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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Multilateralism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralisme" title="Multilateralisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Multilateralisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81" title="تعددية الأطراف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعددية الأطراف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multillateralismu" title="Multillateralismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Multillateralismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralizm" title="Multilateralizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Multilateralizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismus" title="Multilateralismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Multilateralismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateraalsus" title="Multilateraalsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Multilateraalsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismo" title="Multilateralismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Multilateralismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="چندجانبه‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چندجانبه‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilat%C3%A9ralisme" title="Multilatéralisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Multilatéralisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%9E%90%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="다자주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="다자주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF" title="बहुपक्षीय राजनय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बहुपक्षीय राजनय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralisme" title="Multilateralisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Multilateralisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismo" title="Multilateralismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Multilateralismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მულტილატერალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მულტილატერალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_pelbagai_hala" title="Hubungan pelbagai hala – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hubungan pelbagai hala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%9B%BD%E9%96%93%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="多国間主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="多国間主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralisme" title="Multilateralisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Multilateralisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਬਹੁਪਾਸੜਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਹੁਪਾਸੜਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralizm_(politologia)" title="Multilateralizm (politologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Multilateralizm (politologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismo" title="Multilateralismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Multilateralismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Мультилатерализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мультилатерализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismi" title="Multilateralismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Multilateralismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Multilateralism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismo" title="Multilateralismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Multilateralismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Багатосторонні відносини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Багатосторонні відносини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Alliance between multiple countries in pursuit of a common goal</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, <b>multilateralism</b> refers to an <a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">alliance</a> of multiple countries pursuing a common goal. Multilateralism is based on the principles of inclusivity, equality, and cooperation, and aims to foster a more peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world.<sup id="cite_ref-b774_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b774-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Middle_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle powers">Middle powers</a> play a crucial role in the international system by promoting multilateralism and <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-p046_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p046-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-f298_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-f298-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the key advantages of multilateralism is that it enables countries to solve problems that transcend national boundaries, such as climate change, terrorism, and pandemics, through shared responsibility and burden-sharing.<sup id="cite_ref-i412_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-i412-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, multilateralism is not without its challenges. The rise of populism, nationalism, and protectionism in some countries has raised concerns about the future of multilateralism and the effectiveness of international cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-u155_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u155-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Multilateralism, in the form of membership in international institutions, serves to bind powerful nations, discourage <a href="/wiki/Unilateralism" title="Unilateralism">unilateralism</a>, and gives small powers a voice and influence that they could not otherwise exercise. For a small power to influence a great power, the <a href="/wiki/Lilliput_and_Blefuscu" title="Lilliput and Blefuscu">Lilliputian</a> strategy of small countries banding together to collectively bind a larger one can be effective. Similarly, multilateralism may allow one great power to influence another great power. For a great power to seek control through bilateral ties could be costly; it may require bargaining and compromise with the other great power. </p><p>Miles Kahler defines multilateralism as "international governance" or <a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">global governance</a> of the "many," and its central principle was "opposition [to] <a href="/wiki/Bilateralism" title="Bilateralism">bilateral</a> discriminatory arrangements that were believed to enhance the leverage of the powerful over the weak and to increase international conflict.";<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a> defined it as "the practice of coordinating national policies in groups of three or more states."