Motile">motile</a> by a gliding method<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a novel uncharacterized, non-phototactic swimming method<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that does not involve flagellar motion. </p><p>Many species of cyanobacteria are capable of gliding. <a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">Gliding</a> is a form of cell movement that differs from crawling or swimming in that it does not rely on any obvious external organ or change in cell shape and it occurs only in the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gliding in filamentous cyanobacteria appears to be powered by a "slime jet" mechanism, in which the cells extrude a gel that expands quickly as it hydrates providing a propulsion force,<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> cyanobacteria use <a href="/wiki/Type_IV_pili" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IV pili">type IV pili</a> for gliding.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria have strict light requirements. Too little light can result in insufficient energy production, and in some species may cause the cells to resort to heterotrophic respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Stal2000book_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stal2000book-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Too much light can inhibit the cells, decrease photosynthesis efficiency and cause damage by bleaching. UV radiation is especially deadly for cyanobacteria, with normal solar levels being significantly detrimental for these microorganisms in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Donkor1991_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donkor1991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donkor1993_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donkor1993-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Filamentous cyanobacteria that live in microbial mats often migrate vertically and horizontally within the mat in order to find an optimal niche that balances their light requirements for photosynthesis against their sensitivity to photodamage. For example, the filamentous cyanobacteria <i><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoria" title="Oscillatoria">Oscillatoria</a></i> sp. and <i><a href="/wiki/Spirulina_(genus)" title="Spirulina (genus)">Spirulina subsalsa</a></i> found in the hypersaline benthic mats of <a href="/wiki/Guerrero_Negro" title="Guerrero Negro">Guerrero Negro</a>, Mexico migrate downwards into the lower layers during the day in order to escape the intense sunlight and then rise to the surface at dusk.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the population of <i>Microcoleus chthonoplastes</i> found in hypersaline mats in <a href="/wiki/Camargue" title="Camargue">Camargue</a>, France migrate to the upper layer of the mat during the day and are spread homogeneously through the mat at night.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An in vitro experiment using <i><a href="/wiki/Phormidium" title="Phormidium">Phormidium uncinatum</a></i> also demonstrated this species' tendency to migrate in order to avoid damaging radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Donkor1991_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donkor1991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donkor1993_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donkor1993-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These migrations are usually the result of some sort of photomovement, although other forms of taxis can also play a role.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Photomovement – the modulation of cell movement as a function of the incident light – is employed by the cyanobacteria as a means to find optimal light conditions in their environment. There are three types of photomovement: photokinesis, phototaxis and photophobic responses.<sup id="cite_ref-Häder1987_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Häder1987-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Photokinetic microorganisms modulate their gliding speed according to the incident light intensity. For example, the speed with which <i>Phormidium autumnale</i> glides increases linearly with the incident light intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phototactic microorganisms move according to the direction of the light within the environment, such that positively phototactic species will tend to move roughly parallel to the light and towards the light source. Species such as <i>Phormidium uncinatum</i> cannot steer directly towards the light, but rely on random collisions to orient themselves in the right direction, after which they tend to move more towards the light source. Others, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Anabaena_variabilis" title="Anabaena variabilis">Anabaena variabilis</a></i>, can steer by bending the trichome.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, photophobic microorganisms respond to spatial and temporal light gradients. A step-up photophobic reaction occurs when an organism enters a brighter area field from a darker one and then reverses direction, thus avoiding the bright light. The opposite reaction, called a step-down reaction, occurs when an organism enters a dark area from a bright area and then reverses direction, thus remaining in the light.<sup id="cite_ref-Tamulonis2011_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamulonis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth_history">Earth history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Earth history"><span>edit</span></a><span 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0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div 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style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div 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style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.026em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.621em;height:5.507em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:17.621em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.811em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:11.663em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.831em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Stromatolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromatolites">Stromatolites</a> are layered biochemical <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mats</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, especially cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, stromatolite communities of microorganisms grew in most marine and non-marine environments in the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a>. After the Cambrian explosion of marine animals, grazing on the stromatolite mats by herbivores greatly reduced the occurrence of the stromatolites in marine environments. Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Shark_Bay" title="Shark Bay">Shark Bay</a>, Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which date from 3.5 <a href="/wiki/Annus#SI_prefix_multipliers" class="mw-redirect" title="Annus">Ga</a> ago.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is dated to be 2.1 Ga ago, but there is some evidence for them as far back as 2.7 Ga ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Schirrmeister-2013_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schirrmeister-2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria might have also emerged 3.5 Ga ago.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere remained around or below 0.001% of today's level until 2.4 Ga ago (the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise in oxygen may have caused a fall in the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a>, and triggered the <a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a> from around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga ago. In this way, cyanobacteria may have killed off most of the other bacteria of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lane_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lane-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Oncolite" title="Oncolite">Oncolites</a> are <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">sedimentary structures</a> composed of oncoids, which are layered structures formed by cyanobacterial growth. Oncolites are similar to stromatolites, but instead of forming columns, they form approximately spherical structures that were not attached to the underlying substrate as they formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Corsetti2003_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corsetti2003-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oncoids often form around a central nucleus, such as a shell fragment,<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> structure is deposited by encrusting <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a>. Oncolites are indicators of warm waters in the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a>, but are also known in contemporary freshwater environments.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These structures rarely exceed 10 cm in diameter. </p><p>One former classification scheme of cyanobacterial fossils divided them into the <a href="/wiki/Porostromata" title="Porostromata">porostromata</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spongiostromata" title="Spongiostromata">spongiostromata</a>. These are now recognized as <a href="/wiki/Form_taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Form taxa">form taxa</a> and considered taxonomically obsolete; however, some authors have advocated for the terms remaining informally to describe form and structure of bacterial fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stromatolites.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stromatolites left behind by cyanobacteria are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth. This fossil is one billion years old."><img alt="Stromatolites left behind by cyanobacteria are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth. This fossil is one billion years old." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Stromatolites.jpg/322px-Stromatolites.jpg" decoding="async" width="215" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Stromatolites.jpg/484px-Stromatolites.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Stromatolites.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="371" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Stromatolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromatolites">Stromatolites</a> left behind by cyanobacteria are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth. This fossil is one billion years old.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 199.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 197.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oncolitic_limestone_(central_Utah,_USA)_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oncolitic limestone formed from successive layers of calcium carbonate precipitated by cyanobacteria"><img alt="Oncolitic limestone formed from successive layers of calcium carbonate precipitated by cyanobacteria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/296px-Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/445px-Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/592px-Oncolitic_limestone_%28central_Utah%2C_USA%29_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3517" data-file-height="2579" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Oncolitic limestone formed from successive layers of calcium carbonate precipitated by cyanobacteria</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 194.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 192.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oncolites from the Late Devonian Alamo bolide impact in Nevada"><img alt="Oncolites from the Late Devonian Alamo bolide impact in Nevada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg/289px-OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg/435px-OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg/579px-OncolitesAlamoBreccia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Oncolite" title="Oncolite">Oncolites</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late Devonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Alamo_bolide_impact" title="Alamo bolide impact">Alamo bolide impact</a> in Nevada</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cyanobacterial remains of an annulated tubular microfossil Oscillatoriopsis longa [180] Scale bar: 100 μm"><img alt="Cyanobacterial remains of an annulated tubular microfossil Oscillatoriopsis longa [180] Scale bar: 100 μm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg/217px-Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg/326px-Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg/434px-Oscillatoriopsis_longa_fossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Cyanobacterial remains of an annulated tubular <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossil</a> <i>Oscillatoriopsis longa</i> <sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><small>Scale bar: 100 μm</small></div></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_photosynthesis">Origin of photosynthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Origin of photosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Evolution of photosynthesis</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxygenic_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenic photosynthesis">Oxygenic photosynthesis</a> only evolved once (in prokaryotic cyanobacteria), and all photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (including all <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>) have acquired this ability from <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">endosymbiosis</a> with cyanobacteria or their <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> hosts. In other words, all the oxygen that makes the atmosphere breathable for <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic organisms</a> originally comes from cyanobacteria or their <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastid</a> descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria remained the principal <a href="/wiki/Primary_producers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producers">primary producers</a> throughout the latter half of the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a> and most of the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic_eon" class="mw-redirect" title="Proterozoic eon">Proterozoic eon</a>, in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>. However, their population is argued to have varied considerably across this eon.