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DiVincenzo's criteria - Wikipedia
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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Statement_of_the_criteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statement_of_the_criteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Statement of the criteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statement_of_the_criteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Justification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Justification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Justification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Justification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scalability_with_well-characterised_qubits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scalability_with_well-characterised_qubits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Scalability with well-characterised qubits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scalability_with_well-characterised_qubits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initialising_qubits_to_a_simple_fiducial_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initialising_qubits_to_a_simple_fiducial_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Initialising qubits to a simple fiducial state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initialising_qubits_to_a_simple_fiducial_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_relevant_coherence_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_relevant_coherence_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Long relevant coherence times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_relevant_coherence_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_"universal"_set_of_quantum_gates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_"universal"_set_of_quantum_gates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>A "universal" set of quantum gates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_"universal"_set_of_quantum_gates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_qubit-specific_measurement_capability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_qubit-specific_measurement_capability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>A qubit-specific measurement capability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_qubit-specific_measurement_capability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interconverting_stationary_and_flying_qubits_and_faithfully_transmitting_flying_qubits_between_specified_locations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interconverting_stationary_and_flying_qubits_and_faithfully_transmitting_flying_qubits_between_specified_locations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Interconverting stationary and flying qubits and faithfully transmitting flying qubits between specified locations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interconverting_stationary_and_flying_qubits_and_faithfully_transmitting_flying_qubits_between_specified_locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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constructing a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computer</a>, conditions proposed in 1996 by the theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/David_P._DiVincenzo" class="mw-redirect" title="David P. DiVincenzo">David P. DiVincenzo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as being those necessary to construct such a computer—a computer first proposed by mathematician <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Manin" title="Yuri Manin">Yuri Manin</a>, in 1980,<sup id="cite_ref-manin1980vychislimoe_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manin1980vychislimoe-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, in 1982<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—as a means to efficiently simulate <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum</a> systems, such as in solving the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_many-body_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum many-body problem">quantum many-body problem</a>. </p><p>There have been many proposals for how to construct a quantum computer, all of which meet with varying degrees of success against the different challenges of constructing quantum devices. Some of these proposals involve using <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_quantum_computing" title="Superconducting quantum computing">superconducting qubits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trapped_ion_quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapped ion quantum computer">trapped ions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_quantum_computer" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer">liquid and solid state nuclear magnetic resonance</a>, or <a href="/wiki/One-way_quantum_computer" title="One-way quantum computer">optical cluster states</a>, all of which show good prospects but also have issues that prevent their practical implementation. </p><p>The DiVincenzo criteria consist of seven conditions an experimental setup must satisfy to successfully implement <a href="/wiki/Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">quantum algorithms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Grover%27s_algorithm" title="Grover's algorithm">Grover's search algorithm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm" title="Shor's algorithm">Shor factorization</a>. The first five conditions regard quantum computation itself. Two additional conditions regard implementing <a href="/wiki/Quantum_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum communication">quantum communication</a>, such as that used in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">quantum key distribution</a>. One can demonstrate that DiVincenzo's criteria are satisfied by a classical computer. Comparing the ability of classical and quantum regimes to satisfy the criteria highlights both the complications that arise in dealing with quantum systems and the source of the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_supremacy" title="Quantum supremacy">quantum speed up</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statement_of_the_criteria">Statement of the criteria</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Statement of the criteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to DiVincenzo's criteria, constructing a quantum computer requires that the experimental setup meet seven conditions. The first five are necessary for quantum computation: </p> <ol><li>A scalable physical system with well-characterized <a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">qubit</a></li> <li>The ability to initialize the state of the qubits to a simple fiducial state</li> <li>Long relevant <a href="/wiki/Quantum_coherence" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum coherence">Quantum coherence</a> <a href="/wiki/Relaxation_(NMR)" title="Relaxation (NMR)">times</a></li> <li>A "<a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic_gate#Universal_quantum_gates" title="Quantum logic gate">universal</a>" set of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum gate">quantum gates</a></li> <li>A qubit-specific <a