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Ruggie" title="John Ruggie">John Ruggie</a> further elaborated the concept in his influential writings on multilateralism. Based on principles of "indivisibility" and "diffuse <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(international_relations)" title="Reciprocity (international relations)">reciprocity</a> he defined it as "an institutional form which coordinates relations among three or more states based on 'generalized' principles of conduct ... which specify appropriate conduct for a class of actions, without regard to particularistic interests of the parties or the strategic exigencies that may exist in any occurrence."<sup id="cite_ref-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further clarified that multilateralism is 'a unique product of US global hegemony [. . . ] not necessarily a post-war American invention', but a reflection of post-war 'American <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Embedding the target state in a multilateral alliance reduces the costs borne by the power-seeking control, but it also offers the same binding benefits of the Lilliputian strategy. Furthermore, if a small power seeks control over another small power, multilateralism may be the only choice, because small powers rarely have the resources to exert control on their own. As such, power disparities are accommodated to the weaker states by having more predictable bigger states and means to achieve control through collective action. Powerful states also buy into multilateral agreements by writing the rules and having privileges such as veto power and special status.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/International_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="International organizations">International organizations</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) and the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>, are multilateral in nature. The main proponents of multilateralism have traditionally been the <a href="/wiki/Middle_power" title="Middle power">middle powers</a>, such as Canada, Australia, Switzerland, the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> countries and the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>. Larger states often act <a href="/wiki/Unilateralism" title="Unilateralism">unilaterally</a>, while smaller ones may have little direct power in <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international affairs</a> aside from participation in the United Nations (by consolidating their UN vote in a voting bloc with other nations, for example.) Multilateralism may involve several nations acting together, as in the UN, or may involve regional or military alliances, pacts, or groupings, such as <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>. These multilateral institutions are not imposed on states but are created and accepted by them to increase their ability to seek their own interests through the coordination of their policies. Moreover, they serve as frameworks that constrain opportunistic behaviour and encourage coordination by facilitating the exchange of information about the actual behaviour of states regarding the standards to which they have consented. </p><p>The term "regional multilateralism" has been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Harris_Mylonas" title="Harris Mylonas">Harris Mylonas</a> and Emirhan Yorulmazlar, suggesting that "contemporary problems can be better solved at the regional rather than the bilateral or global levels" and that bringing together the concept of <a href="/wiki/Regional_integration" title="Regional integration">regional integration</a> with that of multilateralism is necessary in today's world.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(international_relations)" title="Regionalism (international relations)">Regionalism</a> dates from the time of the earliest development of political communities, where economic and political relations naturally had a strong regionalist focus due to restrictions on technology, trade, and communications.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Conversion_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversion (logic)">converse</a> of multilateralism is <a href="/wiki/Unilateralism" title="Unilateralism">unilateralism</a>, in terms of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. Other authors have used the term "minilateralism" to refer to the fewest states required to get the biggest results through this institutional form.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The foreign policy that India formulated after independence reflected its idiosyncratic culture and political traditions. Speaking in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, in March 1950, Nehru affirmed: “It should not be supposed that we are starting on a clean slate. It is a policy that flowed from our recent history and our national movement and its development and various ideals, we have proclaimed. (Nehru, 1961, p. 34). In fact, the foreign policy culture of India is an elite culture, meaning, in effect, that the writings and speeches of select leading figures of the Indian foreign policy elite provide an insight into the key ideas and norms constituting the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of India">India's foreign policy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One modern instance of multilateralism occurred in the nineteenth century in Europe after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, where the great powers met to redraw the map of Europe at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (November 1814 to June 1815). The <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a>, as it became known, was a group of great and lesser powers that would meet to resolve issues peacefully. Conferences such as the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Conference of Berlin">Conference of Berlin</a> in 1884 helped reduce power conflicts during this period, and the 19th century was one of Europe's most peaceful.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Industrial and colonial competition, combined with shifts in the balance of power after the creation - by diplomacy and conquest - of Germany by Prussia meant cracks were appearing in this system by the turn of the 20th century. The concert system was utterly destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>. After that conflict, world leaders created the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> (which became the precursor of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>) in an attempt to prevent a similar conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the League of Nations failed in its security mission, it initiated a variety of specialized organizations that continue to operate today. Moreover, although the US did not join, it did provide a degree of support from individual Americans and American philanthropies that started a tradition of public and private participation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Second World War the victors, drawing upon experience from the League's failure, created the United Nations in 1945. Since then, the "breadth and diversity" of multilateral arrangements have escalated.