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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Size_categories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Size categories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Size_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-VLCC_and_ULCC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#VLCC_and_ULCC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 VLCC and ULCC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-VLCC_and_ULCC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chartering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chartering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Chartering </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chartering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Chartering subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Chartering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recent_markets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_markets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Recent markets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_markets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fleet_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fleet_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Fleet characteristics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fleet_characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fleet characteristics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fleet_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cargo_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cargo_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cargo movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cargo_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flag_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flag_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Flag states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flag_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vessel_life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vessel_life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Vessel life cycle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vessel_life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vessel_pricing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vessel_pricing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Vessel pricing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vessel_pricing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_structural_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_structural_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Current structural design </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_structural_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Current structural design subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Current_structural_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hull_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hull_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Hull designs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hull_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inert_gas_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inert_gas_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Inert gas system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inert_gas_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cargo_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cargo_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Cargo operations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cargo_operations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cargo operations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cargo_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-transfer_preparation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-transfer_preparation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Pre-transfer preparation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-transfer_preparation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loading_cargo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loading_cargo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Loading cargo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loading_cargo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unloading_cargo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unloading_cargo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Unloading cargo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unloading_cargo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tank_cleaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tank_cleaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Tank cleaning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tank_cleaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special-use_oil_tankers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special-use_oil_tankers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Special-use oil tankers </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Special-use_oil_tankers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Special-use oil tankers subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Special-use_oil_tankers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replenishment_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replenishment_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Replenishment ships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replenishment_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ore-bulk-oil_carriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ore-bulk-oil_carriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Ore-bulk-oil carriers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ore-bulk-oil_carriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floating_storage_units" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floating_storage_units"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Floating storage units </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floating_storage_units-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Pollution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pollution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Air_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Air pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Oil tanker</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" > 42 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olietenkskip" title="Olietenkskip – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Olietenkskip" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7" title="ناقلة نفط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ناقلة نفط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neft_tankeri" title="Neft tankeri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neft tankeri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA_%DA%AF%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="نفت گمیسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نفت گمیسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C" title="তেলবাহী জাহাজ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তেলবাহী জাহাজ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Петролен танкер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Петролен танкер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolier" title="Petrolier – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Petrolier" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tancer_olew" title="Tancer olew – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tancer olew" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ltanker" title="Öltanker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Öltanker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF" title="Πετρελαιοφόρο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πετρελαιοφόρο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolero" title="Petrolero – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Petrolero" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio-ontzi" title="Petrolio-ontzi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Petrolio-ontzi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4" title="کشتی نفت‌کش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتی نفت‌کش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljutangaskip" title="Oljutangaskip – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Oljutangaskip" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9trolier" title="Pétrolier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pétrolier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleiro" title="Petroleiro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Petroleiro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0" title="유조선 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유조선" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolonavo" title="Petrolonavo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Petrolonavo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapal_tanker_minyak" title="Kapal tanker minyak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kapal tanker minyak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ol%C3%ADuskip" title="Olíuskip – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Olíuskip" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroliera" title="Petroliera – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Petroliera" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%98" title="מכלית נפט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מכלית נפט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navis_petrolearia" title="Navis petrolearia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Navis petrolearia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftas_produktu_tankku%C4%A3is" title="Naftas produktu tankkuģis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Naftas produktu tankkuģis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Нафтен танкер – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нафтен танкер" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapal_tangki" title="Kapal tangki – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kapal tangki" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%94%E1%80%B6%E1%80%90%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%98%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC" title="ရေနံတင်သင်္ဘော – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေနံတင်သင်္ဘော" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olietanker" title="Olietanker – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Olietanker" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC" title="石油タンカー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="石油タンカー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolier" title="Petrolier – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Petrolier" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navio-petroleiro" title="Navio-petroleiro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Navio-petroleiro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolier" title="Petrolier – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Petrolier" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Нефтяной танкер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нефтяной танкер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_tanker" title="Oil tanker – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oil tanker" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftni_tanker" title="Naftni tanker – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Naftni tanker" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Танкер за превоз нафте – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Танкер за превоз нафте" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="చమురు ట్యాంకర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చమురు ట్యాంకర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol_tankeri" title="Petrol tankeri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Petrol tankeri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Нафтовий танкер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нафтовий танкер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrojera" title="Petrojera – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Petrojera" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" 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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ship that carries petroleum</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Supertanker" redirects here. For the <a href="/wiki/Aerial_firefighting" title="Aerial firefighting">aerial firefighting</a> aircraft, see <a href="/wiki/747_Supertanker" title="747 Supertanker">747 Supertanker</a>.</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg/300px-Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg/450px-Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg/600px-Supertanker_AbQaiq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="436" /></a><div>The commercial oil tanker AbQaiq, in ballast</div> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Class overview</th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Name</td><td>Oil tanker</td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Subclasses</td><td><a href="/wiki/Handysize" title="Handysize">Handysize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panamax" title="Panamax">Panamax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aframax" title="Aframax">Aframax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suezmax" title="Suezmax">Suezmax</a>, Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC), Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC)</td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Built</td><td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1963–present</td></tr> <tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">General characteristics</th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Type</td><td><a href="/wiki/Tanker_(ship)" title="Tanker (ship)">Tank ship</a></td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Tonnage</td><td>up to 550,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a></td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="font-weight: bold">Notes</td><td>Rear house, full hull, midships pipeline</td></tr> </tbody></table> An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ship</a> designed for the <a href="/wiki/Bulk_cargo" title="Bulk cargo">bulk transport</a> of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> or its products. There are two basic types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers.<a href="#cite_note-hay2-3">[3]</a> Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">crude oil</a> from its point of extraction to <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refineries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hay2-3">[3]</a> Product tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets. Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">deadweight</a> (DWT) to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>. Tankers move approximately 2.0 <a href="/wiki/1000000000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1000000000 (number)">billion</a> <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">metric tons</a> (2.2 billion <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>) of oil every year.<a href="#cite_note-unctad4-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-hub211-5">[5]</a> Second only to <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a> in terms of efficiency,<a href="#cite_note-hub211-5">[5]</a> the average cost of transport of crude oil by tanker amounts to only US$5 to $8 per cubic metre ($0.02 to $0.03 per US gallon).