<sup id="cite_ref-pwc_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pwc-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastid" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeplastid">Archaeplastids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a> eventually surpassed cyanobacteria as major primary producers on <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> near the end of the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a>, but only with the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> (251–65 Ma) radiations of secondary photoautotrophs such as <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophorids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> did <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of <a href="/wiki/Marine_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine algae">marine algae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrero_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrero-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_chloroplasts">Origin of chloroplasts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Origin of chloroplasts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast#Chloroplast_lineages_and_evolution" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast § Chloroplast lineages and evolution</a></div> <p>Primary chloroplasts are cell organelles found in some <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> lineages, where they are specialized in performing photosynthesis. They are considered to have evolved from <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After some years of debate,<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is now generally accepted that the three major groups of primary endosymbiotic eukaryotes (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">green plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophytes">red algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a>) form one large <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic group</a> called <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a>, which evolved after one unique endosymbiotic event.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodríguez-Ezpeleta_N_2005_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodríguez-Ezpeleta_N_2005-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ponce-Toledo_RI_2016_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ponce-Toledo_RI_2016-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> similarity between chloroplasts and cyanobacteria was first reported by German botanist <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Franz_Wilhelm_Schimper" title="Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper">Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper</a> in the 19th century<sup id="cite_ref-Schimper_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schimper-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chloroplasts are only found in <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Molecular_biology_of_the_cell—chloroplasts_and_photosynthesis_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molecular_biology_of_the_cell—chloroplasts_and_photosynthesis-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus paving the way for Russian biologist <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Mereschkowski" title="Konstantin Mereschkowski">Konstantin Mereschkowski</a> to suggest in 1905 the symbiogenic origin of the plastid.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a> brought this hypothesis back to attention more than 60 years later<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the idea did not become fully accepted until supplementary data started to accumulate. The cyanobacterial origin of plastids is now supported by various pieces of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rodríguez-Ezpeleta_N_2005_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodríguez-Ezpeleta_N_2005-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ponce-Toledo_RI_2016_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ponce-Toledo_RI_2016-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> biochemical<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and structural evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The description of another independent and more recent primary endosymbiosis event between a cyanobacterium and a separate eukaryote lineage (the <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">rhizarian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Paulinella" title="Paulinella">Paulinella</a> chromatophora</i>) also gives credibility to the endosymbiotic origin of the plastids.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glaucocystis_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/217px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/326px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/434px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The chloroplasts of <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> layer, evidence suggesting their endosymbiotic origin from cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-keeling_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keeling-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/217px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="217" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/326px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/434px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, <i><a href="/wiki/Plagiomnium_affine" title="Plagiomnium affine">Plagiomnium affine</a></i>)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In addition to this primary endosymbiosis, many eukaryotic lineages have been subject to <a href="/wiki/Secondary_endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary endosymbiosis">secondary</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_endosymbiotic_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary endosymbiotic events">tertiary endosymbiotic events</a>, that is the "<a href="/wiki/Matryoshka_doll" title="Matryoshka doll">Matryoshka</a>-like" engulfment by a eukaryote of another plastid-bearing eukaryote.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplasts</a> have many similarities with cyanobacteria, including a circular <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>, prokaryotic-type <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic theory</a> suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a>) by early <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> cells to form the first <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>, chloroplasts still possess their own DNA, separate from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA">nuclear DNA</a> of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those in cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA in chloroplasts codes for <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> proteins such as photosynthetic reaction centers. The <a href="/wiki/CoRR_hypothesis" title="CoRR hypothesis">CoRR hypothesis</a> proposes this co-location is required for redox regulation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_origins">Marine origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Marine origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter,_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp/330px-Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp/495px-Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp/660px-Timing_and_trends_in_cell_diameter%2C_loss_of_filamentous_forms_and_habitat_preference_within_cyanobacteria.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="1035" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Timing and trends in cell diameter, loss of filamentous forms and habitat preference within cyanobacteria</div> Based on data: nodes (1–10) and stars representing common ancestors from Sánchez-Baracaldo et al., 2015,<sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> timing of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation Event</a> (GOE),<sup id="cite_ref-Bekker2004_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bekker2004-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Lomagundi-Jatuli_Excursion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lomagundi-Jatuli Excursion">Lomagundi-Jatuli Excursion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gunflint_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunflint formation">Gunflint formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Green lines represent freshwater lineages and blue lines represent marine lineages are based on Bayesian inference of character evolution (stochastic character mapping analyses).<sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><small>Taxa are not drawn to scale – those with smaller cell diameters are at the bottom and larger at the top</small></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Phytoplankton"><img alt="Phytoplankton" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png/250px-Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png/375px-Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png/500px-Mixed_phytoplankton_community_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Plankton#Trophic_groups" title="Plankton">Trophic mode</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixoplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixoplankton">Mixoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Virioplankton</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Plankton#Size_groups" title="Plankton">By size</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_picoplankton" title="Heterotrophic picoplankton">Heterotrophic picoplankton</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microzooplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Microzooplankton">Microzooplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanophytoplankton" title="Nanophytoplankton">Nanophytoplankton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_nannofossils" title="Calcareous nannofossils">calcareous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_picoplankton" title="Photosynthetic picoplankton">Photosynthetic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">Picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microplankton">Marine microplankton</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By taxonomy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine algae">Algae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protozoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protozoans">Protozoans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">radiolarians</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">foraminiferans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoebae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciliates">ciliates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes#Marine_bacteria" title="Marine prokaryotes">Bacteria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes#Cyanobacteria" title="Marine prokaryotes">cyanobacteria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes#Marine_archaea" title="Marine prokaryotes">Archaea</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By habitat</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoplankton">Geoplankton</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_plankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine plankton">Marine plankton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">protists</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_plankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater plankton">Freshwater plankton</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gelatinous_zooplankton" title="Gelatinous zooplankton">Gelatinous zooplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoplankton" title="Holoplankton">Holoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">Meroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoplankton" title="Pseudoplankton">Pseudoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tychoplankton" title="Tychoplankton">Tychoplankton</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Blooms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_depth" title="Critical depth">Critical depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterial_bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterial bloom">Cyanobacterial bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">Harmful algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_bloom" title="Spring bloom">Spring bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Atlantic_Sargassum_Belt" title="Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt">Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Calcite_Belt" title="Great Calcite Belt">Great Calcite Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">Milky seas effect</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CLAW_hypothesis" title="CLAW hypothesis">CLAW hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Plankton_Recorder" title="Continuous Plankton Recorder">CPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_layers_(oceanography)" title="Thin layers (oceanography)">Thin layers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Aerosols_and_Marine_Ecosystems_Study" title="North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study">NAAMES</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Plankton" title="Category:Plankton">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plankton_sidebar" title="Template:Plankton sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plankton_sidebar" title="Template talk:Plankton sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plankton_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plankton sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Cyanobacteria have fundamentally transformed the geochemistry of the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-Holland2006_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland2006-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bekker2004_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bekker2004-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple lines of geochemical evidence support the occurrence of intervals of profound global environmental change at the beginning and end of the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> (2,500–542 Mya).<sup id="cite_ref-Planavsky2014_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Planavsky2014-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Lyons2014_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyons2014-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sahoo2012_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahoo2012-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it is widely accepted that the presence of molecular oxygen in the early fossil record was the result of cyanobacteria activity, little is known about how cyanobacteria evolution (e.g., habitat preference) may have contributed to changes in <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a> through Earth history. Geochemical evidence has indicated that there was a first step-increase in the oxygenation of the Earth's surface, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation Event</a> (GOE), in the early <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> (2,500–1,600 Mya).