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the League, the UN had the active participation of the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the world's then greatest contemporary powers. Along with the political institutions of the UN, the post-war years also saw the development of organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (GATT) (now the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>), the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) (the so-called '<a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods</a>' institutions), and other technical institutions that were part of the UN system—including the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. Formation of these and other subsequent bodies under the United Nations made the new system more powerful than the old League system.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, United Nations <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeepers</a> stationed around the world became a visible symbol of multilateralism. Later, the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO) was formed as a defensive alliance that used the multilateral form to promote <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> in the postwar era. </p><p>Multilateral institutions of varying scope and subject matter range from the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU) to the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) and <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a> (OPCW) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The multilateral system has encountered mounting challenges since the end of the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States became increasingly dominant in terms of military and <a href="/wiki/Economic_power" title="Economic power">economic power</a>, which has led countries such as Iran, China and India to question the UN's relevance. Concurrently, a perception developed among internationalists such as former <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">UN Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a>, that the United States is more inclined to act unilaterally in situations with international implications. This trend began when the U.S. Senate, in October 1999, refused to ratify the <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty</a>, which President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> had signed in September 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> the United States rejected such multilateral agreements as the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_Treaty" title="Ottawa Treaty">Ottawa Treaty</a> banning <a href="/wiki/Anti-personnel_mine" title="Anti-personnel mine">anti-personnel land mines</a> and a draft protocol to ensure compliance by States with the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a>. Also under the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">George W. Bush administration</a>, the United States withdrew from the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty" title="Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty">Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</a>, which the Richard <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Nixon administration</a> and the Soviet Union had signed in 1972. </p><p>These challenges presented by the U.S. could be explained by a strong belief in bilateral alliances as instruments of control. Liberal institutionalists would argue, though, that great powers might still opt for a multilateral alliance. But great powers can amplify their capabilities to control small powers and maximize their leverage by forging a series of bilateral arrangements with allies, rather than see that leverage diluted in a multilateral forum. Arguably, the Bush administration favoured bilateralism over multilateralism, or even unilateralism, for similar reasons. Rather than going it alone or going it with others, the administration opted for intensive one-on-one relationships with handpicked countries that maximized the U.S. capacity to achieve its objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another challenge in global governance through multilateralism involves national sovereignty. Regardless of the erosion of nation-states' legal and operational sovereignty in international relations, "nation-states remain the ultimate locus of authoritative decision making regarding most facets of public and private life".<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hoffmann" title="Stanley Hoffmann">Hoffman</a> asserted that nation-states are "unlikely to embrace abstract obligations that clash with concrete calculations of national interest."<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Global multilateralism is challenged, particularly with respect to trade, by regional arrangements such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/NAFTA" class="mw-redirect" title="NAFTA">NAFTA</a>, although these are not in themselves incompatible with larger accords. The original sponsor of post-war multilateralism in economic regimes, the United States, turned towards unilateral action and in trade and other negotiations as a result of dissatisfaction with the outcomes of multilateral fora. As the most powerful nation, the United States had the least to lose from abandoning multilateralism; the weakest nations have the most to lose, but the cost for all would be high.<sup id="cite_ref-McLeanMcMillan2009_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLeanMcMillan2009-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aside from changes in the US, <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Europe#21st_century" title="Populism in Europe">populism in Europe</a> has proven to be problematic to multilateralism in recent years. Results from direct elections to the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> give evidence to this claim, as Eurosceptic parties have made advances.