<a href="#cite_note-hub211-5">[5]</a> Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval <a href="/wiki/Replenishment_oiler" title="Replenishment oiler">replenishment oiler</a>, a tanker which can <a href="/wiki/Underway_replenishment" title="Underway replenishment">fuel a moving vessel</a>. Combination <a href="/wiki/Ore-bulk-oil_carrier" title="Ore-bulk-oil carrier">ore-bulk-oil carriers</a> and permanently moored <a href="/wiki/Floating_production_storage_and_offloading" title="Floating production storage and offloading">floating storage units</a> are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spills</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_tanker" title="History of the oil tanker">History of the oil tanker</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg/250px-Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg/330px-Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg/500px-Fallsofclydehonolulu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Falls_of_Clyde_(ship)" title="Falls of Clyde (ship)">Falls of Clyde</a> is the oldest surviving American tanker and the world's only surviving sail-driven oil tanker.<a href="#cite_note-foc-6">[6]</a></figcaption></figure> The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to Justin Delizo's manufacture of paraffin in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-woodman175-7">[7]</a> In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.<a href="#cite_note-woodman176-8">[8]</a> In the 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_oil_rush" title="Pennsylvania oil rush">Pennsylvania oil fields</a> became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Drake" title="Edwin Drake">Edwin Drake</a> had struck oil near <a href="/wiki/Titusville,_Pennsylvania" title="Titusville, Pennsylvania">Titusville, Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ebpetro320-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Break_bulk_cargo" class="mw-redirect" title="Break bulk cargo">Break-bulk</a> boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 L) wooden barrels.<a href="#cite_note-ebpetro320-9">[9]</a> But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: they weighed 29 kilograms (64 lb), representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel.<a href="#cite_note-to54-10">[10]</a> Other problems with barrels were their expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production.<a href="#cite_note-to54-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_designs">Early designs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early designs">edit</a>]</div> In 1863, two sail-driven tankers were built on England's <a href="/wiki/River_Tyne" title="River Tyne">River Tyne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ebship881-11">[11]</a> These were followed in 1873 by the first oil-tank steamer, Vaderland (Fatherland), which was built by <a href="/wiki/Palmers_Shipbuilding_and_Iron_Company" title="Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company">Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company</a> for Belgian owners.<a href="#cite_note-ebship881-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-woodman175-7">[7]</a> The vessel's use was curtailed by US and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns.<a href="#cite_note-woodman176-8">[8]</a> By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank-cars similar to those in use today.<a href="#cite_note-ebpetro320-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_oil_tankers">Modern oil tankers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern oil tankers">edit</a>]</div> The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885.<a href="#cite_note-vassiliou493-12">[12]</a> In 1876, <a href="/wiki/Ludvig_Nobel" title="Ludvig Nobel">Ludvig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nobel" title="Robert Nobel">Robert Nobel</a>, brothers of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a>, founded <a href="/wiki/Branobel" title="Branobel">Branobel</a> (short for Brothers Nobel) in <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>. It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Oil_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil companies">oil companies</a> in the world. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoroastr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Zoroastr.jpg/220px-Zoroastr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Zoroastr.jpg/330px-Zoroastr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Zoroastr.jpg/440px-Zoroastr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>Zoroaster, the world's first tanker, was built by Sven Alexander Almqvist in the Motala Verkstad and delivered to the Nobel brothers in Baku, Azerbaijan.</figcaption></figure> Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges.<a href="#cite_note-to54-10">[10]</a> Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced a number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster, built by Sven Alexander Almqvist in <a href="/wiki/Motala_Verkstad" title="Motala Verkstad">Motala Verkstad</a>, which carried its 246 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">metric tons</a> (242 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a>) of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> The ship had a length overall of 56 metres (184 ft), a <a href="/wiki/Beam_(nautical)" title="Beam (nautical)">beam</a> of 8.2 metres (27 ft), and a <a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">draft</a> of 2.7 metres (9 ft).<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> by way of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ladoga" title="Lake Ladoga">Lake Ladoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake_Onega" title="Lake Onega">Lake Onega</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rybinsk" title="Rybinsk">Rybinsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mariinsk_Canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariinsk Canal">Mariinsk Canals</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-to55-13">[13]</a> The aft and the stern was put together and then dismantled to make room for the mid-section as the Caspian Sea was reached. In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers.<a href="#cite_note-to58-14">[14]</a> Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship.<a href="#cite_note-to58-14">[14]</a> These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead.<a href="#cite_note-to58-14">[14]</a> Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the <a href="/wiki/Free_surface_effect" title="Free surface effect">free surface effect</a>, where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize.<a href="#cite_note-hub05-15">[15]</a> But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems.<a href="#cite_note-hub05-15">[15]</a> This approach, almost universal today, was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.<a href="#cite_note-to58-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg/250px-Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg/375px-Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg/500px-Gl%C3%BCckauf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckauf_(1886)" title="Glückauf (1886)">Glückauf</a> grounded in heavy fog at Blue Point Beach on <a href="/wiki/Fire_Island,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire Island, New York">Fire Island</a>.</figcaption></figure> Others point to <a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckauf_(1886)" title="Glückauf (1886)">Glückauf</a>, another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums.<a href="#cite_note-njscuba-17">[17]</a> It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrou2011-18">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, <a href="/wiki/Cofferdam" title="Cofferdam">cofferdams</a> for added safety, and the ability to fill a <a href="/wiki/Ballast_tank" title="Ballast tank">ballast tank</a> with seawater when empty of cargo.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> The ship was built in Britain,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil Company">Standard Oil Company</a> along with several of her <a href="/wiki/Sister_ship" title="Sister ship">sister ships</a>.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> After Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being <a href="/wiki/Ship_grounding" title="Ship grounding">grounded</a> in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asian_trade">Asian trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Asian trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg/250px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg/500px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Afscheepsteiger_Tarakan_14_TMnr_10010382.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Petroleum" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Petroleum">Royal Dutch Petroleum</a> dock in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>)</figcaption></figure> The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> was the brainchild of two men: importer <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Samuel,_1st_Viscount_Bearsted" title="Marcus Samuel, 1st Viscount Bearsted">Marcus Samuel</a> and shipowner/broker Fred Lane.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Suez Canal Company">Suez Canal Company</a> as being too risky.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> Armed with the canal company's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from <a href="/wiki/William_Gray_%26_Company" title="William Gray & Company">William Gray & Company</a> in northern England.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> Named <a href="/wiki/SS_Murex_(1892)" title="SS Murex (1892)">Murex</a>, Conch and Clam, each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of today's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> company.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> With facilities prepared in <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kobe" title="Kobe">Kobe</a>, the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers, compared to Standard Oil's four case-oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers.<a href="#cite_note-woodman177-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_supertanker_era">The supertanker era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The supertanker era">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/60px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/120px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: Latest information is apparently "as of 2011". Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2025)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal.<a href="#cite_note-mlog-20">[20]</a> This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> of 1956.<a href="#cite_note-mlog-20">[20]</a> Forced to move oil around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport.<a href="#cite_note-mlog-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> While a typical <a href="/wiki/T2_tanker" title="T2 tanker">T2 tanker</a> of the World War II era was 162 metres (532 ft) long and had a capacity of 16,500 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s were over 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and had a capacity of 500,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hu116-22">[22]</a> Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> In 1955 the world's largest supertanker was 30,708 <a href="/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage" title="Gross register tonnage">GRT</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and 47,500 LT <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorlett198125-24">[24]</a> SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Shipbuilding_and_Engineering" title="Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering">Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> for <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> shipping magnate <a href="/wiki/Stavros_Niarchos" title="Stavros Niarchos">Stavros Niarchos</a>. In 1958 United States shipping magnate <a href="/wiki/Daniel_K._Ludwig" title="Daniel K. Ludwig">Daniel K. Ludwig</a> broke the record of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement.<a href="#cite_note-time58-25">[25]</a> His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig.<a href="#cite_note-time58-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-time57-26">[26]</a> The first tanker over 100,000 dwt built in Europe was the British Admiral.<a href="#cite_note-MarinersMirror-27">[27]</a> The ship was launched at <a href="/wiki/Barrow-in-Furness" title="Barrow-in-Furness">Barrow-in-Furness</a> in 1965 by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MarinersMirror-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg/220px-Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg/330px-Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg/440px-Comparison_of_Knock_Nevis_with_other_large_buildings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Knock_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Knock Nevis">Knock Nevis</a>, ex Seawise Giant rivaled some of the world's largest buildings in size</figcaption></figure> The world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the <a href="/wiki/Yokosuka,_Kanagawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokosuka, Kanagawa">Oppama</a> shipyard by <a href="/wiki/Sumitomo_Heavy_Industries,_Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd.">Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd.</a>, named <a href="/wiki/Seawise_Giant" title="Seawise Giant">Seawise Giant</a>. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Length_overall" title="Length overall">length overall</a> of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft).<a href="#cite_note-nevismsi-28">[28]</a> She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-singh-29">[29]</a> Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991,<a href="#cite_note-nevismsi-28">[28]</a> and Knock Nevis in 2004 (when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker).<a href="#cite_note-singh-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-msipn-30">[30]</a> In 2009 she was sold for the last time, renamed Mont, and <a href="/wiki/Ship_breaking" title="Ship breaking">scrapped</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> As of 2011, the world's two largest working supertankers are the <a href="/wiki/TI-class_supertanker" title="TI-class supertanker">TI-class supertankers</a> TI Europe and TI Oceania.<a href="#cite_note-osgfso-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-mi-33">[33]</a> These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation.<a href="#cite_note-wart-34">[34]</a> Hellespont sold these ships to <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Shipholding_Group" title="Overseas Shipholding Group">Overseas Shipholding Group</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euronav" title="Euronav">Euronav</a> in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-hpt-35">[35]</a> Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441,500 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 L).<a href="#cite_note-ti-36">[36]</a> They were the first ULCCs to be double-hulled.<a href="#cite_note-wart-34">[34]</a> To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the V-Plus size designation.<a href="#cite_note-ti-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-osgfleet-37">[37]</a> With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today.<a href="#cite_note-hu211-38">[38]</a> Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2×1011 L) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US$0.02 per <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">gallon</a> at the pump.