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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_alienable_possession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_alienable_possession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Comparison to alienable possession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_alienable_possession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation_by_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation_by_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Variation by languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variation_by_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphosyntactic_strategies_for_marking_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphosyntactic_strategies_for_marking_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphosyntactic strategies for marking distinction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphosyntactic_strategies_for_marking_distinction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphosyntactic strategies for marking distinction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphosyntactic_strategies_for_marking_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphological_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphological_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Morphological markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphological_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-No_overt_possessive_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No_overt_possessive_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>No overt possessive markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No_overt_possessive_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identical_possessor_deletion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identical_possessor_deletion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Identical possessor deletion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identical_possessor_deletion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Word order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possessor_switch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessor_switch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Possessor switch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessor_switch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genitive-noun_ordering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genitive-noun_ordering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Genitive-noun ordering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genitive-noun_ordering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessor_marking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessor_marking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Possessor marking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessor_marking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explicit_possessors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explicit_possessors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Explicit possessors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explicit_possessors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Prepositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definite_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definite_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Definite articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definite_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-No_distinction_in_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No_distinction_in_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>No distinction in grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No_distinction_in_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_coreference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_coreference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Interaction with coreference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_coreference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cross-linguistic_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-linguistic_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cross-linguistic properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cross-linguistic_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cross-linguistic properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cross-linguistic_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restricted_to_attributive_possession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restricted_to_attributive_possession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Restricted to attributive possession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restricted_to_attributive_possession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Requires_fewer_morphological_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requires_fewer_morphological_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Requires fewer morphological features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requires_fewer_morphological_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tighter_structural_bond_between_possessor_and_possessee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tighter_structural_bond_between_possessor_and_possessee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Tighter structural bond between possessor and possessee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tighter_structural_bond_between_possessor_and_possessee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_representation_in_syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_representation_in_syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theories of representation in syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_of_representation_in_syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories of representation in syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_representation_in_syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_possession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_possession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>External possession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_possession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Binding_hypothesis_(Guéron_1983)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Binding_hypothesis_(Guéron_1983)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Binding hypothesis (Guéron 1983)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Binding_hypothesis_(Guéron_1983)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessor-raising_hypothesis_(Landau_1999)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessor-raising_hypothesis_(Landau_1999)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Possessor-raising hypothesis (Landau 1999)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessor-raising_hypothesis_(Landau_1999)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessor_suppression_with_kin_and_body-part_nouns_(Lødrup_2014)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessor_suppression_with_kin_and_body-part_nouns_(Lødrup_2014)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Possessor suppression with kin and body-part nouns (Lødrup 2014)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessor_suppression_with_kin_and_body-part_nouns_(Lødrup_2014)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_function_motivations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_function_motivations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Form function motivations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_function_motivations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iconic_motivation_(Haiman_1983)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconic_motivation_(Haiman_1983)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Iconic motivation (Haiman 1983)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconic_motivation_(Haiman_1983)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_motivation_(Nichols_1988)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_motivation_(Nichols_1988)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Economic motivation (Nichols 1988)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_motivation_(Nichols_1988)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glossary_of_abbreviations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glossary_of_abbreviations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Glossary of abbreviations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Glossary_of_abbreviations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Glossary of abbreviations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Glossary_of_abbreviations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morpheme_glosses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morpheme_glosses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Morpheme glosses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morpheme_glosses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntactic_trees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntactic_trees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Syntactic trees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntactic_trees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austronesian_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austronesian_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Austronesian languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austronesian_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rapa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Rapa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rapa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wuvulu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wuvulu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Wuvulu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wuvulu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tokelauan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tokelauan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Tokelauan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tokelauan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <b>inalienable possession</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviations" title="List of glossing abbreviations">abbreviated</a> <b><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">INAL</span></span></b>) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a> in which a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> is <a href="/wiki/Obligatory_possession" title="Obligatory possession">obligatorily possessed</a> by its possessor. Nouns or <a href="/wiki/Nominal_(linguistics)" title="Nominal (linguistics)">nominal affixes</a> in an inalienable possession relationship cannot exist independently or be "alienated" from their possessor.