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_bilateralism">Comparison with bilateralism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Comparison with bilateralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Powerplay: Bilateral versus Multilateral Control </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td>Target State:<br />Small Power </td> <td>Target State:<br />Great Power </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small power(s) seeking<br />control over target </td> <td>Quadrant 1<br />multilateralism </td> <td>Quadrant 2<br />multilateralism </td></tr> <tr> <td>Great power seeking control<br />over target </td> <td>Quadrant 3<br />bilateralism </td> <td>Quadrant 4<br />multilateralism </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Source: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Cha" title="Victor Cha">Victor Cha</a>'s <i>Powerplay: Bilateral versus Multilateral Control</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cha,_Victor_D_2010-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When enacting foreign policies, governments face a choice between unilateralism, <a href="/wiki/Bilateralism" title="Bilateralism">bilateralism</a> and multilateralism. </p><p>Bilateralism means coordination with another single country. Multilateralism has attempted to find common ground based on generalized principles of conduct, in addition to details associated with a particular agreement. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Cha" title="Victor Cha">Victor Cha</a> argued that: power asymmetries predict the type of structures, bilateral or multilateral, that offer the most control. If small powers try to control a larger one, then multilateralism is effective. But if great powers seek control over smaller ones, bilateral alliances are more effective.<sup id="cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cha,_Victor_D_2010-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Thus, a country's decision to select bilateralism or multilateralism when enacting foreign policies is greatly affected by its size and power, as well as the size and power of the country over which it seeks to control. Take the example of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Policy of the United States">Foreign Policy of the United States</a>. Many references discuss how the United States interacts with other nations. In particular, the United States chose multilateralism in Europe and decided to form <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, while it formed bilateral alliances, or the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_System" title="San Francisco System">Hub and spokes architecture</a>, in East Asia. Although there are many arguments about the reasons for this, Cha's "<a href="/wiki/Powerplay_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Powerplay (theory)">powerplay</a>" theory provides one possible reason. He argued: </p><blockquote><p>...postwar U.S planners had to contend with a region uniquely constituted of potential rogue allies, through their aggressive behaviour, could potentially entrap the United States in an unwanted wider war in Asia... To avoid this outcome, the United States created a series of tight, deep bilateral alliances with Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan through which it could exercise maximum control and prevent unilateral aggression. Furthermore, it did not seek to make these bilateral alliances multilateral, because it wanted to amplify U.S. control and minimize any collusion among its partners.<sup id="cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cha,_Victor_D_2010-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_negotiation" title="Asymmetric negotiation">Asymmetric negotiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian Summit">East Asian Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organization">Intergovernmental organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_world_order_(politics)" title="New world order (politics)">New world order (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Government_Partnership" title="Open Government Partnership">Open Government Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Perpetual peace">Perpetual peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurinationalism" title="Plurinationalism">Plurinationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarity in international relations">Polarity in international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_United_Nations_Associations" title="World Federation of United Nations Associations">World Federation of United Nations Associations</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-b774-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b774_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWijkThompsonChavannes2020" class="citation techreport cs1">Wijk, Rob de; Thompson, Jack; Chavannes, Esther (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26672.5"><i>Adjusting the Multilateral System to Safeguard Dutch Interests</i></a> (Technical report). p. 17–33. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26672.5">resrep26672.5</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Adjusting+the+Multilateral+System+to+Safeguard+Dutch+Interests&rft.pages=17-33&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep26672.5%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wijk&rft.aufirst=Rob+de&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Jack&rft.au=Chavannes%2C+Esther&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep26672.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p046-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-p046_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEfstathopoulos2023" class="citation journal cs1">Efstathopoulos, Charalampos (March 4, 2023). "Global IR and the middle power concept: exploring different paths to agency". <i>Australian Journal of International Affairs</i>. <b>77</b> (2): 213–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10357718.2023.2191925">10.1080/10357718.2023.2191925</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2160%2F6266dc76-5168-4a2c-8e33-4bd207139ff0">2160/6266dc76-5168-4a2c-8e33-4bd207139ff0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1035-7718">1035-7718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Global+IR+and+the+middle+power+concept%3A+exploring+different+paths+to+agency&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-232&rft.date=2023-03-04&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2160%2F6266dc76-5168-4a2c-8e33-4bd207139ff0&rft.issn=1035-7718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10357718.2023.2191925&rft.aulast=Efstathopoulos&rft.aufirst=Charalampos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-f298-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-f298_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence2023" class="citation book cs1">Laurence, Marion (October 18, 2023). "Middle