href="/wiki/Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Measurement in quantum mechanics">measurement</a> capability</li></ol> <p>The remaining two are necessary for <a href="/wiki/Quantum_channel" title="Quantum channel">quantum communication</a>: </p> <ol><li>The ability to interconvert stationary and flying qubits</li> <li>The ability to faithfully transmit flying qubits between specified locations</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justification">Justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DiVincenzo proposed his criteria after many attempts to construct a quantum computer. Below describes why these statements are important, and presents examples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scalability_with_well-characterised_qubits">Scalability with well-characterised qubits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scalability with well-characterised qubits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most models of quantum computation require the use of qubits. Quantum mechanically, a <a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">qubit</a> is defined as a 2-level system with some energy gap. This can sometimes be difficult to implement physically, and so we focus on a particular transition of atomic levels. Whatever the system we choose, we require that the system remain almost always in the subspace of these two levels, and in doing so we can say it is a well-characterised qubit. An example of a system that is not well characterised would be two one-electron <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a>, with potential wells each occupied by a single electron <a href="/wiki/Two-state_quantum_system" title="Two-state quantum system">in one well or the other</a>, which is properly characterised as a single qubit. However, in considering a state such as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |00\rangle +|11\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>00</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>11</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |00\rangle +|11\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d98a15477054152f5089aeedcea88a97e079cfd9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.593ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |00\rangle +|11\rangle }"></span>, such a system would correspond to a two-qubit state. </p><p>With today's technology, <a href="/wiki/Physical_qubit" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical qubit">a system</a> that has a well characterised qubit can be created, but it is a challenge to create a system that has an arbitrary number of well-characterised qubits. Currently, one of the biggest problems being faced is that we require exponentially larger experimental setups to accommodate a greater number of qubits. The quantum computer is capable of exponential speed-ups in computing classical algorithms for <a href="/wiki/Prime_factorisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime factorisation">prime factorisation</a> of numbers; but if this requires an exponentially large setup, then our advantage is lost. In the case of using liquid-state <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (NMR), it was found that increased macroscopic size led to system initialisation that left computational qubits in a highly <a href="/wiki/Density_matrix" title="Density matrix">mixed state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this, a computation model was found that could still use these mixed states for computation, but the more mixed these states are the weaker the induction signal corresponding to a quantum measurement is. If this signal is below the noise threshold, a solution is to increase the size of the sample to boost the signal strength; and this is the source of the non-scalability of liquid-state NMR as a means for quantum computation. One could say that as the number of computational qubits increases they become less well characterised until a threshold is reached at which they are no longer useful. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initialising_qubits_to_a_simple_fiducial_state">Initialising qubits to a simple fiducial state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Initialising qubits to a simple fiducial state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All models of quantum and classical computation are based on performing operations on states maintained by qubits or bits and measuring and reporting a result, a procedure that is dependent on the initial state of the system. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Unitarity_(physics)" title="Unitarity (physics)">unitarity</a> nature of quantum mechanics makes initialisation of the qubits extremely important. In many cases, initialisation is accomplished by letting the system <a href="/wiki/Quantum_annealing" title="Quantum annealing">anneal</a> to the ground state. This is of particular importance when you consider <a href="/wiki/Quantum_error_correction" title="Quantum error correction">quantum error correction</a>, a procedure to perform quantum processes that are robust against certain types of noise and that require a large supply of freshly initialised qubits, which places restrictions on how fast the initialisation can be. </p><p>An example of annealing is described in a 2005 paper by Petta, et al., where a <a href="/wiki/Bell_state" title="Bell state">Bell pair</a> of electrons is prepared in quantum dots. This procedure relies on <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93lattice_relaxation" title="Spin–lattice relaxation"><i>T</i><sub>1</sub></a> to anneal the system, and the paper focuses on measuring the <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93spin_relaxation" title="Spin–spin relaxation"><i>T</i><sub>2</sub></a> relaxation time of the quantum-dot system and gives an idea of the timescales involved (milliseconds), which would be a fundamental roadblock, given that then the decoherence time is shorter than the initialisation time.<sup id="cite_ref-Petta2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petta2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternate approaches (usually involving <a href="/wiki/Optical_pumping" title="Optical pumping">optical pumping</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have been developed to reduce the initialisation time and improve the fidelity of the procedure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_relevant_coherence_times">Long relevant coherence times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Long relevant coherence times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Decoherence is a problem experienced in large, macroscopic quantum computation systems. The quantum resources used by quantum computing models (<a href="/wiki/Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">superposition</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">entanglement</a>) are quickly destroyed by decoherence. Long decoherence times are desired, much longer than the average <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">gate</a> time, so that decoherence can be combated with error correction or <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_decoupling" title="Dynamical decoupling">dynamical decoupling</a>. In solid-state NMR using <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-vacancy_center" title="Nitrogen-vacancy