<sup id="cite_ref-Holland2006_211-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland2006-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bekker2004_208-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bekker2004-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second but much steeper increase in oxygen levels, known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE),<sup id="cite_ref-Lyons2014_213-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyons2014-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Och_2012_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Och_2012-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Canfield2007_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canfield2007-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occurred at around 800 to 500 Mya.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahoo2012_214-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahoo2012-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fike2006_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fike2006-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> isotope data point to low levels of atmospheric oxygen in the Earth's surface during the mid-Proterozoic,<sup id="cite_ref-Planavsky2014_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Planavsky2014-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is consistent with the late evolution of marine planktonic cyanobacteria during the <a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2014_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2014-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both types of evidence help explain the late emergence and diversification of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Erwin2011_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erwin2011-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Understanding the evolution of planktonic cyanobacteria is important because their origin fundamentally transformed the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycles</a> towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Cambrian">Pre-Cambrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fike2006_216-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fike2006-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remains unclear, however, what evolutionary events led to the emergence of open-ocean planktonic forms within cyanobacteria and how these events relate to geochemical evidence during the Pre-Cambrian.<sup id="cite_ref-Lyons2014_213-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyons2014-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So far, it seems that ocean geochemistry (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Euxinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Euxinic">euxinic</a> conditions during the early- to mid-Proterozoic)<sup id="cite_ref-Lyons2014_213-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyons2014-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Canfield2007_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canfield2007-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and nutrient availability <sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likely contributed to the apparent delay in diversification and widespread colonization of open ocean environments by planktonic cyanobacteria during the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fike2006_216-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fike2006-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez-Baracaldo2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyanobacteria are capable of natural genetic <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid4209657_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid4209657-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16592896_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16592896-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural genetic transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA from its surroundings. For bacterial transformation to take place, the recipient bacteria must be in a state of <a href="/wiki/Natural_competence" title="Natural competence">competence</a>, which may occur in nature as a response to conditions such as starvation, high cell density or exposure to DNA damaging agents. In chromosomal transformation, homologous transforming DNA can be integrated into the recipient genome by <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>, and this process appears to be an adaptation for <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing DNA damage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29111273_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29111273-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_repair">DNA repair</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: DNA repair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyanobacteria are challenged by environmental stresses and internally generated <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> that cause <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a>. Cyanobacteria possess numerous <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i>-like <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27881980_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27881980-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several DNA repair genes are highly conserved in cyanobacteria, even in small <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>, suggesting that core DNA repair processes such as <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombinational repair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair" title="Nucleotide excision repair">nucleotide excision repair</a> and methyl-directed <a href="/wiki/DNA_mismatch_repair" title="DNA mismatch repair">DNA mismatch repair</a> are common among cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27881980_225-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27881980-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="1">16S rRNA based <a href="/wiki/The_All-Species_Living_Tree_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="The All-Species Living Tree Project">LTP</a>_12_2021<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th colspan="1">GTDB 08-RS214 by <a href="/wiki/Genome_Taxonomy_Database" title="Genome Taxonomy Database">Genome Taxonomy Database</a><sup id="cite_ref-about_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tree_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tree-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-taxon_history_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taxon_history-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top"> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="font-size:90%;line-height:80%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"Melainabacteria" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vampirovibrionales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vampirovibrionales (page does not exist)">Vampirovibrionales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">"<a href="/wiki/Melainabacteria" title="Melainabacteria">Melainabacteria</a>" </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">"Cyanobacteriota" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"<a href="/wiki/Gloeobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacteria">Gloeobacteria</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gloeobacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacterales">Gloeobacterales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">"Phycobacteria" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermosynechococcales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermosynechococcales (page does not exist)">Thermosynechococcales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Synechococcophycidae </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Synechococcales" title="Synechococcales">Synechococcales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Nostocophycidae </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Pleurocapsales" title="Pleurocapsales">Pleurocapsales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Spirulinales" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirulinales">Spirulinales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chroococcales" title="Chroococcales">Chroococcales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">"Cyanobacteriia" </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td> <td> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="font-size:90%;line-height:80%;width:600px"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Margulisbacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margulisbacteria (page does not exist)">Margulisbacteria</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Saganbacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saganbacteria (page does not exist)">Saganbacteria</a>" (WOR1) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marinamargulisbacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marinamargulisbacteria (page does not exist)">Marinamargulisbacteria</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Riflemargulisbacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riflemargulisbacteria (page does not exist)">Riflemargulisbacteria</a>" (GWF2_35_9) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Termititenacia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Termititenacia (page does not exist)">Termititenacia</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">"Cyanobacteriota" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"<a href="/wiki/Melainabacteria" title="Melainabacteria">Melainabacteria</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Caenarcanales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caenarcanales (page does not exist)">Caenarcanales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Obscuribacterales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Obscuribacterales (page does not exist)">Obscuribacterales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vampirovibrionales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vampirovibrionales (page does not exist)">Vampirovibrionales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gastranaerophilales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gastranaerophilales (page does not exist)">Gastranaerophilales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"<a href="/wiki/Sericytochromatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sericytochromatia">Sericytochromatia</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>UBA7694 ("Blackallbacteria") </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>S15B-MN24 ("Sericytochromatia"; "Tanganyikabacteria") </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">"Cyanobacteriia" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"<a href="/wiki/Gloeobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacteria">Gloeobacteria</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gloeobacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacterales">Gloeobacterales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"Phycobacteria" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r928595387">.mw-parser-output table.clade div.mw-collapsible>div>span:not(.mw-customtoggle){display:none}</style><table style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible" id="mw-customcollapsible-expandSymbol1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1"><div class="mw-customtoggle-myClade1 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1 mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1" style="font-size:100;">⊞</div></div></div></td><td style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-collapseSymbol1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1"><span class="mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1 mw-customtoggle-myClade1 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1" style="font-size:100;">⊟</span></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;" class="clade-interactive"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-myClade1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-NOT_ON_CONTENT"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermostichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermostichales (page does not exist)">Thermostichales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudanabaenales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudanabaenales (page does not exist)">Pseudanabaenales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloeoemargaritales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gloeoemargaritales (page does not exist)">Gloeoemargaritales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Prochlorococcaceae {PCC-6307} </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acaryochloridales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acaryochloridales (page does not exist)">Acaryochloridales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Synechococcophycidae </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Limnotrichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limnotrichales (page does not exist)">Limnotrichales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prochlorotrichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prochlorotrichales (page does not exist)">Prochlorotrichales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Synechococcales" title="Synechococcales">Synechococcales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Phormidesmiales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phormidesmiales (page does not exist)">Phormidesmiales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nodosilineales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nodosilineales (page does not exist)">Nodosilineales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oculatellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oculatellales (page does not exist)">Oculatellales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elainellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elainellales (page does not exist)">Elainellales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptolyngbyales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptolyngbyales (page does not exist)">Leptolyngbyales</a>" </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Nostocophycidae </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteriales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanobacteriales (page does not exist)">Cyanobacteriales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacterial taxonomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_arbol_bn.