Powers". <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190846626.013.783">10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.783</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-084662-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-084662-6"><bdi>978-0-19-084662-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Middle+Powers&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+International+Studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023-10-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190846626.013.783&rft.isbn=978-0-19-084662-6&rft.aulast=Laurence&rft.aufirst=Marion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-i412-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-i412_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOECD2021" class="citation book cs1">OECD (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vo0TEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42"><i>OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2021 Times of Crisis and Opportunity: Times of Crisis and Opportunity</i></a>. OECD Publishing. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-78432-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-78432-1"><bdi>978-92-64-78432-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OECD+Science%2C+Technology+and+Innovation+Outlook+2021+Times+of+Crisis+and+Opportunity%3A+Times+of+Crisis+and+Opportunity&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-92-64-78432-1&rft.au=OECD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVo0TEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-u155-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-u155_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.banque-france.fr/en/governors-interventions/future-multilateralism-three-hard-facts-three-needs-and-one-belief">"The future of multilateralism: three hard facts, three needs and one belief"</a>. <i>Banque de France</i>. October 11, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Banque+de+France&rft.atitle=The+future+of+multilateralism%3A+three+hard+facts%2C+three+needs+and+one+belief&rft.date=2023-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.banque-france.fr%2Fen%2Fgovernors-interventions%2Ffuture-multilateralism-three-hard-facts-three-needs-and-one-belief&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kahler, Miles. "Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers." International Organization, 46, 3 (Summer 1992),681.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keohane, Robert O. "Multilateralism: An Agenda for Research." International Journal, 45 (Autumn 1990), 731.; see for a definition of the special features of "regional multilateralism" Michael, Arndt (2013). India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism (Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 12-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Ruggie_1992,_pp_561-598_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Ruggie, "Multilateralism: the anatomy of an institution, "International Organization, 46:3, summer 1992, pp 561-598.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcharya2018" class="citation cs2">Acharya, Amitava (2018-06-28), Weiss, Thomas G; Daws, Sam (eds.), "Multilateralism and the Changing World Order", <i>The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 780–796, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198803164.013.43">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803164.013.43</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880316-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880316-4"><bdi>978-0-19-880316-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+on+the+United+Nations&rft.atitle=Multilateralism+and+the+Changing+World+Order&rft.pages=780-796&rft.date=2018-06-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198803164.013.43&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880316-4&rft.aulast=Acharya&rft.aufirst=Amitava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris Mylonas and Emirhan Yorulmazlar, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118143839/http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/14/regional-multilateralism-should-be-the-next-paradigm-in-global-affairs/">Regional multilateralism: The next paradigm in global affairs</a>", <i>CNN</i>, January 14, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hurrell" title="Andrew Hurrell">Andrew Hurrell</a>, "One world, many worlds: the place of regions in the study of international society," International Affairs, 83:1, 2007, pp 127-146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrummer2014" class="citation cs2">Brummer, Chris (2014), "Managing Minilateralism", <i>Minilateralism</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 165–198, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781107281998.006">10.1017/cbo9781107281998.006</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107281998" title="Special:BookSources/9781107281998"><bdi>9781107281998</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Managing+Minilateralism&rft.btitle=Minilateralism&rft.pages=165-198&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781107281998.006&rft.isbn=9781107281998&rft.aulast=Brummer&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArdnt2013" class="citation book cs1">Ardnt, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781137263117#aboutBook"><i>India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism</i></a> (1 ed.). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137263124">10.1057/9781137263124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-44245-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-44245-4"><bdi>978-1-349-44245-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Avery Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0895296365" title="Special:BookSources/0895296365"><bdi>0895296365</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=Avery+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0895296365&rft.aulast=Ostrower&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleagueofnationsf00ostr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaude,_Inis_L.1984" class="citation book cs1">Claude, Inis L. (1984). <i>Swords into plowshares: the problems and progress of international organization</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-34053-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-34053-1"><bdi>0-394-34053-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11425625">11425625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swords+into+plowshares%3A+the+problems+and+progress+of+international+organization&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11425625&rft.isbn=0-394-34053-1&rft.au=Claude%2C+Inis+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kim Fontaine-Skronski, Valériane Thool & Norbert Eschborn, <i>Does