center">nitrogen-vacancy centers</a>, the orbital electron experiences short decoherence times, making computations problematic; the proposed solution has been to encode the qubit in the nuclear spin of the nitrogen atom, thus increasing the decoherence time. In other systems, such as the quantum dot, issues with strong environmental effects limit the <i>T</i><sub>2</sub> decoherence time. Systems that can be manipulated quickly (through strong interactions) tend to experience decoherence via these very same strong interactions, and so there is a trade-off between ability to implement control and increased decoherence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_"universal"_set_of_quantum_gates"><span id="A_.22universal.22_set_of_quantum_gates"></span>A "universal" set of quantum gates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: A "universal" set of quantum gates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In both classical and quantum computing, the algorithms that we can compute are restricted by the number of gates we can implement. In the case of quantum computing, a universal quantum computer (a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Turing_machine" title="Quantum Turing machine">quantum Turing machine</a>) can be constructed using a very small set of 1- and 2-qubit gates. Any experimental setup that manages to have well-characterised qubits; quick, faithful initialisation; and long decoherence times must also be capable of influencing the <a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">Hamiltonian</a> (total energy) of the system, in order to effect coherent changes capable of implementing a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gate#Universal_quantum_gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum gate">universal set of gates</a>. A perfect implementation of gates is not always necessary, as gate sequences can be created that are more robust against certain systematic and random noise models.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liquid-state NMR was one of the first setups capable of implementing a universal set of gates, through the use of precise timing and magnetic field pulses. However, as mentioned above, this system was not scalable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_qubit-specific_measurement_capability">A qubit-specific measurement capability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: A qubit-specific measurement capability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For any process modifying the quantum states of qubits, the final measurement of those states is of fundamental importance when performing computations. If our system allows for non-destructive projective measurements, then, in principle, this can be used for state preparation. Measurement is at the foundation of all quantum algorithms, especially in concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_teleportation" title="Quantum teleportation">quantum teleportation</a>. Measurement techniques that are not 100% efficient are typically repeated to increase the success rate. Examples of reliable measurement devices are found in optical systems where <a href="/wiki/Homodyne_detection" title="Homodyne detection">homodyne detectors</a> have reached the point of reliably counting how many photons have passed through the detecting cross-section. More challenging is the measurement of quantum dots, where the <a href="/wiki/Energy_gap" title="Energy gap">energy gap</a> between the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |01\rangle +|10\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>01</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>10</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |01\rangle +|10\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3b57e787fadbe28e1c929d484626adfe9d956c63" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.593ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |01\rangle +|10\rangle }"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |01\rangle -|10\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>01</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> <mo>−<!-- − --></mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mn>10</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |01\rangle -|10\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c2d6e7682c296b9ebfbe01f28289ae296e604352" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.593ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |01\rangle -|10\rangle }"></span> (the <a href="/wiki/Singlet_state" title="Singlet state">singlet state</a>) is used to measure the relative spins of the two electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Petta2005_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petta2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interconverting_stationary_and_flying_qubits_and_faithfully_transmitting_flying_qubits_between_specified_locations">Interconverting stationary and flying qubits and faithfully transmitting flying qubits between specified locations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Interconverting stationary and flying qubits and faithfully transmitting flying qubits between specified locations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interconverting and transmitting are necessary when considering quantum communication protocols, such as quantum key distribution, that involve the exchange of coherent quantum states or entangled qubits (for example, the <a href="/wiki/BB84" title="BB84">BB84</a> protocol). When creating pairs of entangled qubits in experimental setups, these qubits are usually "stationary" and cannot be moved from the laboratory. If these qubits can be sent as flying qubits, such as being encoded into the polarisation of a photon, then sending entangled photons to a third party and having them extract that information, leaving two entangled stationary qubits at two different locations, can be considered. The ability to transmit the flying qubit without decoherence is a major problem. Currently, at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Quantum_Computing" title="Institute for Quantum Computing">Institute for Quantum Computing</a> there are efforts to produce a pair of entangled photons and transmit one of the photons to some other part of the world by reflecting it off a satellite. The main issue now is the decoherence the photon experiences whilst interacting with particles in the atmosphere. Similarly, some attempts have been made to use optical fibres, although the attenuation of the signal has kept this from becoming a reality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_quantum_computer" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer">Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapped_ion_quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapped ion quantum computer">Trapped ion quantum computer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=DiVincenzo%27s_criteria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDiVincenzo1996" class="citation journal cs1">DiVincenzo, David (16 December 1996). "TOPICS IN QUANTUM COMPUTERS". <i>Mesoscopic Electron Transport</i>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9612126">cond-mat/9612126</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mesoscopic+Electron+Transport&rft.atitle=TOPICS+IN+QUANTUM+COMPUTERS&rft.date=1996-12-16&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9612126&rft.aulast=DiVincenzo&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiVincenzo%27s+criteria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manin1980vychislimoe-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-manin1980vychislimoe_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManin,_Yu._I.1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Manin, Yu. I. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510173823/http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/M/MANIN_Yuriy_Ivanovich/Manin_Yu.I._Vychislimoe_i_nevychislimoe.(1980).%5Bdjv%5D.zip"><i>Vychislimoe i nevychislimoe</i></a> [<i>Computable and Noncomputable</i>] (in Russian). Sov.Radio. pp. 13–15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/K/"><i>Kibernetika</i>_(seriya)/Manin_Yu.I.__Vychislimoe_i_nevychislimoe.(1980).%5bdjv-fax%5d.zip the original</a> on 2013-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_information" title="Template:Quantum information"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quantum_information" title="Template talk:Quantum information"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum_information" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum information"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Quantum_information_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">DiVincenzo's criteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">NISQ era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_simulator" title="Quantum simulator">Quantum simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">Qubit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_and_logical_qubits" title="Physical and logical qubits">physical vs. logical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quantum_processors" title="List of quantum processors">Quantum processors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud-based_quantum_computing" title="Cloud-based quantum computing">cloud-based</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theorems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem" title="Bell's theorem">Bell's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastin%E2%80%93Knill_theorem" title="Eastin–Knill theorem">Eastin–Knill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleason%27s_theorem" title="Gleason's theorem">Gleason's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottesman%E2%80%93Knill_theorem" title="Gottesman–Knill theorem">Gottesman–Knill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holevo%27s_theorem" title="Holevo's theorem">Holevo's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-broadcasting_theorem" title="No-broadcasting theorem">No-broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-cloning_theorem" title="No-cloning theorem">No-cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-communication_theorem" title="No-communication theorem">No-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-deleting_theorem" title="No-deleting theorem">No-deleting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-hiding_theorem" title="No-hiding theorem">No-hiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-teleportation_theorem" title="No-teleportation theorem">No-teleportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PBR_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="PBR theorem">PBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_speed_limit_theorems" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum speed limit theorems">Quantum speed limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threshold_theorem" title="Threshold theorem">Threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solovay%E2%80%93Kitaev_theorem" title="Solovay–Kitaev theorem">Solovay–Kitaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%E2%80%93HJW_theorem" title="Schrödinger–HJW theorem">Purification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum<br />communication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_capacity" title="Classical capacity">Classical capacity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement-assisted_classical_capacity" title="Entanglement-assisted classical capacity">entanglement-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_capacity" title="Quantum capacity">quantum capacity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_distillation" title="Entanglement distillation">Entanglement distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_of_entanglement" title="Monogamy of entanglement">Monogamy of entanglement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LOCC" title="LOCC">LOCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_channel" title="Quantum channel">Quantum channel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_network" title="Quantum network">quantum network</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_teleportation" title="Quantum teleportation">Quantum teleportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gate_teleportation" title="Quantum gate teleportation">quantum gate teleportation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdense_coding" title="Superdense coding">Superdense coding</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Quantum_cryptography" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_coin_flipping" title="Quantum coin flipping">Quantum coin flipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_money" title="Quantum money">Quantum money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BB84" title="BB84">BB84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARG04" title="SARG04">SARG04</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quantum_key_distribution_protocols" title="List of quantum key distribution protocols">other protocols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_secret_sharing" title="Quantum secret sharing">Quantum secret sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">Quantum algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_amplification" title="Amplitude amplification">Amplitude amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernstein%E2%80%93Vazirani_algorithm" title="Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm">Bernstein–Vazirani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BHT_algorithm" title="BHT algorithm">BHT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boson_sampling" title="Boson sampling">Boson sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch%E2%80%93Jozsa_algorithm" title="Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm">Deutsch–Jozsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover%27s_algorithm" title="Grover's algorithm">Grover's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HHL_algorithm" title="HHL algorithm">HHL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_subgroup_problem" title="Hidden subgroup problem">Hidden subgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_annealing" title="Quantum annealing">Quantum annealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_counting_algorithm" title="Quantum counting algorithm">Quantum counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Fourier_transform" title="Quantum Fourier transform">Quantum Fourier transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optimization_algorithms" title="Quantum