<a href="#cite_note-hu211-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Size_categories">Size categories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Size categories">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; font-size: 85%;"> <caption><big>Oil tanker size categories</big> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;">AFRA Scale<a href="#cite_note-eagle.org-39">[39]</a> </td> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;">Flexible market scale<a href="#cite_note-eagle.org-39">[39]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Class </th> <th>Size in <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> </th> <th>Class </th> <th>Size in DWT </th> <th>New price<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> </th> <th>Used price<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>General Purpose tanker </td> <td align="right">10,000–24,999 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tanker_(ship)" title="Tanker (ship)">Product tanker</a> </td> <td align="right">10,000–60,000 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$43M </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$42.5M </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medium Range tanker </td> <td align="right">25,000–44,999 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panamax" title="Panamax">Panamax</a> </td> <td align="right">60,000–80,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>LR1 (Long Range 1) </td> <td align="right">45,000–79,999 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aframax" title="Aframax">Aframax</a> </td> <td align="right">80,000–120,000 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$60.7M </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$58M </td></tr> <tr> <td>LR2 (Long Range 2) </td> <td align="right">80,000–159,999 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Suezmax" title="Suezmax">Suezmax</a> </td> <td align="right">120,000–200,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) </td> <td align="right">160,000–319,999 </td> <td>VLCC </td> <td align="right">200,000–320,000 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$120M </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;">$116M </td></tr> <tr> <td>ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier) </td> <td align="right">320,000–549,999 </td> <td>ULCC </td> <td align="right">320,000–550,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg/220px-Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg/330px-Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg/440px-Hellespont_Alhambra-223713_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Hellespont Alhambra (now TI Asia), a ULCC <a href="/wiki/TI-class_supertanker" title="TI-class supertanker">TI-class supertanker</a>, which are the largest ocean-going oil tankers in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg/220px-Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg/330px-Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg/440px-Two_bunkering_tankers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2446" /></a><figcaption>Tatiana B and Florence B, two bunkering tankers</figcaption></figure> In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Shell_Oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell Oil">Shell Oil</a> developed the "average freight rate assessment" (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers' Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">deadweight</a> (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Long Range for the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling.<a href="#cite_note-eagle.org-39">[39]</a> The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct. Before the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Mercantile_Exchange" title="New York Mercantile Exchange">New York Mercantile Exchange</a> started trading crude oil <a href="/wiki/Futures_contract" title="Futures contract">futures</a> in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every contract. Shell and <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a>, the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983, later followed by the US oil companies. However, the system is still used today. Besides that, there is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m3).<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products.<a href="#cite_note-hay2-3">[3]</a> Crude carriers are among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT <a href="/wiki/Panamax" title="Panamax">Panamax</a>-sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT.<a href="#cite_note-hay3-43">[43]</a> Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers.<a href="#cite_note-hay3-43">[43]</a> The smallest tankers, with capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near-coastal and inland waterways.<a href="#cite_note-hay3-43">[43]</a> Although they were in the past, ships of the smaller <a href="/wiki/Aframax" title="Aframax">Aframax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suezmax" title="Suezmax">Suezmax</a> classes are no longer regarded as supertankers.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VLCC_and_ULCC">VLCC and ULCC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: VLCC and ULCC">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bateaux_comparaison3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Bateaux_comparaison3.png/500px-Bateaux_comparaison3.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Bateaux_comparaison3.png/960px-Bateaux_comparaison3.png 1.5x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seawise_Giant" title="Seawise Giant">Knock Nevis</a> (1979–2010), a ULCC supertanker and the longest ship ever built at the time of its launch.</figcaption></figure> "Supertankers" are the largest oil tankers, and the largest mobile man-made structures. They include very large and ultra-large crude carriers (VLCCs and ULCCs – see above) with capacities over 250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m3) of oil/318,000 metric tons.<a href="#cite_note-hay3-43">[43]</a> By way of comparison, the United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m3) of oil per day in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-guardian-45">[45]</a> ULCCs commissioned in the 1970s were the largest vessels ever built, but have all now been scrapped. A few newer ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400 meters long.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Because of their size, supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> These ships can take on their cargo at offshore platforms and <a href="/wiki/Single_buoy_mooring" title="Single buoy mooring">single-point moorings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> On the other end of the journey, they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated <a href="/wiki/Lightering" title="Lightering">lightering</a> points off-coast.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> Supertanker routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy days at a time.<a href="#cite_note-hu23-21">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg/330px-AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg/500px-AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg/960px-AMYNTAS_Donges_1_by_NS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Amyntas, a brand new ULCC inaugurated in February 2019 berthing at Donges / Saint-Nazaire (France).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chartering">Chartering</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chartering">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chartering_(shipping)" title="Chartering (shipping)">Chartering (shipping)</a></div> The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. (The contract itself is known as a <a href="/wiki/Charter_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter party">charter party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hub213-47">[47]</a>) Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, the <a href="/wiki/Bareboat_charter" title="Bareboat charter">bareboat charter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_affreightment" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract of affreightment">contract of affreightment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hub212-48">[48]</a> In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port.<a href="#cite_note-hub212-48">[48]</a> In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs.<a href="#cite_note-hub212-48">[48]</a> In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel.<a href="#cite_note-hub2123-49">[49]</a> Finally, in a contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels (160,000 m3) of <a href="/wiki/JP-5" class="mw-redirect" title="JP-5">JP-5</a> in a year's time in 25,000-barrel (4,000 m3) shipments.<a href="#cite_note-hub213-47">[47]</a> One of the key aspects of any charter party is the <a href="/wiki/Freight_rate" title="Freight rate">freight rate</a>, or the price specified for carriage of cargo.<a href="#cite_note-hub225-50">[50]</a> The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by <a href="/wiki/Worldscale" title="Worldscale">Worldscale</a> rate.<a href="#cite_note-hub225-50">[50]</a> In a lump sum rate arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship's owner/operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses.<a href="#cite_note-hub2278-51">[51]</a> Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer.<a href="#cite_note-hub228-52">[52]</a> Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer.<a href="#cite_note-hub228-52">[52]</a> The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York.<a href="#cite_note-hub225-50">[50]</a> Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world.<a href="#cite_note-hub225226-53">[53]</a> In Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate.<a href="#cite_note-hub225226-53">[53]</a> The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100.<a href="#cite_note-hub225226-53">[53]</a> If a given charter party settled on 85% of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85.<a href="#cite_note-hub225226-53">[53]</a> Similarly, a charter party set at 125% of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125.<a href="#cite_note-hub225226-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_markets">Recent markets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Recent markets">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/60px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/120px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;width:390px;font-size:8pt; margin-left:15px"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="10">Recent time charter equivalent rates, per day </td></tr> <tr style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"> <th>Ship size </th> <th>Cargo </th> <th>Route </th> <th>2004 </th> <th>2005 </th> <th>2006 </th> <td>2010<a href="#cite_note-rana2016-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>2012<a href="#cite_note-rana2016-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>2014<a href="#cite_note-rana2016-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>2015<a href="#cite_note-rana2016-54">[54]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VLCC </td> <td>Crude </td> <td>Persian Gulf–Japan<a href="#cite_note-unctad0761-55">[55]</a> </td> <td>$95,250 </td> <td>$59,070 </td> <td>$51,550 </td> <td>$38,000 </td> <td>$20,000 </td> <td>$28,000 </td> <td>$57,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Suezmax </td> <td>Crude </td> <td>West Africa – Caribbean or East Coast of North America<a href="#cite_note-unctad0762-56">[56]</a> </td> <td>$64,800 </td> <td>$47,500 </td> <td>$46,000 </td> <td>$31,000 </td> <td>$18,000 </td> <td>$28,000 </td> <td>$46,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aframax </td> <td>Crude </td> <td>Cross-Mediterranean<a href="#cite_note-unctad0763-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>$43,915 </td> <td>$39,000 </td> <td>$31,750 </td> <td>$20,000 </td> <td>$15,000 </td> <td>$25,000 </td> <td>$37,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">All product carriers </td> <td>Caribbean – East Coast of North America or Gulf of Mexico<a href="#cite_note-unctad0763-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>$24,550 </td> <td>$25,240 </td> <td>$21,400 </td> <td>$11,000 </td> <td>$11,000 </td> <td>$12,000 </td> <td>$21,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as the supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers. Some particular variables include winter temperatures, excess tanker tonnage, supply fluctuations in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, and interruptions in refinery services.<a href="#cite_note-unctad0761-55">[55]</a> In 2006, time-charters tended towards long term. Of the time charters executed in that year, 58% were for a period of 24 or more months, 14% were for periods of 12 to 24 months, 4% were from 6 to 12 months, and 24% were for periods of less than 6 months.<a href="#cite_note-unctad0763-57">[57]</a> From 2003, the demand for new ships started to grow, resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards, exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States. The charter rate for very large crude carriers, which carry two million barrels of oil, had peaked at $309,601 per day in 2007 but had dropped to $7,085 per day by 2012, far below the operating costs of these ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWSJ2013B7-59">[59]</a> As a result, several tanker operators laid up their ships. Prices rose significantly in 2015 and early 2016, but delivery of new tankers was projected to keep prices in check.<a href="#cite_note-rana2016-54">[54]</a> Owners of large oil tanker fleets include <a href="/wiki/Teekay" title="Teekay">Teekay Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._P._Moller-Maersk_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="A. P. Moller-Maersk Group">A P Moller Maersk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dampskibsselskabet_Torm" title="Dampskibsselskabet Torm">DS Torm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frontline_Ltd." title="Frontline Ltd.">Frontline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitsui_O.S.K._Lines" title="Mitsui O.S.K. Lines">MOL Tankship Management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Shipholding_Group" title="Overseas Shipholding Group">Overseas Shipholding Group</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euronav" title="Euronav">Euronav</a>.