the UN Model Still Work? Challenges and Prospects for the Future of Multilateralism</i>, Leiden, Brill, 2023, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://brill.com/display/title/61341">https://brill.com/display/title/61341</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHookSpanier2007" class="citation book cs1">Hook, Steven & Spanier, John (2007). "Chapter 12: America Under Fire". <i>American Foreign Policy Since World War II</i>. CQ Press. p. 305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1933116716" title="Special:BookSources/978-1933116716"><bdi>978-1933116716</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12%3A+America+Under+Fire&rft.btitle=American+Foreign+Policy+Since+World+War+II&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1933116716&rft.aulast=Hook&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Spanier%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cha, Victor D. "Powerplay: Origins of the US alliance system in Asia." International Security 34.3 (2010):166-167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley_Hoffmann_pp_27-35_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley Hoffmann, “World governance: beyond utopia,” Daedalus, 132:1, pp 27-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLeanMcMillan2009-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLeanMcMillan2009_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIain_McLeanAlistair_McMillan2009" class="citation book cs1">Iain McLean; Alistair McMillan (26 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8JkyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT519"><i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics</i></a>. OUP Oxford. p. 519. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-101827-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-101827-5"><bdi>978-0-19-101827-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Politics&rft.pages=519&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2009-02-26&rft.isbn=978-0-19-101827-5&rft.au=Iain+McLean&rft.au=Alistair+McMillan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8JkyAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://election-results.eu/">"Home | 2019 European election results | European Parliament"</a>. <i>www.election-results.eu/</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.election-results.eu%2F&rft.atitle=Home+%7C+2019+European+election+results+%7C+European+Parliament&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felection-results.eu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cha,_Victor_D_2010-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cha,_Victor_D_2010_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cha, Victor D. "Powerplay: Origins of the US alliance system in Asia." International Security 34.3 (2010): 165-166</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kim Fontaine-Skronski, Valériane Thool & Norbert Eschborn, <i>Does the UN Model Still Work? Challenges and Prospects for the Future of Multilateralism</i>, Brill, 2023, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/title/61341">ISBN 978-90-04-51648-9</a></li> <li>Kathryn C. Lavelle, <i>The Challenges of Multilateralism</i> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300230451" title="Special:BookSources/9780300230451">9780300230451</a></li> <li>Nicola Contessi, "Multilateralism" in Joel Krieger (ed.) <i>Oxford Companion to International Relations</i> (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 96–101.</li> <li>Edward Newman, Ramesh Rhakur and John Tirman, <i>Multilateralism Under Challenge</i> (Tokyo: United Nations Press, 2006).</li> <li>Michale Yahuda, <i>The International Politics of the Asia-Pacific</i> (New York: Routledge, 2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rorden_Wilkinson" title="Rorden Wilkinson">Rorden Wilkinson</a>, <i>Multilateralism and the World Trade Organisation: The Architecture and Extension of International Trade Regulation</i> (New York: Routledge, 2000).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaude,_Inis_L.1984" class="citation book cs1">Claude, Inis L. (1984). <i>Swords into plowshares : the problems and progress of international organization</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394340531" title="Special:BookSources/0394340531"><bdi>0394340531</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/246372664">246372664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swords+into+plowshares+%3A+the+problems+and+progress+of+international+organization&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F246372664&rft.isbn=0394340531&rft.au=Claude%2C+Inis+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilateralism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_power" title="Template:International power"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_power" title="Template talk:International power"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_power" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International power"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Power_in_international_relations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Power_(international_relations)" title="Power (international relations)">Power in international relations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_power" title="Economic power">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_superpower" title="Energy superpower">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_power" title="Food power">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_power" title="Hard power">Hard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_power" title="Maritime power">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_power" title="National power">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_politics" title="Power politics">Politics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_power" title="Sharp power">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_power" title="Smart power">Smart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_power" title="Soft power">Soft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_power" title="Small power">Small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_power" title="Middle power">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_power" title="Regional power">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_power" title="Emerging power">Emerging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_of_the_Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Least of the Great Powers">Least Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_superpower" title="Potential superpower">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">Super</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pax_Americana" title="Pax