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/170px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/255px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/340px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="3307" /></a><figcaption>Tree of Life in <i>Generelle Morphologie der Organismen</i> (1866). Note the location of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc" title="Nostoc">Nostoc</a></i> with algae and not with bacteria (kingdom "Monera")</figcaption></figure> <p>Historically, bacteria were first classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which along with the Schizophyceae (blue-green algae/Cyanobacteria) formed the phylum Schizophyta,<sup id="cite_ref-nageli_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nageli-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then in the phylum <a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a> in the kingdom <a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a> by <a href="/wiki/Haeckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haeckel">Haeckel</a> in 1866, comprising <i>Protogens, Protamaeba, Vampyrella, Protomonae</i>, and <i>Vibrio</i>, but not <i>Nostoc</i> and other cyanobacteria, which were classified with algae,<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later reclassified as the <i><a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Chatton" title="Édouard Chatton">Chatton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cyanobacteria were traditionally classified by morphology into five sections, referred to by the numerals I–V. The first three – <a href="/wiki/Chroococcales" title="Chroococcales">Chroococcales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pleurocapsales" title="Pleurocapsales">Pleurocapsales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a> – are not supported by phylogenetic studies. The latter two – <a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stigonematales" class="mw-redirect" title="Stigonematales">Stigonematales</a> – are monophyletic as a unit, and make up the heterocystous cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Gugger_2004_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gugger_2004-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The members of Chroococales are unicellular and usually aggregate in colonies. The classic taxonomic criterion has been the cell morphology and the plane of cell division. In Pleurocapsales, the cells have the ability to form internal spores (baeocytes). The rest of the sections include filamentous species. In Oscillatoriales, the cells are uniseriately arranged and do not form specialized cells (akinetes and heterocysts).<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Nostocales and Stigonematales, the cells have the ability to develop heterocysts in certain conditions. Stigonematales, unlike Nostocales, include species with truly branched trichomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Gugger_2004_235-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gugger_2004-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most taxa included in the phylum or division Cyanobacteria have not yet been validly published under <i>The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes</i> (ICNP) except: </p> <ul><li>The classes <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chroobacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chroobacteria (page does not exist)">Chroobacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormogoneae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormogoneae">Hormogoneae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gloeobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacteria">Gloeobacteria</a></li> <li>The orders <a href="/wiki/Chroococcales" title="Chroococcales">Chroococcales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gloeobacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacterales">Gloeobacterales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pleurocapsales" title="Pleurocapsales">Pleurocapsales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stigonematales" class="mw-redirect" title="Stigonematales">Stigonematales</a></li> <li>The families <a href="/wiki/Prochloraceae" title="Prochloraceae">Prochloraceae</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prochlorotrichaceae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prochlorotrichaceae (page does not exist)">Prochlorotrichaceae</a></li> <li>The genera <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Halospirulina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Halospirulina (page does not exist)">Halospirulina</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Planktothricoides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planktothricoides (page does not exist)">Planktothricoides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prochloron" title="Prochloron">Prochloron</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorothrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Prochlorothrix">Prochlorothrix</a></i></li></ul> <p>The remainder are validly published under the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a>. </p><p>Formerly, some bacteria, like <i><a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a></i>, were thought to be colorless Cyanobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Pringsheim1963_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pringsheim1963-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature</a> (LPSN)<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (NCBI).<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Class "Cyanobacteriia" </p> <ul><li>Subclass "<a href="/wiki/Gloeobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacteria">Gloeobacteria</a>" <small>Cavalier-Smith 2002</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gloeobacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloeobacterales">Gloeobacterales</a> <small>Cavalier-Smith 2002</small></li></ul></li> <li>Subclass "Phycobacteria" <small>Cavalier-Smith 2002</small> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acaryochloridales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acaryochloridales (page does not exist)">Acaryochloridales</a> <small>Miyashita et al. 2003 ex Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small> [incl. Thermosynechococcales]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aegeococcales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aegeococcales (page does not exist)">Aegeococcales</a> <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elainellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elainellales (page does not exist)">Elainellales</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eurycoccales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eurycoccales (page does not exist)">Eurycoccales</a>"</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geitlerinematales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geitlerinematales (page does not exist)">Geitlerinematales</a> <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gloeoemargaritales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gloeoemargaritales (page does not exist)">Gloeoemargaritales</a> <small>Moreira et al. 2016</small></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptolyngbyales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptolyngbyales (page does not exist)">Leptolyngbyales</a>" <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nodosilineales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nodosilineales (page does not exist)">Nodosilineales</a> <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oculatellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oculatellales (page does not exist)">Oculatellales</a> <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Phormidesmiales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phormidesmiales (page does not exist)">Phormidesmiales</a>"</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prochlorococcaceae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prochlorococcaceae (page does not exist)">Prochlorococcaceae</a> <small>Komárek & Strunecky 2020</small> {"PCC-6307"}</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudanabaenales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudanabaenales (page does not exist)">Pseudanabaenales</a> <small>Hoffmann, Komárek & Kastovsky 2005</small></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudophormidiales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudophormidiales (page does not exist)">Pseudophormidiales</a>"</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermostichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermostichales (page does not exist)">Thermostichales</a> <small>Komárek & Strunecký 2020</small></li> <li>Synechococcophycidae <small>Hoffmann, Komárek & Kastovsky 2005</small> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Limnotrichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limnotrichales (page does not exist)">Limnotrichales</a>"</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prochlorotrichales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prochlorotrichales (page does not exist)">Prochlorotrichales</a> <small>Strunecký & Mareš 2022</small> (PCC-9006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechococcales" title="Synechococcales">Synechococcales</a> <small>Hoffmann, Komárek & Kastovsky 2005</small></li></ul></li> <li>Nostocophycidae <small>Hoffmann, Komárek & Kastovsky 2005</small> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteriales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanobacteriales (page does not exist)">Cyanobacteriales</a> <small>Rippka & Cohen-Bazire 1983</small> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chamaesiphonales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chamaesiphonales (page does not exist)">Chamaesiphonales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chroococcales" title="Chroococcales">Chroococcales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chroococcidiopsidales" class="mw-redirect" title="Chroococcidiopsidales">Chroococcidiopsidales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nostocales" title="Nostocales">Nostocales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscillatoriales" title="Oscillatoriales">Oscillatoriales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pleurocapsales" title="Pleurocapsales">Pleurocapsales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirulinales" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirulinales">Spirulinales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stigonematales" class="mw-redirect" title="Stigonematales">Stigonematales</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_humans">Relation to humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Relation to humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Biotechnology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg/220px-Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg/330px-Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg/440px-Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption>Cyanobacteria cultured in specific media: Cyanobacteria can be helpful in agriculture as they have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in soil.</figcaption></figure> <p>The unicellular cyanobacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></i> sp. PCC6803 was the third prokaryote and first photosynthetic organism whose <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> was completely <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequenced</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It continues to be an important model organism.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Crocosphaera" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocosphaera">Crocosphaera subtropica</a></i> ATCC 51142 is an important <a href="/wiki/Diazotroph" title="Diazotroph">diazotrophic</a> model organism.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smallest genomes of a photosynthetic organism have been found in <i>Prochlorococcus</i> spp. (1.7 <a href="/wiki/Genome_size" title="Genome size">Mb</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the largest in <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc_punctiforme" title="Nostoc punctiforme">Nostoc punctiforme</a></i> (9 Mb).<sup id="cite_ref-Meeks-2001_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meeks-2001-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those of <i><a href="/wiki/Calothrix" title="Calothrix">Calothrix</a></i> spp. are estimated at 12–15 Mb,<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as large as <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>. </p><p>Recent research has suggested the potential application of cyanobacteria to the generation of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> by directly converting sunlight into electricity. Internal photosynthetic pathways can be coupled to chemical mediators that transfer electrons to external <a href="/wiki/Electrodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodes">electrodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the shorter term, efforts are underway to commercialize <a href="/wiki/Algae-based_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Algae-based fuels">algae-based fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pisciotta_JM,_Zou_Y,_Baskakov_IV_2010_e108212_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pisciotta_JM,_Zou_Y,_Baskakov_IV_2010_e108212-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria have been also engineered to produce ethanol<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and experiments have shown that when one or two CBB genes are being over expressed, the yield can be even higher.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria may possess the ability to produce substances that could one day serve as anti-inflammatory agents and combat bacterial infections in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria's photosynthetic output of sugar and oxygen has been demonstrated to have therapeutic value in rats with heart attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While cyanobacteria can naturally produce various secondary metabolites, they can serve as advantageous hosts for plant-derived metabolites production owing to biotechnological advances in systems biology and synthetic biology.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spirulina's extracted blue color is used as a natural food coloring.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers from several space agencies argue that cyanobacteria could be used for producing goods for human consumption in future crewed outposts on Mars, by transforming materials available on this planet.