<a href="#cite_note-scribd.com-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fleet_characteristics">Fleet characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fleet characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <table class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; font-size: 85%;"> <caption><big>30 largest tanker operators (in 2008)</big><a href="#cite_note-scribd.com-60">[60]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Teekay" title="Teekay">Teekay Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Shipping_Company_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia">National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontline_Ltd." title="Frontline Ltd.">Frontline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsui_O.S.K._Lines" title="Mitsui O.S.K. Lines">MOL Tankship Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_Shipholding_Group" title="Overseas Shipholding Group">Overseas Shipholding Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronav" title="Euronav">Euronav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofer_Brothers_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ofer Brothers Group">Tanker Pacific Management</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Angelicoussis_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Angelicoussis Group (page does not exist)">Kristen Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nippon_Yusen_Kaisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Nippon Yusen Kaisha">Nippon Yusen Kaisha</a> (NYK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MISC_Berhad" title="MISC Berhad">MISC Berhad</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsakos_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsakos Group (page does not exist)">Tsakos Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vela_International_Marine" title="Vela International Marine">Vela International Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">NITC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyundai_Merchant_Marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyundai Merchant Marine">Hyundai Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BW_Group" title="BW Group">BW Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynacom_Tankers_Management&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dynacom Tankers Management (page does not exist)">Dynacom Tankers Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maersk" title="Maersk">Maersk Tankers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovcomflot" title="Sovcomflot">Sovcomflot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novorossiysk_Shipping_Company" title="Novorossiysk Shipping Company">Novorossiysk Shipping Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Shipping_Company_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia">National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_Corporation_of_India" title="Shipping Corporation of India">Shipping Corporation of India</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thenamaris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thenamaris (page does not exist)">Thenamaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dampskibsselskabet_Torm" title="Dampskibsselskabet Torm">TORM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSCO_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="COSCO Group">COSCO Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Oil_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Kuwait Oil Co.">Kuwait Oil Tanker Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Titan_Ocean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Titan Ocean (page does not exist)">Titan Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Shipping_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="China Shipping Development">China Shipping Development Tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SK_Group" title="SK Group">SK Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerva_Marine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerva Marine (page does not exist)">Minerva Marine</a></li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table> In 2005, oil tankers made up 36.9% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage.<a href="#cite_note-unctad29-61">[61]</a> The world's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326.1 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> in 1970 to 960.0 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-unctad29-61">[61]</a> The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers, represents 72.9% of the world's fleet.<a href="#cite_note-unctad19-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cargo_movement">Cargo movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cargo movement">edit</a>]</div> In 2005, 2.42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker.<a href="#cite_note-unctad4-4">[4]</a> 76.7% of this was crude oil, and the rest consisted of refined petroleum products.<a href="#cite_note-unctad4-4">[4]</a> This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for the year.<a href="#cite_note-unctad4-4">[4]</a> Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried, oil tankers moved 11,705 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-unctad18-63">[63]</a> By comparison, in 1970 1.44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker.<a href="#cite_note-unctad5-64">[64]</a> This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for that year.<a href="#cite_note-unctad17-65">[65]</a> In terms of amount carried and distance carried, oil tankers moved 6,487 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-unctad18-63">[63]</a> The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity, stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric-ton-miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight.<a href="#cite_note-unctad43-66">[66]</a> In 2005, for each 1 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> of oil tankers, 6.7 metric tons of cargo was carried.<a href="#cite_note-unctad43-66">[66]</a> Similarly, each 1 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> of oil tankers was responsible for 32,400 metric-ton miles of carriage.<a href="#cite_note-unctad43-66">[66]</a> The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia, Western Africa, North Africa, and the Caribbean, with 196.3, 196.3, 130.2 and 246.6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions.<a href="#cite_note-unctad8-67">[67]</a> The main discharge ports were located in North America, Europe, and Japan with 537.7, 438.4, and 215.0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions.<a href="#cite_note-unctad8-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flag_states">Flag states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Flag states">edit</a>]</div> International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called its <a href="/wiki/Flag_state" title="Flag state">flag state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-icftu7-68">[68]</a> A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2007, the United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> statistics count 4,295 oil tankers of 1,000 long tons <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">deadweight</a> (DWT) or greater worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-cia-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> was the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Flag_state" title="Flag state">flag state</a> for oil tankers, with 528 of the vessels in its registry.<a href="#cite_note-cia-69">[69]</a> Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers: <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> (464), <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> (355), China (252), Russia (250), the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> (234) and the <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> (209).<a href="#cite_note-cia-69">[69]</a> The Panamanian, Liberian, Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the <a href="/wiki/International_Transport_Workers%27_Federation" title="International Transport Workers' Federation">International Transport Workers' Federation</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Flags_of_convenience" class="mw-redirect" title="Flags of convenience">flags of convenience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-itf-list-70">[70]</a> By comparison, the United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-cia-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vessel_life_cycle">Vessel life cycle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vessel life cycle">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG/250px-Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG/330px-Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG/500px-Lightering-grain-in-bangladesh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Tankers may carry unusual cargoes – such as grain – on their final trip to the scrapyard.</figcaption></figure> In 2005, the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-unctad20-71">[71]</a> Of these, 31.6% were under 4 years old and 14.3% were over 20 years old.<a href="#cite_note-unctad23-72">[72]</a> In 2005, 475 new oil tankers were built, accounting for 30.7 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unctad24-73">[73]</a> The average size for these new tankers was 64,632 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unctad24-73">[73]</a> Nineteen of these were VLCC size, 19 were Suezmax, 51 were Aframax, and the rest were smaller designs.<a href="#cite_note-unctad24-73">[73]</a> By comparison, 8.0 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, 8.7 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, and 20.8 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-unctad24-73">[73]</a> Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Ship_breaking" title="Ship breaking">scrapping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ilo-breaking-74">[74]</a> Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in the scrap metal market.<a href="#cite_note-mtcp-75">[75]</a> In 1998, almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places such as <a href="/wiki/Gadani_ship-breaking_yard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadani ship-breaking yard">Gadani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alang" title="Alang">Alang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Ship_Breaking_Yard" title="Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard">Chittagong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ilo-breaking-74">[74]</a> In 2004 and 2005, 7.8 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> and 5.7 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> respectively of oil tankers were scrapped.<a href="#cite_note-unctad20-71">[71]</a> Between 2000 and 2005, the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5.6 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> and 18.4 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unctad25-76">[76]</a> In this same timeframe, tankers have accounted for between 56.5% and 90.5% of the world's total scrapped ship tonnage.<a href="#cite_note-unctad25-76">[76]</a> In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26.9 to 31.5 years.<a href="#cite_note-unctad25-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vessel_pricing">Vessel pricing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vessel pricing">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Size </th> <th>1985 </th> <th>2005 </th></tr> <tr> <td>32,000–45,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/US$" class="mw-redirect" title="US$">US$</a>18M </td> <td>$43M </td></tr> <tr> <td>80,000–105,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> </td> <td>$22M </td> <td>$58M </td></tr> <tr> <td>250,000–280,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> </td> <td>$47M </td> <td>$120M </td></tr></tbody></table> In 2005, the price for new oil tankers in the 32,000–45,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, 80,000–105,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, and 250,000–280,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> ranges were $43 million, $58 million, and $120 million respectively.<a href="#cite_note-unctad41-77">[77]</a> In 1985 these vessels would have cost $18 million, $22 million, and $47 million respectively.<a href="#cite_note-unctad41-77">[77]</a> Oil tankers are often sold second hand. In 2005, 27.3 million <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> worth of oil tankers were sold used.<a href="#cite_note-unctad42-78">[78]</a> Some representative prices for that year include $42.5 million for a 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> tanker, $60.7 million for a 80,000–95,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, $73 million for a 130,000–150,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a>, and $116 million for 250,000–280,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> tanker.<a href="#cite_note-unctad42-78">[78]</a> For a concrete example, in 2006, <a href="/wiki/Bonheur_(company)" title="Bonheur (company)">Bonheur</a> subsidiary First Olsen paid $76.5 million for Knock Sheen, a 159,899 DWT tanker.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The cost of operating the largest tankers, the Very Large Crude Carriers, is currently between $10,000 and $12,000 per day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWSJ20137-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_structural_design">Current structural design</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Current structural design">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_oil_tanker" title="Architecture of the oil tanker">Architecture of the oil tanker</a></div> Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center".<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks.<a href="#cite_note-tur825-82">[82]</a> A pumproom houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> Some larger tankers have two pumprooms.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship.<a href="#cite_note-tur824-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hull_designs">Hull designs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hull designs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png/170px-DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="498" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png/255px-DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png/340px-DoubleBottomDoubleHull.png 2x" data-file-width="603" data-file-height="1766" /></a><figcaption>Single hull, double bottom, and double hull ship cross sections. Green lines are watertight; black structure is not watertight</figcaption></figure> A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single-hulled".<a href="#cite_note-hay144-83">[83]</a> Most newer tankers are "<a href="/wiki/Double_hull" title="Double hull">double hulled</a>", with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks.<a href="#cite_note-hay144-83">[83]</a> Hybrid designs such as "double-bottom" and "double-sided" combine aspects of single and double-hull designs.<a href="#cite_note-hay144-83">[83]</a> All single-hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/MARPOL_73/78" title="MARPOL 73/78">International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973</a> (MARPOL).<a href="#cite_note-hay144-83">[83]</a> The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In 1998, the Marine Board of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull design. Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations,<a href="#cite_note-ho259-85">[85]</a> reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion,<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> increased environmental protection,<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier,<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> tank washing is more efficient,<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding.<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double-hull design, including higher build costs,<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> greater operating expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs),<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> difficulties in ballast tank ventilation,<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance,<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> increased transverse free surface,<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> the greater number of surfaces to maintain,<a href="#cite_note-ho261-87">[87]</a> the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted,<a href="#cite_note-ho262-88">[88]</a> and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships.<a href="#cite_note-ho262-88">[88]</a> In all, double-hull tankers are said to be safer than a single-hull in a grounding incident, especially when the shore is not very rocky.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact.<a href="#cite_note-ho260-86">[86]</a> Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea and spills from a double-hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the <a href="/wiki/Mid-deck_tanker" title="Mid-deck tanker">mid-deck tanker</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Coulombi_Egg_Tanker" class="mw-redirect" title="Coulombi Egg Tanker">Coulombi Egg Tanker</a> and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic balance">hydrostatic balance</a> sooner.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inert_gas_system">Inert gas system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Inert gas system">edit</a>]</div> An oil tanker's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design.<a href="#cite_note-hay1411-91">[91]</a> Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite, but its <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon vapors</a> are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-hay1642-92">[92]</a> The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot burn.<a href="#cite_note-hay1411-91">[91]</a> As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air, it increases the <a href="/wiki/Lower_flammable_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower flammable limit">lower flammable limit</a> or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited.<a href="#cite_note-tc4-93">[93]</a> At the same time it decreases the <a href="/wiki/Upper_flammable_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper flammable limit">upper flammable limit</a> or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited.<a href="#cite_note-tc4-93">[93]</a> When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank decreases to about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.<a href="#cite_note-tc5-94">[94]</a> Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume.<a href="#cite_note-hay1411-91">[91]</a> As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded.<a href="#cite_note-tc9-95">[95]</a> The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered.<a href="#cite_note-tc9-95">[95]</a> Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1%.<a href="#cite_note-tc9-95">[95]</a> Thus, as air replaces the inert gas, the concentration cannot rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe.<a href="#cite_note-tc9-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cargo_operations">Cargo operations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cargo operations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg/250px-Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg/330px-Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg/500px-Tanker_unloading_crude_oil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>Cargo flows between a tanker and a shore station by way of <a href="/wiki/Marine_loading_arm" title="Marine loading arm">marine loading arms</a> attached at the tanker's cargo manifold.</figcaption></figure> Operations aboard oil tankers are governed by an established body of best practices and a large body of international law.<a href="#cite_note-hay1-96">[96]</a> Cargo can be moved on or off of an oil tanker in several ways. One method is for the ship to moor alongside a pier, connect with cargo hoses or <a href="/wiki/Marine_loading_arm" title="Marine loading arm">marine loading arms</a>. Another method involves mooring to offshore <a href="/wiki/Buoys" class="mw-redirect" title="Buoys">buoys</a>, such as a single point mooring, and making a cargo connection via underwater cargo hoses.<a href="#cite_note-hub203-97">[97]</a> A third method is by ship-to-ship transfer, also known as <a href="/wiki/Lightering" title="Lightering">lightering</a>. In this method, two ships come alongside in open sea and oil is transferred manifold to manifold via flexible hoses.<a href="#cite_note-hub204-98">[98]</a> Lightering is sometimes used where a loaded tanker is too large to enter a specific port.<a href="#cite_note-hub204-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-transfer_preparation">Pre-transfer preparation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Pre-transfer preparation">edit</a>]</div> Prior to any transfer of cargo, the <a href="/wiki/Chief_mate" title="Chief mate">chief officer</a> must develop a transfer plan detailing specifics of the operation such as how much cargo will be moved, which tanks will be cleaned, and how the ship's ballasting will change.<a href="#cite_note-hay6-99">[99]</a> The next step before a transfer is the pretransfer conference.<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> The pretransfer conference covers issues such as what products will be moved, the order of movement, names and titles of key people, particulars of shipboard and shore equipment, critical states of the transfer, regulations in effect, emergency and spill-containment procedures, watch and shift arrangements, and shutdown procedures.<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> After the conference is complete, the person in charge on the ship and the person in charge of the shore installation go over a final inspection checklist.<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> In the United States, the checklist is called a Declaration of Inspection or DOI.<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> Outside the US, the document is called the "Ship/Shore Safety Checklist."<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> Items on the checklist include proper signals and signs are displayed,<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> secure mooring of the vessel,<a href="#cite_note-hay7-100">[100]</a> choice of language for communication,<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> securing of all connections,<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> that emergency equipment is in place,<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> and that no repair work is taking place.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loading_cargo">Loading cargo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Loading cargo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg/250px-Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg/330px-Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg/500px-Maya_OBO_carrier_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Oil is pumped on and off the ship by way of connections made at the cargo manifold.</figcaption></figure> Loading an oil tanker consists primarily of pumping cargo into the ship's tanks.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> As oil enters the tank, the vapors inside the tank must be somehow expelled.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> Depending on local regulations, the vapors can be expelled into the atmosphere or discharged back to the pumping station by way of a vapor recovery line.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> It is also common for the ship to move water ballast during the loading of cargo to maintain proper trim.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> Loading starts slowly at a low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> Then a steady pressure is achieved and held until the "topping-off" phase when the tanks are nearly full.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> Topping off is a very dangerous time in handling oil, and the procedure is handled particularly carefully.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> Tank-gauging equipment is used to tell the person in charge how much space is left in the tank, and all tankers have at least two independent methods for tank-gauging.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> As the tanker becomes full, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the pumping facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.<a href="#cite_note-hay8-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unloading_cargo">Unloading cargo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Unloading cargo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg/250px-Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg/330px-Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg/500px-Oil_pump_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>This cargo pump aboard a VLCC can move 5,000 cubic meters of product per hour.</figcaption></figure> The process of moving oil off of a tanker is similar to loading, but has some key differences.<a href="#cite_note-tur830-102">[102]</a> The first step in the operation is following the same pretransfer procedures as used in loading.<a href="#cite_note-hay9-103">[103]</a> When the transfer begins, it is the ship's cargo pumps that are used to move the product ashore.<a href="#cite_note-hay9-103">[103]</a> As in loading, the transfer starts at low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure.<a href="#cite_note-hay9-103">[103]</a> Then a steady pressure is achieved and held during the operation.<a href="#cite_note-hay10-104">[104]</a> While pumping, tank levels are carefully watched and key locations, such as the connection at the cargo manifold and the ship's pumproom are constantly monitored.<a href="#cite_note-tur830-102">[102]</a> Under the direction of the person in charge, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the receiving facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.<a href="#cite_note-tur830-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tank_cleaning">Tank cleaning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Tank cleaning">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butterworth_nozzle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Butterworth_nozzle.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption>The nozzle of an automated tank cleaning machine</figcaption></figure> Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons. One reason is to change the type of product carried inside a tank.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> Also, when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be performed within a tank, it must be not only cleaned, but made gas-free.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> On most crude-oil tankers, a special <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil_washing" title="Crude oil washing">crude oil washing</a> (COW) system is part of the cleaning process.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank-cleaning system to remove wax and asphaltic deposits.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water. Fixed and portable <a href="/wiki/Automated_tank_cleaning_machine" title="Automated tank cleaning machine">automated tank cleaning machines</a>, which clean tanks with high-pressure water jets, are widely used.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> Some systems use rotating high-pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the tank.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> As the spraying takes place, the liquid is pumped out of the tank.<a href="#cite_note-hay12-105">[105]</a> After a tank is cleaned, provided that it is going to be prepared for entry, it will be purged. Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been sufficiently expelled. Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers. "Gas freeing" brings the oxygen content of the tank up to 20.8% O2. The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of ignition. Specially trained personnel monitor the tank's atmosphere, often using hand-held gas indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present.<a href="#cite_note-hay13-106">[106]</a> After a tank is gas-free, it may be further hand-cleaned in a manual process known as mucking.<a href="#cite_note-osha-107">[107]</a> Mucking requires protocols for entry into <a href="/wiki/Confined_space" title="Confined space">confined spaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protective_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Protective clothing">protective clothing</a>, designated safety observers, and possibly the use of <a href="/wiki/Respirator" title="Respirator">airline respirators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-osha-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special-use_oil_tankers">Special-use oil tankers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Special-use oil tankers">edit</a>]</div> Some sub-types of oil tankers have evolved to meet specific military and economic needs. These sub-types include naval replenishment ships, oil-bulk-ore combination carriers, floating storage and offloading units (FSOs) and floating production storage and offloading units (FPSOs). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Replenishment_ships">Replenishment ships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Replenishment ships">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Replenishment_oiler" title="Replenishment oiler">Replenishment oiler</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_050614-N-0120R-050_The_conventionally_powered_aircraft_carrier_USS_Kitty_Hawk_(CV_63)_and_the_guided_missile_cruiser_USS_Cowpens_(CG_63)_receives_fuel_during_a_replenishment_at_sea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/US_Navy_050614-N-0120R-050_The_conventionally_powered_aircraft_carrier_USS_Kitty_Hawk_%28CV_63%29_and_the_guided_missile_cruiser_USS_Cowpens_%28CG_63%29_receives_fuel_during_a_replenishment_at_sea.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/US_Navy_050614-N-0120R-050_The_conventionally_powered_aircraft_carrier_USS_Kitty_Hawk_%28CV_63%29_and_the_guided_missile_cruiser_USS_Cowpens_%28CG_63%29_receives_fuel_during_a_replenishment_at_sea.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/US_Navy_050614-N-0120R-050_The_conventionally_powered_aircraft_carrier_USS_Kitty_Hawk_%28CV_63%29_and_the_guided_missile_cruiser_USS_Cowpens_%28CG_63%29_receives_fuel_during_a_replenishment_at_sea.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMAS_Success_(OR_304)" title="HMAS Success (OR 304)">HMAS Success</a> refuels <a href="/wiki/USS_Kitty_Hawk_(CV-63)" title="USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)">USS Kitty Hawk</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Cowpens_(CG-63)" title="USS Cowpens (CG-63)">USS Cowpens</a>.</figcaption></figure> Replenishment ships, known as oilers in the United States and fleet tankers in Commonwealth countries, are ships that can provide oil products to naval vessels while on the move. This process, called <a href="/wiki/Underway_replenishment" title="Underway replenishment">underway replenishment</a>, extends the length of time a naval vessel can stay at sea, as well as her effective range.<a href="#cite_note-mscfo-108">[108]</a> Prior to underway replenishment, naval vessels had to enter a port or anchor to take on fuel.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In addition to fuel, replenishment ships may also deliver water, ammunition, rations, stores and personnel.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ore-bulk-oil_carriers">Ore-bulk-oil carriers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ore-bulk-oil carriers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ore-bulk-oil_carrier" title="Ore-bulk-oil carrier">Ore-bulk-oil carrier</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg/220px-Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg/330px-Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg/440px-Maya_OBO_carrier_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The OBO-carrier Maya. The picture is showing both the cargo hold hatches used for bulk and the pipes used for oil</figcaption></figure> An ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry <a href="/wiki/Bulk_cargo" title="Bulk cargo">bulk cargoes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ssc-111">[111]</a> This design was intended to provide flexibility in two ways.