Americana">Pax</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Century" title="Asian Century">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Century" title="Chinese Century">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Century" title="Indian Century">Indian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Century" title="Pacific Century">Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">List of ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">List of medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">List of modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Western_era" title="Post-Western era">Post-Western era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_decline" title="American decline">American decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_stability_theory" title="Hegemonic stability theory">Hegemonic stability theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Philosophy of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_(international_relations)" title="Polarity (international relations)">Polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_transition_theory" title="Power transition theory">Power transition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Superpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Superpower">Second Superpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superpower_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Superpower collapse">Superpower collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superpower_disengagement" class="mw-redirect" title="Superpower disengagement">Superpower disengagement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composite_Index_of_National_Capability" title="Composite Index of National Capability">Composite Index of National Capability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_National_Power" title="Comprehensive National Power">Comprehensive National Power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations_and_groups_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_organization" title="Regional organization">Organizations and groups</a> by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Africa–Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Caribbean_States" title="Association of Caribbean States">Association of Caribbean States (ACS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community (CARICOM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_Integration_System" title="Central American Integration System">Central American Integration System (SICA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_Latin_American_and_Caribbean_States" title="Community of Latin American and Caribbean States">Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercosur" title="Mercosur">Mercosur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States (OAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_American_Nations" title="Union of South American Nations">Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia_Cooperation_Dialogue" title="Asia Cooperation Dialogue">Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Economic_Cooperation" title="Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation">Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal_Initiative_for_Multi-Sectoral_Technical_and_Economic_Cooperation" title="Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation">Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conference_on_Interaction_and_Confidence-Building_Measures_in_Asia" title="Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia">Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trilateral_Cooperation_Secretariat" title="Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat">Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat (TCS)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe (CoE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">European Political Community (EPC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union (EU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group (V4)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union (EaEU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States" title="Organization of Turkic States">Organization of Turkic States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">North America–Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Africa–Asia–Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Africa–South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Peace_and_Cooperation_Zone" title="South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone">South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Oceania–Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Economic_Cooperation" title="Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation">Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">Australia–New Zealand–United States Security Treaty (ANZUS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_Spearhead_Group" title="Melanesian Spearhead Group">Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_Leaders_Group" title="Polynesian Leaders Group">Polynesian Leaders Group (PLG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.25em;">Non–regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">Brazil–Russia–India–China–South Africa (BRICS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_Portuguese_Speaking_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries">Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E9_(countries)" title="E9 (countries)">E9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G4_nations" title="G4 nations">G4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Eight" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of Eight">G8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G8%2B5" title="G8+5">G8+5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_24" title="Group of 24">G24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_77" title="Group of 77">G77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBSA_Dialogue_Forum" title="IBSA Dialogue Forum">India–Brazil–South Africa Dialogue Forum (IBSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_internationale_de_la_Francophonie" title="Organisation internationale de la Francophonie">Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniting_for_Consensus" title="Uniting for Consensus">Uniting for Consensus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em">Global</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations (UN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&oldid=1254121165">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multilateralism&oldid=1254121165</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" 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