<sup id="cite_ref-Verseux2015_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verseux2015-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_nutrition">Human nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Human nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spirulina_tablets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spirulina_tablets.jpg/220px-Spirulina_tablets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spirulina_tablets.jpg/330px-Spirulina_tablets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spirulina_tablets.jpg/440px-Spirulina_tablets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1449" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)" title="Spirulina (dietary supplement)">Spirulina</a> tablets</figcaption></figure> <p>Some cyanobacteria are sold as food, notably <i><a href="/wiki/Arthrospira_platensis" title="Arthrospira platensis">Arthrospira platensis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)" title="Spirulina (dietary supplement)">Spirulina</a>) and others</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aphanizomenon_flos-aquae" title="Aphanizomenon flos-aquae">Aphanizomenon flos-aquae</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> contain substances of high biological value, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, proteins, pigments, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edible blue-green algae reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting NF-κB pathway in macrophages and splenocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sulfate polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory, antitumor, antithrombotic, anticoagulant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and even antiviral activity against HIV, herpes, and hepatitis.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_risks">Health risks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Health risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></div> <p>Some cyanobacteria can produce <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxins">neurotoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytotoxins">cytotoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxins">endotoxins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hepatotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatotoxins">hepatotoxins</a> (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Microcystin" title="Microcystin">microcystin</a>-producing bacteria genus <a href="/wiki/Microcystis" title="Microcystis">microcystis</a>), which are collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">cyanotoxins</a>. </p><p>Specific toxins include <a href="/wiki/Anatoxin-a" title="Anatoxin-a">anatoxin-a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanitoxin" title="Guanitoxin">guanitoxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aplysiatoxin" title="Aplysiatoxin">aplysiatoxin</a>, cyanopeptolin, <a href="/wiki/Cylindrospermopsin" title="Cylindrospermopsin">cylindrospermopsin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">domoic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nodularin_R" class="mw-redirect" title="Nodularin R">nodularin R</a> (from <i><a href="/wiki/Nodularia" title="Nodularia">Nodularia</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Neosaxitoxin" title="Neosaxitoxin">neosaxitoxin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">saxitoxin</a>. Cyanobacteria reproduce explosively under certain conditions. This results in <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> which can become <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_blooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmful algal blooms">harmful to other species</a> and pose a danger to humans and animals if the cyanobacteria involved produce toxins. Several cases of human poisoning have been documented, but a lack of knowledge prevents an accurate assessment of the risks,<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc1_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc1-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and research by <a href="/wiki/Linda_Lawton" title="Linda Lawton">Linda Lawton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fellowship_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a> at <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gordon_University" title="Robert Gordon University">Robert Gordon University</a>, Aberdeen and collaborators has 30 years of examining the phenomenon and methods of improving water safety.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent studies suggest that significant exposure to high levels of cyanobacteria producing toxins such as <a href="/wiki/Beta-Methylamino-L-alanine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Methylamino-L-alanine">BMAA</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS). People living within half a mile of cyanobacterially contaminated lakes have had a 2.3 times greater risk of developing ALS than the rest of the population; people around New Hampshire's <a href="/wiki/Lake_Mascoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Mascoma">Lake Mascoma</a> had an up to 25 times greater risk of ALS than the expected incidence.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BMAA from desert crusts found throughout Qatar might have contributed to higher rates of ALS in <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> veterans.<sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc1_264-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc1-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_control">Chemical control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Chemical control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several chemicals can eliminate cyanobacterial blooms from smaller water-based systems such as swimming pools. They include <a href="/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite" title="Calcium hypochlorite">calcium hypochlorite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate">copper sulphate</a>, Cupricide (chelated copper), and <a href="/wiki/Simazine" title="Simazine">simazine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The calcium hypochlorite amount needed varies depending on the cyanobacteria bloom, and treatment is needed periodically. According to the Department of Agriculture Australia, a rate of 12 g of 70% material in 1000 L of water is often effective to treat a bloom.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copper sulfate is also used commonly, but no longer recommended by the Australian Department of Agriculture, as it kills livestock, crustaceans, and fish.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cupricide is a chelated copper product that eliminates blooms with lower toxicity risks than copper sulfate. Dosage recommendations vary from 190 mL to 4.8 L per 1000 m<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferric alum treatments at the rate of 50 mg/L will reduce algae blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simazine, which is also a herbicide, will continue to kill blooms for several days after an application. Simazine is marketed at different strengths (25, 50, and 90%), the recommended amount needed for one cubic meter of water per product is 25% product 8 mL; 50% product 4 mL; or 90% product 2.2 mL.<sup id="cite_ref-bluegreenalgae2006_270-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bluegreenalgae2006-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> is likely to increase the frequency, intensity and duration of cyanobacterial blooms in many <a href="/wiki/Eutrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutrophic">eutrophic</a> lakes, reservoirs and estuaries.<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce a variety of <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatotoxin" title="Hepatotoxin">hepatotoxins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dermatoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatoxin">dermatoxins</a>, which can be fatal to birds and mammals (including waterfowl, cattle and dogs) and threaten the use of waters for recreation, drinking water production, agricultural irrigation and fisheries.<sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Toxic cyanobacteria</a> have caused major water quality problems, for example in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Taihu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Taihu">Lake Taihu</a> (China), <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> (USA), <a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a> (USA), <a href="/wiki/Lake_Victoria" title="Lake Victoria">Lake Victoria</a> (Africa) and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli2019_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli2019-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> favours cyanobacterial blooms both directly and indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-Huisman2018_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huisman2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many bloom-forming cyanobacteria can grow at relatively high temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased <a href="/wiki/Thermal_stratification" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal stratification">thermal stratification</a> of lakes and reservoirs enables buoyant cyanobacteria to float upwards and form dense surface blooms, which gives them better access to light and hence a selective advantage over nonbuoyant phytoplankton organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jöhnk_2008_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jöhnk_2008-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protracted droughts during summer increase water residence times in reservoirs, rivers and estuaries, and these stagnant warm waters can provide ideal conditions for cyanobacterial bloom development.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli2019_275-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli2019-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The capacity of the harmful cyanobacterial genus <i><a href="/wiki/Microcystis" title="Microcystis">Microcystis</a></i> to adapt to elevated CO<sub>2</sub> levels was demonstrated in both laboratory and field experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandrini2016_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandrini2016-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Microcystis</i> spp. take up CO<sub>2</sub> and <span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> and accumulate <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic carbon">inorganic carbon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysomes</a>, and strain competitiveness was found to depend on the concentration of inorganic carbon. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and increased CO<sub>2</sub> levels are expected to affect the strain composition of cyanobacterial blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandrini2016_279-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandrini2016-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli2019_275-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli2019-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cyanobacteria activity turns Coatepeque Caldera lake a turquoise color"><img alt="Cyanobacteria activity turns Coatepeque Caldera lake a turquoise color" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg/360px-Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg/540px-Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg/720px-Lago_de_coatepeque_de_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cyanobacteria activity turns <a href="/wiki/Coatepeque_Caldera" title="Coatepeque Caldera">Coatepeque Caldera</a> lake a turquoise color</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 136.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 134.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cyanobacterial bloom near Fiji"><img alt="Cyanobacterial bloom near Fiji" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg/202px-2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg/304px-2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg/405px-2010_Filamentous_Cyanobacteria_Bloom_near_Fiji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4104" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cyanobacterial bloom near <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 281.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 279.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cyanobacteria in Lake Köyliö."><img alt="Cyanobacteria in Lake Köyliö." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg/419px-Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg/629px-Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg/838px-Sinilev%C3%A4%C3%A4_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6nj%C3%A4rvess%C3%A4_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2320" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cyanobacteria in <a href="/wiki/Lake_K%C3%B6yli%C3%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Köyliö">Lake Köyliö</a>. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 322px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 320px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/480px--Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="320" height="180" data-durationhint="20" data-mwtitle="Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm/Video-_The_Cyanobacteria-_Oscillatoria_and_Gleocapsa.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Video – <i><a href="/wiki/Oscillatoria" title="Oscillatoria">Oscillatoria</a></i> and <i>Gleocapsa</i> – with oscillatory movement as filaments of <i>Oscillatoria</i> orient towards light</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archean_Eon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archean Eon">Archean Eon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a>, other major lineages of Bacteria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">Endosymbiotic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Geological history of oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypolith" title="Hypolith">Hypolith</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some botanists restrict the name <i><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a></i> to <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, which does not extend to cyanobacteria, which are <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. However, the common name blue-green algae continues to be used synonymously with cyanobacteria outside of the biological sciences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This contradicts the position of the ICNafp, so is not true for all botanists. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cyanophyceae_cladistics-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cyanophyceae_cladistics_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSilvaMoe2019" class="citation journal cs1">Silva PC, Moe RL (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://accessscience.com/content/Cyanophyceae/175300">"Cyanophyceae"</a>. <i>AccessScience</i>. <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education" title="McGraw Hill Education">McGraw Hill Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1036%2F1097-8542.175300">10.1036/1097-8542.175300</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Newleaf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7522-0569-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7522-0569-4"><bdi>978-0-7522-0569-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+Superfood%3A+the+Blue-Green+Algae+Revolution&rft.edition=first&rft.pub=Newleaf&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7522-0569-4&rft.aulast=Gillian&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Savage" title="Marshall Savage">Savage M</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/millennialprojec00sava"><i>The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps</i></a>. Little Brown & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-77163-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-77163-4"><bdi>978-0-316-77163-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Millennial+Project%3A+Colonizing+the+Galaxy+in+Eight+Easy+Steps&rft.pub=Little+Brown+%26+Co&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-316-77163-4&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmillennialprojec00sava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoggStewartFayWalsby1973" class="citation book cs1">Fogg GE, Stewart WD, Fay P, Walsby AE (1973). <i>The Blue-green Algae</i>. London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-261650-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-261650-1"><bdi>978-0-12-261650-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blue-green+Algae&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-12-261650-1&rft.aulast=Fogg&rft.aufirst=GE&rft.au=Stewart%2C+WD&rft.au=Fay%2C+P&rft.au=Walsby%2C+AE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanointro.html">"Architects of the earth's atmosphere, Introduction to the Cyanobacteria"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></i>. 3 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.atitle=Architects+of+the+earth%27s+atmosphere%2C+Introduction+to+the+Cyanobacteria&rft.date=2006-02-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fbacteria%2Fcyanointro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitton2002" class="citation book cs1">Whitton BA (2002). "Phylum Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria)". <i>The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4"><bdi>978-0-521-77051-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phylum+Cyanophyta+%28Cyanobacteria%29&rft.btitle=The+Freshwater+Algal+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77051-4&rft.aulast=Whitton&rft.aufirst=BA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPentecostFranke2010" class="citation journal cs1">Pentecost A, Franke U (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09670262.2010.492914">"Photosynthesis and calcification of the stromatolitic freshwater cyanobacterium <i>Rivularia</i>"</a>. <i>European Journal of Phycology</i>. <b>45</b> (4): 345–53. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010EJPhy..45..345P">2010EJPhy..45..345P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09670262.2010.492914">10.1080/09670262.2010.492914</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Phycology&rft.atitle=Photosynthesis+and+calcification+of+the+stromatolitic+freshwater+cyanobacterium+Rivularia&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=345-53&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09670262.2010.492914&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010EJPhy..45..345P&rft.aulast=Pentecost&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Franke%2C+U&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09670262.2010.492914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittonPotts2000" class="citation book cs1">Whitton BA, Potts M, eds. (2000). <i>The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: their Diversity in Time and Space</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4735-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4735-4"><bdi>978-0-7923-4735-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Cyanobacteria%3A+their+Diversity+in+Time+and+Space&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4735-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160417030653/http://www.paristechreview.com/2011/12/01/micro-algae-blue-oil/">"From Micro-Algae to Blue Oil"</a>. <i>ParisTech Review</i>. December 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paristechreview.com/2011/12/01/micro-algae-blue-oil/">the original</a> on 17 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ParisTech+Review&rft.atitle=From+Micro-Algae+to+Blue+Oil&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paristechreview.com%2F2011%2F12%2F01%2Fmicro-algae-blue-oil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACyanobacteria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cyanobacteria" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebigger.com/biology/monera/what-are-cyanobacteria-and-what-are-its-types/">What are Cyanobacteria and What are its Types?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190916232500/http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/">Webserver for Cyanobacteria Research</a> (archived 16 September 2019)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/31/diving-an-antarctic-time-capsule-filled-with-primordial-life">Diving an Antarctic Time Capsule Filled With Primordial Life</a></li></ul> <div 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<li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">Meroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">Milky seas effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="Red tide">Red tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_bloom" title="Spring bloom">Spring bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_layers_(oceanography)" title="Thin layers (oceanography)">Thin layers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Planktology" title="Category:Planktology">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/140px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/210px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/280px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1180" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_eukaryotic_picoplankton_species" title="List of eukaryotic picoplankton species">Eukaryotic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_picoplankton" title="Heterotrophic picoplankton">Heterotrophic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microplankton">Marine microplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microphyte (microalgae)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanophytoplankton" title="Nanophytoplankton">Nanophytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_picoplankton" title="Photosynthetic picoplankton">Photosynthetic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picobiliphyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Picobiliphyte">Picobiliphyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">Picoplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeromonas_salmonicida" title="Aeromonas salmonicida">Aeromonas salmonicida</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_redmouth_disease" title="Enteric redmouth disease">Enteric redmouth disease</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium_columnare" title="Flavobacterium columnare">Flavobacterium columnare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pelagibacter_ubique" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagibacter ubique">Pelagibacter ubique</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagibacterales" title="Pelagibacterales">SAR11 clade</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_iniae" title="Streptococcus iniae">Streptococcus iniae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxospore" title="Auxospore">Auxospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axodine" title="Axodine">Axodine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bacteriastrum" title="Bacteriastrum">Bacteriastrum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetocerotaceae" title="Chaetocerotaceae">Chaetocerotaceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustigmatophyte" title="Eustigmatophyte">Eustigmatophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopile</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nannochloropsis" title="Nannochloropsis">Nannochloropsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navicula" title="Navicula">Navicula</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prasinophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphidophyte" title="Raphidophyte">Raphidophyte</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatom orders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Centrales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennales" title="Pennales">Pennales</a> <ul><li>Classes: <a href="/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Coscinodiscophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragilariophyceae" title="Fragilariophyceae">Fragilariophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Bacillariophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Flagellates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pfiesteria_piscicida" title="Pfiesteria piscicida">Pfiesteria piscicida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_(fish_disease)" title="Velvet (fish disease)">Velvet (fish disease)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatinous_zooplankton" title="Gelatinous zooplankton">Gelatinous zooplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting copepods">Hunting copepods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean_larva" title="Crustacean larva">Crustacean larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_louse" title="Salmon louse">Salmon louse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_louse" title="Sea louse">Sea louse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepod orders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calanoida" title="Calanoida">Calanoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopoida" title="Cyclopoida">Cyclopoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpacticoida" title="Harpacticoida">Harpacticoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monstrilloida" title="Monstrilloida">Monstrilloida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poecilostomatoida" title="Poecilostomatoida">Poecilostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siphonostomatoida" title="Siphonostomatoida">Siphonostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Copepods" title="Category:Copepods">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_mat" title="Algal mat">Algal mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_nutrient_solution" title="Algal nutrient solution">Algal nutrient solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_seawater" title="Artificial seawater">Artificial seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylsulfoniopropionate" title="Dimethylsulfoniopropionate">Dimethylsulfoniopropionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-nutrient,_low-chlorophyll_regions" title="High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions">HNLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">Macroalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manta_trawl" title="Manta trawl">Manta trawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_snot" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea snot">Marine mucilage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoplankton" title="Pseudoplankton">Pseudoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tychoplankton" title="Tychoplankton">Tychoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoid" title="Zoid">Zoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Microbial_Oceanography:_Research_and_Education" title="Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education">C-MORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Plankton_Recorder" title="Continuous Plankton Recorder">CPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Continuous_Plankton_Recorder_Survey" title="Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey">AusCPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOCNESS" title="MOCNESS">MOCNESS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCAR_Southern_Ocean_Continuous_Plankton_Recorder_Survey" title="SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey">SCAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microorganisms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Microorganisms" title="Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Microorganisms" title="Template talk:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microorganisms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Streptococcus pyogenes"><img alt="Streptococcus pyogenes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/140px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/210px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/280px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="2040" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_population_biology" title="Microbial population biology">Microbial population biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_motility" title="Bacterial motility">Bacterial motility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-and-tumble_motion" title="Run-and-tumble motion">run-and-tumble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twitching_motility" title="Twitching motility">twitching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">gliding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist_locomotion" title="Protist locomotion">Protist locomotion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboid_movement" title="Amoeboid movement">amoeboids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria_collective_motion" title="Bacteria collective motion">Bacteria collective motion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_the_Winner_hypothesis" title="Kill the Winner hypothesis">Kill the Winner hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_consortium" title="Microbial consortium">Microbial consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">Microbial cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">viral shunt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_synergy" title="Microbial synergy">Microbial synergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holobiont" title="Holobiont">holobiont</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_microbe_interactions_in_Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans">Host microbe interactions in <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_microbiome" title="Plant microbiome">Plant microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_microbiome" title="Root microbiome">Root microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrass microbiome">Seagrass microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermosphere" title="Spermosphere">Spermosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_microorganism" title="Antarctic