<a href="#cite_note-hub15-112">[112]</a> Firstly, an OBO would be able to switch between the dry and wet bulk trades based on market conditions.<a href="#cite_note-hub15-112">[112]</a> Secondly, an OBO could carry oil on one leg of a voyage and return carrying dry bulk, reducing the number of unprofitable <a href="/wiki/Sailing_ballast" class="mw-redirect" title="Sailing ballast">ballast voyages</a> it would have to make.<a href="#cite_note-douet-113">[113]</a> In practice, the flexibility which the OBO design allows has gone largely unused, as these ships tend to specialize in either the liquid or dry bulk trade.<a href="#cite_note-douet-113">[113]</a> Also, these ships have endemic maintenance problems.<a href="#cite_note-hub15-112">[112]</a> On one hand, due to a less specialized design, an OBO suffers more from wear and tear during dry cargo onload than a bulker.<a href="#cite_note-hub15-112">[112]</a> On the other hand, components of the liquid cargo system, from pumps to valves to piping, tend to develop problems when subjected to periods of disuse.<a href="#cite_note-hub15-112">[112]</a> These factors have contributed to a steady reduction in the number of OBO ships worldwide since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-douet-113">[113]</a> One of the more famous OBOs was <a href="/wiki/MV_Derbyshire" title="MV Derbyshire">MV Derbyshire</a> of 180,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> which in September 1980 became the largest British ship ever lost at sea.<a href="#cite_note-ssc-111">[111]</a> It sank in a Pacific <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoon</a> while carrying a cargo of iron ore from Canada to Japan.<a href="#cite_note-ssc-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Floating_storage_units">Floating storage units</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Floating storage units">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Floating_production_storage_and_offloading" title="Floating production storage and offloading">Floating production storage and offloading</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FPSO_diagram.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/FPSO_diagram.PNG/220px-FPSO_diagram.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/FPSO_diagram.PNG/330px-FPSO_diagram.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/FPSO_diagram.PNG/440px-FPSO_diagram.PNG 2x" data-file-width="961" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Floating storage units, often former oil tankers, accumulate oil for tankers to retrieve.</figcaption></figure> Floating storage and offloading units (FSO) are used worldwide by the offshore oil industry to receive oil from nearby platforms and store it until it can be offloaded onto oil tankers.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> A similar system, the floating production storage and offloading unit (FPSO), has the ability to process the product while it is on board.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> These floating units reduce oil production costs and offer mobility, large storage capacity, and production versatility.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> FPSO and FSOs are often created out of old, stripped-down oil tankers, but can be made from new-built hulls;<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell España</a> first used a tanker as an FPSO in August 1977.<a href="#cite_note-jpt-115">[115]</a> An example of an FSO that used to be an oil tanker is the <a href="/wiki/Knock_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Knock Nevis">Knock Nevis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nevismsi-28">[28]</a> These units are usually moored to the seabed through a spread mooring system.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> A turret-style mooring system can be used in areas prone to severe weather.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> This turret system lets the unit rotate to minimize the effects of sea-swell and wind.<a href="#cite_note-fop-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollution">Pollution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></div> Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> and marine environment.<a href="#cite_note-Panetta-116">[116]</a> Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers can be a threat to the environment. As discussed above, a VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known <a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez incident</a>. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 10,800,000 US gallons (41,000 m3) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 <a href="/wiki/Seabirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabirds">seabirds</a>, about 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Sea_otters" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea otters">sea otters</a>, and immense numbers of fish were killed.<a href="#cite_note-Panetta-116">[116]</a> Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organizations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Independent_Tanker_Owners" title="International Association of Independent Tanker Owners">International Association of Independent Tanker Owners</a> has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s." Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">United States Coast Guard</a>, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, 9.3% from pipelines, and 7.4% from mystery spills.<a href="#cite_note-csd-117">[117]</a> Only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.<a href="#cite_note-csd-117">[117]</a> The detailed statistics for 2004 show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5% of the number of total spills but more than 60% of the volume. Tanker spills are much more rare and much more serious than spills from non-tank vessels. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974.<a href="#cite_note-itopf-118">[118]</a> According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.<a href="#cite_note-itopf-118">[118]</a> 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill.<a href="#cite_note-itopf-118">[118]</a> On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.<a href="#cite_note-itopf-118">[118]</a> Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the <a href="/wiki/Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1990" title="Oil Pollution Act of 1990">Oil Pollution Act of 1990</a> (OPA-90), which excluded single-hull tank vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward, apart from those with a double bottom or double sides, which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015, depending on their age.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Following the sinkings of <a href="/wiki/MV_Erika" title="MV Erika">Erika</a> (1999) and <a href="/wiki/Prestige_oil_spill" title="Prestige oil spill">Prestige</a> (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 165px;"><a href="/wiki/File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Exxon Valdez spilled 10.8 million US gallons (41,000 m3) of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound.[121]"><img alt="Exxon Valdez spilled 10.8 million US gallons (41,000 m3) of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound.[121]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/250px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/330px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="259" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez spilled</a> 10.8 million US gallons (41,000 m3) of oil into Alaska's <a href="/wiki/Prince_William_Sound" title="Prince William Sound">Prince William Sound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EVOSTC_FAQ-121">[121]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 165px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park,_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Demonstration in Canada against oil tankers, 1970."><img alt="Demonstration in Canada against oil tankers, 1970." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg/200px-Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg/300px-Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg/400px-Demonstration_against_oil_tankers_on_Canadian_side_of_Peace_Arch_Park%2C_1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="250" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Demonstration in Canada against oil tankers, 1970.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_pollution">Air pollution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Air pollution">edit</a>]</div> Large ships are often run on low quality <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oils</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bunker_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunker oil">bunker oil</a>, which is highly polluting and has been shown to be a health risk.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/40px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/60px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Transport" title="Portal:Transport">Transport portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escambia-class_replenishment_oiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Escambia-class replenishment oiler">Escambia-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Replenishment_oiler" title="Replenishment oiler">replenishment oiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_tanker" title="Hydraulic tanker">Hydraulic tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_spills" title="List of oil spills">List of oil spills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_replenishment_ships_of_the_Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary" title="List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary">List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tankers" title="List of tankers">List of tankers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Type_T2_tankers" title="List of Type T2 tankers">List of Type T2 tankers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transfer_operations" title="Marine transfer operations">Marine transfer operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant vessel">Merchant vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_transport" title="Petroleum transport">Petroleum transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slosh_dynamics" title="Slosh dynamics">Slosh dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T1_tanker" title="T1 tanker">T1 tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T2_tanker" title="T2 tanker">T2 tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T3_Tanker" class="mw-redirect" title="T3 Tanker">T3 Tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_C1_ship" title="Type C1 ship">Type C1 ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_C2_ship" title="Type C2 ship">Type C2 ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_C3_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Type C3 ship">Type C3 ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_oiler" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Navy oiler">United States Navy oiler</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-s6-1"><a href="#cite_ref-s6_1-0">^</a> Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006:6. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120318154606/http://www.aukevisser.nl/supertankers/id364.htm">"Tankers Listing Dec. 2010"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aukevisser.nl/supertankers/id364.htm">the original</a> on 2012-03-18. Retrieved 2011-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tankers+Listing+Dec.+2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aukevisser.nl%2Fsupertankers%2Fid364.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hay2-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hay2_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hay2_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hay2_3-2">c</a> Hayler and Keever, 2003:14-2. </li> <li id="cite_note-unctad4-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unctad4_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unctad4_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unctad4_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unctad4_4-3">d</a> UNCTAD 2006, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-hub211-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hub211_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hub211_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hub211_5-2">c</a> Huber, 2001: 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-foc-6"><a href="#cite_ref-foc_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDelgado1988" class="citation web cs1">Delgado, James (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/nhl/falls.htm">"Falls of Clyde National Historic Landmark Study"</a>. Maritime Heritage Program. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maritime+Heritage+Program&rft.atitle=Falls+of+Clyde+National+Historic+Landmark+Study&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Delgado&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fmaritime%2Fnhl%2Ffalls.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-woodman175-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-woodman175_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-woodman175_7-1">b</a> Woodman, 1975, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-woodman176-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-woodman176_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-woodman176_8-1">b</a> Woodman, 1975, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-ebpetro320-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebpetro320_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebpetro320_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebpetro320_9-2">c</a> Chisholm, 19:320. </li> <li id="cite_note-to54-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-to54_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-to54_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-to54_10-2">c</a> Tolf, 1976, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-ebship881-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebship881_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebship881_11-1">b</a> Chisholm, 24:881. </li> <li id="cite_note-vassiliou493-12"><a href="#cite_ref-vassiliou493_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVassiliou2009" class="citation book cs1">Vassiliou, MS (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vArc08DO9ykC">Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry</a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810862883" title="Special:BookSources/9780810862883"><bdi>9780810862883</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved 2008-10-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+asked+questions+about+the+Exxon+Valdez+Oil+Spill&rft.pub=State+of+Alaska%2C+Exxon+Valdez+Oil+Spill+Trustee+Council&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evostc.state.ak.us%2FHistory%2FFAQ.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurton2008" class="citation cs2">Burton, Adrian (Nov 2008), "Air Pollution: Ship Sulfate an Unexpected Heavyweight", Environmental Health Perspectives, Environ Health Prospect, 116 (11): A475, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.116-a475a">10.1289/ehp.116-a475a</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2592288">2592288</a>, A475</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Air+Pollution%3A+Ship+Sulfate+an+Unexpected+Heavyweight&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=A475&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2592288%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.116-a475a&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988">. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCIA2007" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ciaworldfactbook00cent">CIA World Factbook 2008</a>. 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Retrieved 2007-04-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Double-Hull+Tanker+Legislation%3A+An+Assessment+of+the+Oil+Pollution+Act+of+1990&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=Marine+Board+Commission+on+Engineering+and+Technical+Systems&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F5798&rft.isbn=0-309-06370-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D5798%26page%3DR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFML2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080505003812/http://www.marinelog.com/DOCS/cen4.html">"The Liberty Ship and the T-2 Tanker (1941)"</a>. Ships of the Century. Marine Log. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marinelog.com/DOCS/cen4.html">the original</a> on 2008-05-05. Retrieved 2008-04-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ships+of+the+Century&rft.atitle=The+Liberty+Ship+and+the+T-2+Tanker+%281941%29&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marinelog.com%2FDOCS%2Fcen4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOSHA2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/shipbuildingrepair/tankcleaning.html">"Process: Tank Cleaning"</a>. Shipbuilding and Ship Repair – Hazards and Solutions. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marad.dot.gov/MARAD_statistics/2005%20STATISTICS/World%20Merchant%20Fleet%202005.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-03-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Merchant+Fleet+2001%E2%80%932005&rft.pub=United+States+Maritime+Administration%2C+Office+of+Data+and+Economic+Analysis&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marad.dot.gov%2FMARAD_statistics%2F2005%2520STATISTICS%2FWorld%2520Merchant%2520Fleet%25202005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOSG2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081209140827/http://www.osg.com/uploadedFiles/2222008FleetlistDownload.xls">"OSG Fleet List"</a>. Overseas Shipholding Group. 2008-02-22. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osg.com/uploadedFiles/2222008FleetlistDownload.xls">the original</a> on 2008-12-09. Retrieved 2008-04-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OSG+Fleet+List&rft.pub=Overseas+Shipholding+Group&rft.date=2008-02-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osg.com%2FuploadedFiles%2F2222008FleetlistDownload.xls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOSG2008b" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160123070307/http://ir.osg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=82053&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1113471&highlight=">"OSG Enters FSO Market"</a> (press release). Overseas Shipholding Group. 2008-02-28. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.osg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=82053&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1113471&highlight=">the original</a> on 2016-01-23. Retrieved 2008-04-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OSG+Enters+FSO+Market&rft.pub=Overseas+Shipholding+Group&rft.date=2008-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fir.osg.com%2Fphoenix.zhtml%3Fc%3D82053%26p%3Dirol-newsArticle%26ID%3D1113471%26highlight%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRedwood1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boverton_Redwood" title="Thomas Boverton Redwood">Redwood, Boverton</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Petroleum">"Petroleum" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 316–322.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Petroleum&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E316-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Redwood&rft.aufirst=Boverton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSawyerMitchell1987" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, L.A.; Mitchell, W.O. (1987). Sailing ship to supertanker: the hundred-year story of British Esso and its ships. Lavenham, Suffolk: Terence Dalton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86138-055-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-86138-055-X"><bdi>0-86138-055-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sailing+ship+to+supertanker%3A+the+hundred-year+story+of+British+Esso+and+its+ships&rft.place=Lavenham%2C+Suffolk&rft.pub=Terence+Dalton&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-86138-055-X&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=L.A.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+W.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpyrou2011" class="citation book cs1">Spyrou, Andrew G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MgoCpBaVJlMC">From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker, 1940–2000</a>. iUniverse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-36068-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-36068-0"><bdi>978-0-595-36068-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-02-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+T-2+to+Supertanker%3A+Development+of+the+Oil+Tanker%2C+1940%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-595-36068-0&rft.aulast=Spyrou&rft.aufirst=Andrew+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMgoCpBaVJlMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSingh1999" class="citation news cs1">Singh, Baljit (July 11, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99jul11/sunday/head3.htm">"The world's biggest ship"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times_of_India" title="The Times of India">The Times of India</a>. Tribune India. Retrieved 2008-04-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=The+world%27s+biggest+ship&rft.date=1999-07-11&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Baljit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tribuneindia.com%2F1999%2F99jul11%2Fsunday%2Fhead3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTarmanHeitmann2008" class="citation web cs1">Tarman, Daniel; Heitmann, Edgar (2008-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080402075741/http://www.shipstructure.org/derby.shtml">"Case Study II: Derbyshire, Loss of a Bulk Carrier"</a>. Educational Case Studies. Washington, DC: Ship Structure Committee. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shipstructure.org/derby.shtml">the original</a> on 2008-04-02. Retrieved 2008-04-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Educational+Case+Studies&rft.atitle=Case+Study+II%3A+Derbyshire%2C+Loss+of+a+Bulk+Carrier&rft.date=2008-04-07&rft.aulast=Tarman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Heitmann%2C+Edgar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shipstructure.org%2Fderby.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTolf1976" class="citation book cs1">Tolf, Robert W. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3DmsQLtWq1wC&pg=PR38">"4: The World's First Oil Tankers"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3DmsQLtWq1wC">The Russian Rockefellers: The Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil Industry</a>. Hoover Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-6581-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-6581-5"><bdi>0-8179-6581-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+The+World%27s+First+Oil+Tankers&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Rockefellers%3A+The+Saga+of+the+Nobel+Family+and+the+Russian+Oil+Industry&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-8179-6581-5&rft.aulast=Tolf&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3DmsQLtWq1wC%26pg%3DPR38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTC1984" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tc.gc.ca/publications/EN/TP4295/PDF/HR/TP4295E.pdf">Standard for Inert Gas Systems</a> (PDF). Transport Canada. 1984.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standard+for+Inert+Gas+Systems&rft.pub=Transport+Canada&rft.date=1984&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tc.gc.ca%2Fpublications%2FEN%2FTP4295%2FPDF%2FHR%2FTP4295E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurpinMcEwen1980" class="citation book cs1">Turpin, Edward A; McEwen, William A (1980). Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook (4th ed.). Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87033-056-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87033-056-X"><bdi>0-87033-056-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merchant+Marine+Officers%27+Handbook&rft.place=Centreville%2C+MD&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cornell+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-87033-056-X&rft.aulast=Turpin&rft.aufirst=Edward+A&rft.au=McEwen%2C+William+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnctad2006" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143716/http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2006_en.pdf">Review of Maritime Transport</a> (PDF). New York and Geneva: United Nations Council on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2006_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2008-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Review+of+Maritime+Transport&rft.place=New+York+and+Geneva&rft.pub=United+Nations+Council+on+Trade+and+Development+%28UNCTAD%29&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unctad.org%2Fen%2Fdocs%2Frmt2006_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWSJ2013" class="citation cs2">"Oil-Tanker firms battle for survival", The Wall Street Journal, p. B7, April 15, 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Oil-Tanker+firms+battle+for+survival&rft.pages=B7&rft.date=2013-04-15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatts1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Watts_(naval_architect)" title="Philip Watts (naval architect)">Watts, Philip</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Ship">"Ship" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 880–970.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ship&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E880-%3C%2Fspan%3E970&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoodman1998" class="citation book cs1">Woodman, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofshipcom00wood">The History of the Ship: The Comprehensive Story of Seafaring from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. New York: Lyons Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55821-681-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55821-681-2"><bdi>1-55821-681-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Ship%3A+The+Comprehensive+Story+of+Seafaring+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Lyons+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-55821-681-2&rft.aulast=Woodman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofshipcom00wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaw2017" class="citation cs2">Shaw, Jim (March 2017), "Tank Ship Development and the birth of the American oil tanker", <a href="/wiki/Ships_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Ships Monthly">Ships Monthly</a>: 26–31</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ships+Monthly&rft.atitle=Tank+Ship+Development+and+the+birth+of+the+American+oil+tanker&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2017-03&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStopford1997" class="citation book cs1">Stopford, Martin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-YB70kly8C">Maritime economics</a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-15309-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-15309-3"><bdi>0-415-15309-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maritime+economics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-15309-3&rft.aulast=Stopford&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_R-YB70kly8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1978" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, George (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supertankerstory00sull">Supertanker!: The Story of the World's Biggest Ships</a>. New York: Dodd Mead. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-396-07527-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-396-07527-4"><bdi>0-396-07527-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supertanker%21%3A+The+Story+of+the+World%27s+Biggest+Ships&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dodd+Mead&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-396-07527-4&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsupertankerstory00sull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_tanker&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oil_tankers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Oil tankers">Oil tankers</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/bahri-apicorp-funds/update-1-saudi-shipper-bahri-plans-to-increase-vlcc-fleet-to-46-idUSL8N1A30VF">Saudi shipper Bahri plans to increase VLCC fleet to 46</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ship-photos.de/">ship-photos.de</a>: Private homepage of categorized ship photos including tankers of all kinds</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110125080435/http://bestshippingnews.com/shipbuilding-picture-dictionary/oil-tanker/">Oil tanker by Picture</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOIDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA370">"Floating Oil Tanks" Popular Mechanics, March 1930, pp. 370–374</a> article on the oil tankers between the World Wars</li> <li>Bill Willis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/supertanker/page.html">Supertankers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intertanko.com">Intertanko</a> – the society of International Tanker Operators</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090707103313/http://www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.asp?topic_id=155">The International Maritime Organization</a> – Tanker Safety (for double-hulls)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ship-photos.de">Ship photos of tankers, ULCCs, VLCCs, barges</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/oil_transportation.htm">Information on crude oil tankers and other forms of oil transport</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itopf.com/information-services/data-and-statistics/statistics/#major">International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. (ITOPF)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201216083020/https://www.itopf.org/404/#major">Archived</a> 2020-12-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/59748190">Oil Tanker – Cleaning operations</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinchester1937" class="citation cs2">Winchester, Clarence, ed. (1937), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shippingwondersoftheworld.com/oil-tanker.html">"Development of the oil tanker"</a>, Shipping Wonders of the World, pp. 711–714</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Development+of+the+oil+tanker&rft.btitle=Shipping+Wonders+of+the+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E711-%3C%2Fspan%3E714&rft.date=1937&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shippingwondersoftheworld.com%2Foil-tanker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+tanker" class="Z3988"> illustrated account of oil tanker development</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/types-of-ships-marine/different-types-of-tankers-extensive-classification-of-tanker-ships/">Tanker ships</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maritime-zone.com/en/news/view/tankers-classification-of-tankers-interesting-facts-about-tankers-tankers-market-outlook/">Tanker