optimization algorithms">Quantum optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_phase_estimation_algorithm" title="Quantum phase estimation algorithm">Quantum phase estimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm" title="Shor's algorithm">Shor's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon%27s_problem" title="Simon's problem">Simon's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variational_quantum_eigensolver" title="Variational quantum eigensolver">VQE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_complexity_theory" title="Quantum complexity theory">Quantum<br />complexity theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BQP" title="BQP">BQP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_quantum_polynomial_time" title="Exact quantum polynomial time">EQP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QIP_(complexity)" title="QIP (complexity)">QIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QMA" title="QMA">QMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PostBQP" title="PostBQP">PostBQP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum <br /> processor benchmarks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_supremacy" title="Quantum supremacy">Quantum supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_volume" title="Quantum volume">Quantum volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_benchmarking" title="Randomized benchmarking">Randomized benchmarking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-entropy_benchmarking" title="Cross-entropy benchmarking">XEB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxation_(NMR)" title="Relaxation (NMR)">Relaxation times</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93lattice_relaxation" title="Spin–lattice relaxation"><i>T</i><sub>1</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93spin_relaxation" title="Spin–spin relaxation"><i>T</i><sub>2</sub></a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum<br /><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">computing models</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_quantum_computation" title="Adiabatic quantum computation">Adiabatic quantum computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous-variable_quantum_information" title="Continuous-variable quantum information">Continuous-variable quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_quantum_computer" title="One-way quantum computer">One-way quantum computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_state" title="Cluster state">cluster state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic_gate" title="Quantum logic gate">quantum logic gate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_machine_learning" title="Quantum machine learning">Quantum machine learning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_neural_network" title="Quantum neural network">quantum neural network</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Turing_machine" title="Quantum Turing machine">Quantum Turing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer" title="Topological quantum computer">Topological quantum computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_error_correction" title="Quantum error correction">Quantum<br />error correction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CSS_code" title="CSS code">CSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_convolutional_code" title="Quantum convolutional code">quantum convolutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_code" title="Stabilizer code">stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shor_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Shor code">Shor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacon%E2%80%93Shor_code" title="Bacon–Shor code">Bacon–Shor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steane_code" title="Steane code">Steane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toric_code" title="Toric code">Toric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnu_code" title="Gnu code"><i>gnu</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement-assisted_stabilizer_formalism" title="Entanglement-assisted stabilizer formalism">Entanglement-assisted</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical<br />implementations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_quantum_electrodynamics" title="Cavity quantum electrodynamics">Cavity QED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_quantum_electrodynamics" title="Circuit quantum electrodynamics">Circuit QED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_optical_quantum_computing" title="Linear optical quantum computing">Linear optical QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KLM_protocol" title="KLM protocol">KLM protocol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ultracold_atom" title="Ultracold atom">Ultracold atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_atom_quantum_computer" title="Neutral atom quantum computer">Neutral atom QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapped-ion_quantum_computer" title="Trapped-ion quantum computer">Trapped-ion QC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kane_quantum_computer" title="Kane quantum computer">Kane QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_qubit_quantum_computer" title="Spin qubit quantum computer">Spin qubit QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-vacancy_center" title="Nitrogen-vacancy center">NV center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_quantum_computer" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer">NMR QC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_quantum_computing" title="Superconducting quantum computing">Superconducting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_qubit" title="Charge qubit">Charge qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_qubit" title="Flux qubit">Flux qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_qubit" title="Phase qubit">Phase qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmon" title="Transmon">Transmon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum<br />programming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OpenQASM" title="OpenQASM">OpenQASM</a>–<a href="/wiki/Qiskit" title="Qiskit">Qiskit</a>–<a href="/wiki/IBM_Quantum_Experience" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Quantum Experience">IBM QX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quil_(instruction_set_architecture)" title="Quil (instruction set architecture)">Quil</a>–<a href="/wiki/Rigetti_Computing" title="Rigetti Computing">Forest/Rigetti QCS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirq" title="Cirq">Cirq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_Sharp" title="Q Sharp">Q#</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libquantum" title="Libquantum">libquantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">many others...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Quantum_information_science" title="Category:Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_mechanics_topics" title="Template:Quantum mechanics topics">Quantum mechanics topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐648c847f85‐cnq9n Cached time: 20241203085551 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