microorganism">Antarctic microorganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral microbiome">Coral microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microbial_symbiosis" title="Marine microbial symbiosis">Marine microbial symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oxidation_of_sulfur" title="Microbial oxidation of sulfur">Microbial oxidation of sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycosphere" title="Phycosphere">Phycosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Census_of_Marine_Microbes" title="International Census of Marine Microbes">International Census of Marine Microbes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_interactions_with_microbes" title="Human interactions with microbes">Microbes in human culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiomes_of_the_built_environment" title="Microbiomes of the built environment">Microbiomes of the built environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oil" title="Microbial oil">Microbial oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbial symbiosis and immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria" title="Nylon-eating bacteria">Nylon-eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthma-related_microbes" title="Asthma-related microbes">asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbiosis" title="Dysbiosis">dysbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_microbiota_transplant" title="Fecal microbiota transplant">fecal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_microbiota" title="Gut microbiota">gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_microbiology" title="Oral microbiology">mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">vagina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_microbiome" title="Placental microbiome">placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_microbiome" title="Uterine microbiome">uterus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_production" title="Protein production">Protein production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_microbial_consortia" title="Synthetic microbial consortia">Synthetic microbial consortia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark-field_microscopy" title="Dark-field microscopy">Dark-field microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impedance_microbiology" title="Impedance microbiology">Impedance microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cytology" title="Microbial cytology">Microbial cytology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_DNA_barcoding" title="Microbial DNA barcoding">Microbial DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">Staining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_dark_matter" title="Microbial dark matter">Microbial dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microswimmer" title="Microswimmer">Microswimmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biohybrid_microswimmer" title="Biohybrid microswimmer">biohybrid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lines_on_the_Antiquity_of_Microbes" title="Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes">Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbially_induced_sedimentary_structure" title="Microbially induced sedimentary structure">Microbially induced sedimentary structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_factors_affecting_microbial_life" title="Physical factors affecting microbial life">Physical factors affecting microbial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderophore" title="Siderophore">Siderophore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microorganisms" title="Category:Microorganisms">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prokaryotes:_Bacteria_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bacteria_classification" title="Template talk:Bacteria classification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria classification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prokaryotes:_Bacteria_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> classification</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Terrabacteria" title="Terrabacteria">Terrabacteria</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV1, BV3, BV5</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidimicrobiia" title="Acidimicrobiia">Acidimicrobiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetia" title="Actinomycetia">Actinomycetia</a></li> <li>"Aquicultoria"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriobacteriia" title="Coriobacteriia">Coriobacteriia</a></li> <li>"Geothermincolia"</li> <li>"Humimicrobiia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubrobacteria" title="Rubrobacteria">Rubrobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoleophilia" title="Thermoleophilia">Thermoleophilia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolaricaulota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bipolaricaulota (page does not exist)">Bipolaricaulota</a>" <ul><li>"Bipolaricaulia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a> <ul><li>"Caldilineia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexia" title="Chloroflexia">Chloroflexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehalococcoidia" title="Dehalococcoidia">Dehalococcoidia</a></li> <li>Ktedonobacteria</li> <li>"Limnocylindria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Deinococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinococci">Deinococcia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dormiibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dormiibacterota (page does not exist)">Dormiibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Dormibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a> <ul><li>"Abditibacteriia"</li> <li>Armatimonadia</li> <li>Chthonomonadia</li> <li>Fimbriimonadia</li> <li>"Heboniibacteriia"</li> <li>"Zipacnadia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eremiobacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eremiobacterota (page does not exist)">Eremiobacterota</a>"</li> <li>"Eudoremicrobiia" <ul><li>"Xenobiia"</li> <li>"Eremiobacteria"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyanoprokaryota</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Cyanobacteriota <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li>"Sericytochromatia"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Melainabacteria" title="Melainabacteria">Vampirovibrionophyceae</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Margulisiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margulisiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Margulisiibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Marinamargulisbacteria"</li> <li>"Riflemargulisbacteria"</li> <li>"Saganbacteria"</li> <li>"Termititenacia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Firmicutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Firmicutes">Firmicutes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV3</a><br /><span class="nobold">Low GC</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Bacilli" title="Bacilli">Bacillia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota A <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Clostridia" title="Clostridia">Clostridiia</a>"</li> <li>"Thermoanaerobacteria"</li> <li>"Thermosediminibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota D <ul><li>"Dethiobacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Natranaerobiales" title="Natranaerobiales">Natranaerobiia</a>"</li> <li>"Proteinivoracia"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota E <ul><li>"Sulfobacillia"</li> <li>"Symbiobacteriia"</li> <li>"Thermaerobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota G <ul><li>"Hydrogenisporia"</li> <li>Limnochordia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desulfotomaculota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desulfotomaculota (page does not exist)">Desulfotomaculota</a>" <ul><li>"Carboxydocellia"</li> <li>"Carboxydothermia"</li> <li>"Dehalobacteriia"</li> <li>"Desulfitobacteriia"</li> <li>"Desulfotomaculia"</li> <li>"Moorellia"</li> <li>"Peptococcia"</li> <li>"Syntrophomonadia"</li> <li>"Thermincolia"</li></ul></li> <li>"Halanaerobiaeota" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Halanaerobiales" title="Halanaerobiales">Halanaerobiia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"Selenobacteria" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Negativicutes" title="Negativicutes">Selenomonadia</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Candidate_Phyla_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidate Phyla Radiation">CPR group</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elulota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elulota (page does not exist)">Elulota</a>" <ul><li>"Elulimicrobia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Patescibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Patescibacteria">Patescibacteria</a>" <ul><li>ABY1</li> <li>"Absconditabacteria"</li> <li>"Andersenbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Berkelbacteria" title="Berkelbacteria">Berkelbacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Dojkabacteria"</li> <li>"Doudnabacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Gracilibacteria" title="Gracilibacteria">Gracilibacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Howlettbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Katanobacteria" title="Katanobacteria">Katanobacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Kazanbacteria"</li> <li>"Microgenomatia"</li> <li>"Paceibacteria"</li> <li>"Saccharimonadia"</li> <li>"Torokbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wirthbacteria" title="Wirthbacteria">Wirthbacteria</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thermotogida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synergistetes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a> <ul><li>Atribacteria</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a> <ul><li>Synergistia</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thermocalda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a> <ul><li>Caldisericia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacteria" title="Coprothermobacteria">Coprothermobacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomota" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictyoglomota">Dictyoglomerota</a> <ul><li>Dictyoglomeria</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lithacetigenota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lithacetigenota (page does not exist)">Lithacetigenota</a>" <ul><li>"Lithacetigenia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermodesulfobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermodesulfobiota (page does not exist)">Thermodesulfobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Thermodesulfobiia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a> <ul><li>"Thermotogia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fusobacterida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusobacteria">Fusobacteriota</a> <ul><li>Fusobacteriia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macinerneyibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macinerneyibacteriota (page does not exist)">Macinerneyibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Macinerneyibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Muiribacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muiribacteriota (page does not exist)">Muiribacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Muiribacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rifleibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rifleibacteriota (page does not exist)">Rifleibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Ozemibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Walliibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walliibacteriota (page does not exist)">Walliibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrobacteria" title="Hydrobacteria">Hydrobacteria</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV2, BV4</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clade 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerophobota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aerophobota (page does not exist)">Aerophobota</a>" <ul><li>"Aerophobia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Auribacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auribacterota (page does not exist)">Auribacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Ancaeobacteria"</li> <li>"Auribacteria"</li> <li>"Erginobacteria"</li> <li>"Tritonobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desantisiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desantisiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Desantisiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a> <ul><li>Elusimicrobiia</li> <li>Endomicrobiia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Firestoneibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firestoneibacteriota (page does not exist)">Firestoneibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goldiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Goldiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Goldiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Omnitrophota" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnitrophota">Omnitrophota</a>" <ul><li>"Omnitrophia"</li> <li>"Velamenicoccia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ratteibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ratteibacteriota (page does not exist)">Ratteibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clade 2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssubacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abyssubacteria (page does not exist)">Abyssubacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hinthialibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hinthialibacterota (page does not exist)">Hinthialibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Hinthialibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogenedentota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrogenedentota (page does not exist)">Hydrogenedentota</a>" <ul><li>"Hydrogenedentia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Poribacteria" title="Poribacteria">Poribacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Saltatorellota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saltatorellota (page does not exist)">Saltatorellota</a>" <ul><li>"Saltatorellae"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerlaeota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerlaeota (page does not exist)">Sumerlaeota</a>" <ul><li>"Sumerlaeia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spirochaeto<br />bacteriobiontes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babelota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Babelota (page does not