Market Outlook for 2020 – 2021</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Modern_merchant_ships83" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Modern <a href="/wiki/Merchant_ship" title="Merchant ship">merchant ships</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">Cargo ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport">Maritime transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freight_transport" title="Freight transport">Freight transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">Merchant marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_line" title="Shipping line">Shipping line</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A reefer"><img alt="A reefer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/80px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/120px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/160px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2394" data-file-height="924" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">Dry cargo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">Barge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_carrier" title="Bulk carrier">Bulk carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_float" title="Car float">Car float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_boat" title="Chain boat">Chain boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_trading_vessel" title="Coastal trading vessel">Coastal trading vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">Collier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">Container ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy-lift_ship" title="Heavy-lift ship">Heavy-lift ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopper_barge" title="Hopper barge">Hopper barge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_freighter" title="Lake freighter">Lake freighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighter_aboard_ship" title="Lighter aboard ship">Lighter aboard ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock_carrier" title="Livestock carrier">Livestock carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reefer_ship" title="Reefer ship">Reefer ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">Roll-on/roll-off (RORO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train_ferry" title="Train ferry">Train ferry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tanker_(ship)" title="Tanker (ship)">Tankers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_tanker" title="Chemical tanker">Chemical tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_production_storage_and_offloading" title="Floating production storage and offloading">Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_carrier" title="Gas carrier">Gas carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_tanker" title="Hydrogen tanker">Hydrogen tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LNG_carrier" title="LNG carrier">LNG carrier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oil tanker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passenger_ship" title="Passenger ship">Passenger</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_ferry" title="Cable ferry">Cable ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_liner" title="Cargo liner">Cargo liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">Cruise ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruiseferry" title="Cruiseferry">Cruiseferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferry" title="Ferry">Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrowboat" title="Narrowboat">Narrowboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">Ocean liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">Roll-on/roll-off (RORO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train_ferry" title="Train ferry">Train ferry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_handling_tug_supply_vessel" title="Anchor handling tug supply vessel">Anchor handling tug supply vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_tow_vessel" title="Emergency tow vessel">Emergency tow vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireboat" title="Fireboat">Fireboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platform_supply_vessel" title="Platform supply vessel">Platform supply vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pusher_(boat)" title="Pusher (boat)">Pusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_tug" title="Salvage tug">Salvage tug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship%27s_tender" title="Ship's tender">Tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugboat" title="Tugboat">Tugboat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_layer" title="Cable layer">Cable layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_vessel" title="Crane vessel">Crane vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">Dredger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drillship" title="Drillship">Drillship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_vessel" title="Fishing vessel">Fishing vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_restaurant" title="Floating restaurant">Floating restaurant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">Icebreaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_submarine" title="Merchant submarine">Merchant submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narco-submarine" title="Narco-submarine">Narco-submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe-laying_ship" title="Pipe-laying ship">Pipe-laying ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_vessel" title="Research vessel">Research vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverboat" title="Riverboat">Riverboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-submersible" title="Semi-submersible">Semi-submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snagboat" title="Snagboat">Snagboat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_operations" title="Nautical operations">Nautical operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affreightment" title="Affreightment">Affreightment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shipping" title="International Chamber of Shipping">International Chamber of Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_merchant_navy_capacity_by_country" title="List of merchant navy capacity by country">List of merchant navy capacity by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Transport_of_hydrocarbon_fuels120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fuel_Transport" title="Template:Fuel Transport"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fuel_Transport" title="Template talk:Fuel Transport"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fuel_Transport" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fuel Transport"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Transport_of_hydrocarbon_fuels120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Transport of <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> fuels</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">Oil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oil tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_terminal" title="Oil terminal">Oil terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_car" title="Tank car">Tank car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_truck" title="Tank truck">Tank truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_pipelines" title="List of oil pipelines">List of oil pipelines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">LNG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas" title="Liquefied petroleum gas">LPG</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LNG_carrier" title="LNG carrier">LNG carrier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regasification" title="Regasification">Regasification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefaction_of_gases" title="Liquefaction of gases">Liquefaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_separation" title="Gas separation">Gas separation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_storage" title="Natural gas storage">Natural gas storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_powder_in_gas_pipelines" title="Black powder in gas pipelines">Black powder in gas pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_pipelines" title="List of natural gas pipelines">List of natural gas pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LNG_terminals" title="List of LNG terminals">List of LNG terminals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a>/misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_railway" title="Industrial railway">Industrial railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal freight transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syngas" title="Syngas">Syngas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ship_measurements111" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ship_measurements" title="Template:Ship measurements"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ship_measurements" title="Template talk:Ship measurements"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ship_measurements" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ship measurements"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ship_measurements111" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ship_measurements" title="Ship measurements">Ship measurements</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Length</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Length_overall" title="Length overall">Length overall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_between_perpendiculars" title="Length between perpendiculars">Length between perpendiculars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterline_length" title="Waterline length">Length at the waterline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breadth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_(nautical)" title="Beam (nautical)">Beam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Depth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">Draft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)#Metrics" title="Hull (watercraft)">Moulded depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeboard_(nautical)" title="Freeboard (nautical)">Freeboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_line_(watercraft)" title="Load line (watercraft)">Load line (Plimsoll Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under_keel_clearance" title="Under keel clearance">Under keel clearance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Height</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_draft" title="Air draft">Air draft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volume</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Worldwide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tonnage" title="Tonnage">Tonnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_tonnage" title="Gross tonnage">Gross tonnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_gross_tonnage" title="Compensated gross tonnage">Compensated gross tonnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_tonnage" title="Net tonnage">Net tonnage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Specialized</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thames_Measurement" title="Thames Measurement">Thames measurement tonnage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Archaic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage" title="Gross register tonnage">Gross register tonnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_register_tonnage" title="Net register tonnage">Net register tonnage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Capacity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Current14" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">Deadweight tonnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">Twenty-foot equivalent unit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal containers</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Archaic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Builder%27s_Old_Measurement" title="Builder's Old Measurement">Builder's Old Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorsom_System" title="Moorsom System">Moorsom System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weight</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(ship)" title="Displacement (ship)">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(ship)#Loaded_displacement" title="Displacement (ship)">Loaded displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(ship)#Standard_displacement" title="Displacement (ship)">Standard displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(ship)#Light_displacement" title="Displacement (ship)">Light displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(ship)#Normal_displacement" title="Displacement (ship)">Normal displacement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stability</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclining_test" title="Inclining test">Inclining test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_list" title="Angle of list">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_loll" title="Angle of loll">Angle of loll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacentric_height" title="Metacentric height">Metacentric height (GM)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship#Size_categories" title="Cargo ship">Limits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aframax" title="Aframax">Aframax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltimax" title="Baltimax">Baltimax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capesize" title="Capesize">Capesize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinamax" title="Chinamax">Chinamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handymax" title="Handymax">Handymax/Supramax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handysize" title="Handysize">Handysize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaccamax" title="Malaccamax">Malaccamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panamax" title="Panamax">Panamax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panamax#Neopanamax" title="Panamax">§ Neopanamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9niche_(barge)" title="Péniche (barge)">Péniche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-Max" title="Q-Max">Q-Max</a> (Qatar-max)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawaymax" title="Seawaymax">Seawaymax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suezmax" title="Suezmax">Suezmax</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Size_categories">VLCC and ULCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamalmax" title="Yamalmax">Yamalmax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-hcght","wgBackendResponseTime":252,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.175","walltime":"1.504","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10921,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":225794,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7690,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":16,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":339687,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1246.172 1 -total"," 23.68% 295.121 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.56% 181.496 28 Template:Cite_web"," 7.85% 97.783 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.53% 93.830 25 Template:Cite_book"," 6.70% 83.459 5 Template:Navbox"," 6.59% 82.100 60 Template:Main_other"," 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