exist)">Babelota</a>" <ul><li>"Babeliae"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lindowiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lindowiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Lindowiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a> <ul><li>"Brevinematia"</li> <li>"Brachyspirae"</li> <li>"Exilispiria"</li> <li>"Leptospiria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Spirochaetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetes">Spirochaetia</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/PVC_superphylum" title="PVC superphylum">PVC group</a><br />(Planctobacteria)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydiia">Chlamydiia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a> <ul><li>"Brocadiia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycisphaerae" title="Phycisphaerae">Phycisphaeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetia" title="Planctomycetia">Planctomycetia</a></li> <li>"Uabimicrobiia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a> <ul><li>Kiritimatiellia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lentisphaerae">Lentisphaeria</a></li> <li>Verrucomicrobiia</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/FCB_group" class="mw-redirect" title="FCB group">FCB group</a><br />(Sphingobacteria)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteroidia">Bacteroidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorobiia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorobiia">Chlorobiia</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteria">Ignavibacteriia</a>"</li> <li>"Kapabacteria"</li> <li>"Kryptoniia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermia">Rhodothermia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a> <ul><li>Calditrichia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cloacimonadota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cloacimonadota (page does not exist)">Cloacimonadota</a>" <ul><li>"Cloacimonadia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coatesiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coatesiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Coatesiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmopoliota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosmopoliota (page does not exist)">Cosmopoliota</a>" <ul><li>"Cosmopolitia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Delongiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Delongiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Delongiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edwardsiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edwardsiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Edwardsiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eiseniibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eiseniibacteriota (page does not exist)">Eiseniibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electryoneota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electryoneota (page does not exist)">Electryoneota</a>" <ul><li>"Electryoneia"</li> <li>"Tariuqbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Fermentibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fermentibacterota (page does not exist)">Fermentibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Fermentibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitinivibrionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinivibrionia">Chitinivibrionia</a></li> <li>Fibrobacteria</li> <li>"Raymondbacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a> <ul><li>Gemmatimonadia</li> <li>"Glassbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Heilongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heilongiota (page does not exist)">Heilongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Heilongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrothermota (page does not exist)">Hydrothermota</a>" <ul><li>"Hydrothermia"</li> <li>"Stahlbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Krumholzibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krumholzibacteriota (page does not exist)">Krumholzibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Krumholzibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latescibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Latescibacterota (page does not exist)">Latescibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Handelsmanbacteria"</li> <li>"Latescibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marinimicrobia" title="Marinimicrobia">Neomarinimicrobiota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marinisomatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marinisomatota (page does not exist)">Marinisomatota</a>" <ul><li>"Marinisomatia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tianyaibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tianyaibacteriota (page does not exist)">Tianyaibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Zixibacteria" title="Zixibacteria">Zixiibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proteobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteobacteria">Proteobacteria</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquificida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acidulodesulfobacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acidulodesulfobacteriota (page does not exist)">Acidulodesulfobacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Acidulodesulfobacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a> <ul><li>Aquificia</li> <li>"Desulfurobacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a> <ul><li>"Campylobacteria"</li> <li>Desulfurellia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Calescibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calescibacteriota (page does not exist)">Calescibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Calescibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a> <ul><li>Chrysiogenia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dadaibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dadaibacteriota (page does not exist)">Dadaibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Dadabacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacterota" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferribacterota">Deferribacterota</a> <ul><li>"Deferribacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Desulfobacterota G <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syntrophorhabdia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syntrophorhabdia (page does not exist)">Syntrophorhabdia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermosulfidibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermosulfidibacterota (page does not exist)">Thermosulfidibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Thermosulfidibacteria"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deltaproteobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Deltaproteobacteria">Deltaproteobacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriovoracia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriovoracia">Bacteriovoracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bdellovibrionia">Bdellovibrionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligoflexia" title="Oligoflexia">Oligoflexia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Binatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Binatota (page does not exist)">Binatota</a>" <ul><li>"Binatia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Deferrimicrobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deferrimicrobiota (page does not exist)">Deferrimicrobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Anaeroferrophilia"</li> <li>"Deferrimicrobiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Deferrisomatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deferrisomatota (page does not exist)">Deferrisomatota</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deferrisomatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferrisomatia">Deferrisomatia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desulfuromonadota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desulfuromonadota (page does not exist)">Desulfuromonadota</a>" <ul><li>Desulfuromonadia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lernaellota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lernaellota (page does not exist)">Lernaellota</a>" <ul><li>"Lernaellia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylomirabilota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylomirabilota (page does not exist)">Methylomirabilota</a>" <ul><li>"Methylomirabilia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Modulibacteria" title="Modulibacteria">Moduliflexota</a>" <ul><li>"Moduliflexia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcia" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxococcia">Myxococcia</a></li> <li>"Bradymonadia"</li> <li>Polyangiia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a> <ul><li>Nitrospinia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a> <ul><li>Nitrospiria</li> <li>"Thermodesulfovibrionia"</li></ul></li> <li>SAR324 <ul><li>"Lambdaproteobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Schekmaniibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schekmaniibacteriota (page does not exist)">Schekmaniibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tectimicrobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tectimicrobiota (page does not exist)">Tectimicrobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Entotheonellia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriia" title="Acidobacteriia">Acidobacteriia</a>"</li> <li>"Aminicenantia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocatellia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocatellia">Blastocatellia</a></li> <li>"Fischerbacteria"</li> <li>"Guanabaribacteriia"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Holophagae" title="Holophagae">Holophagia</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Polarisedimenticolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarisedimenticolia">Polarisedimenticolia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoanaerobaculia" title="Thermoanaerobaculia">Thermoanaerobaculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinamibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicinamibacteria">Vicinamibacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Canglongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canglongiota (page does not exist)">Canglongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Canglongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptospirillaeota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptospirillaeota (page does not exist)">Leptospirillaeota</a>" <ul><li>"Leptospirillia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Caulobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Caulobacteria">Caulobacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Zetaproteobacteria" title="Zetaproteobacteria">Mariprofundia</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Magnetococcales" title="Magnetococcales">Magnetococcia</a>"</li> <li>"Pseudomonadia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Qinglongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qinglongiota (page does not exist)">Qinglongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Qinglongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salinosulfoleibacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salinosulfoleibacteria (page does not exist)">Salinosulfoleibacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Teskebacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teskebacteria (page does not exist)">Teskebacteria</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <i><a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">Bergey's Manual</a></i> (2001–2012)</li> <li>Alternative views: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bacteria_(classifications)" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bacteria (classifications)">Wikispecies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Cyanobacteria</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q93315" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q93315">Q93315</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/AlgaeBase" title="AlgaeBase">AlgaeBase</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/detail/?taxonid=4305">4305</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">BioLib: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id128433">128433</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/3223">3223</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1CYANP">1CYANP</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/68">68</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/67334">67334</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=110">110</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=956108">956108</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/phylum/cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/3b60cdec-72a1-49d6-a36d-fe3daf496a60">3b60cdec-72a1-49d6-a36d-fe3daf496a60</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=225495">225495</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=67023">67023</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">uBio: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=229913">229913</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=146537">146537</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Cyanobacteriota</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25577567" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q25577567">Q25577567</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteriota" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Cyanobacteriota">Cyanobacteriota</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/phylum/cyanobacteriota">cyanobacteriota</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=1117">1117</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4136726-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cyanobacteria"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85015067">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cyanobactéries"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12122410x">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cyanobactéries"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12122410x">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="藍藻植物"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569291">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sinice"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116147&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000294552&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007282673505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&oldid=1257180807">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyanobacteria&oldid=1257180807</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyanobacteria" title="Category:Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phototrophic_bacteria" title="Category:Phototrophic 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