<sup id="cite_ref-ling_dictionary_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ling_dictionary-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inalienable nouns include body parts (such as <i>leg</i>, which is necessarily "someone's leg" even if it is severed from the body), <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terms</a> (such as <i>mother</i>), and part-whole relations (such as <i>top</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many languages reflect the distinction but vary in how they mark inalienable possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cross-linguistically, inalienability correlates with many <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic">syntactic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> properties. </p><p>In general, the alienable–inalienable distinction is an example of a binary possessive <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">class system</a> in which a language distinguishes two kinds of possession (alienable and inalienable). The alienability distinction is the most common kind of binary possessive class system, but it is not the only one.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages have more than two possessive classes. In <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a> has at least 20 classes, and <a href="/wiki/Amele_language" title="Amele language">Amele</a> has 32.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statistically, 15–20% of the world's languages have <a href="/wiki/Obligatory_possession" title="Obligatory possession">obligatory possession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_to_alienable_possession">Comparison to alienable possession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Comparison to alienable possession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With inalienable possession, the two entities have a permanent association in which the possessed has little control over their possessor.<sup id="cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chappell,_McGregor-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, body parts (under normal circumstances) do not change and cannot be removed from their possessor. The following real-world relationships often fall under inalienable possession:<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type of relationship</th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>kinship</td> <td>father, mother, aunt </td></tr> <tr> <td>social relationship</td> <td>trading partner, neighbor </td></tr> <tr> <td>body part</td> <td>eye, leg </td></tr> <tr> <td>part-whole relationship</td> <td>tabletop, side </td></tr> <tr> <td>possessed noun originates from the possessor</td> <td>sweat, voice </td></tr> <tr> <td>mental state or process</td> <td>fear, mind </td></tr> <tr> <td>attribute of a known possessor</td> <td>name, age </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Alienable possession, on the other hand, has a less permanent association between the two entities.<sup id="cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chappell,_McGregor-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, most objects may or may not be possessed. When such types of objects are possessed, the possession is <b>alienable</b>. Alienable possession is used generally for tangible items that one might cease to own at some point (such as <i>my money</i>), but inalienable possession generally refers to a perpetual relationship that cannot be readily severed (such as <i>my mother</i> or <i>my arm</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The table above outlines some common inalienable relationships, but it is important to note that they are just the most common types of inalienable nouns. Languages with an alienable/inalienable possession distinction differ in which classes fall under each type of possession. However, if a language has such a distinction, kinship roles or body parts (or both) make up some of the entities that are inalienably possessed.<sup id="cite_ref-Stolz_et_al._2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stolz_et_al._2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, languages may make different distinctions within the categories on how many and which entities are treated as inalienable.<sup id="cite_ref-Stolz_et_al._2008_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stolz_et_al._2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, some languages allow the same noun to be either alienable or inalienable.<sup id="cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chappell,_McGregor-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, trying to determine if a noun is alienable or inalienable based on its meaning or its affiliation to a specific noun category (for instance, <i>body parts</i>) can be difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Thunes_2013_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thunes_2013-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variation_by_languages">Variation by languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variation by languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the relationships listed above are likely to be instances of inalienable possession, those that are ultimately classified as inalienable depend on conventions that are specific by language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is impossible to say that a particular relationship is an example of inalienable possession without specifying the languages for which that holds true. For example, <i>neighbor</i> may be an inalienable noun in one language but alienable in another.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, in some languages, one entity can be both alienably possessed and inalienably possessed, and its type of possession is influenced by other properties of the sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chappell,_McGregor-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, whether a certain type of relationship is described as alienable or inalienable can be arbitrary. In that respect, alienability is similar to other types of <a href="/wiki/Noun_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun classes">noun classes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The examples below illustrate that the same phrase, <i>the table's legs</i>, is regarded as inalienable possession in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> but alienable possession in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Cinque_and_Krapova_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cinque_and_Krapova-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1b) is <a href="/wiki/Grammaticality" title="Grammaticality">ungrammatical</a> (as indicated by the asterisk). French cannot use the inalienable possession construction for a relationship that is alienable. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(1) a.</div><div><b>Italian - inalienable possession relationship</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Al</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to.the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tavolo,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">table</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">qualcuno</p><p style="margin: 0px;">someone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>gli</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>it.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ha</p><p style="margin: 0px;">has</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">segato</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sawn</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tutte</p><p style="margin: 0px;">all</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gambe</p><p style="margin: 0px;">legs</p></div><p style="display: none;">Al tavolo, qualcuno <b>gli</b> ha segato tutte le gambe</p><p style="display: none;">to.the table someone <b>it.DAT</b> has sawn all the legs</p><p style="clear: left;">'The table, someone has sawn off all <b>its</b> legs'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(1)</span> b.</div><div><b>French - alienable possession relationship</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">La</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">table,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">table,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">quelqu'un</p><p style="margin: 0px;">someone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>lui</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>it.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">has</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">scié</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sawn</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">toutes</p><p style="margin: 0px;">all</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">les</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pattes</p><p style="margin: 0px;">legs</p></div><p style="display: none;">* La table, quelqu'un <b>lui</b> a scié toutes les pattes</p><p style="display: none;">{} the table, someone <b>it.DAT</b> has sawn all the legs</p><p style="clear: left;">'The table, someone has sawn off all <b>its</b> legs'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Cinque & Krapova 2008: 68 (ia, ib)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bernd_Heine" title="Bernd Heine">Bernd Heine</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a> is responsible for the observed cross-linguistic variation in the categorization of (in)alienable nouns. He states that "rather than being a semantically defined category, inalienability is more likely to constitute a <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphosyntactic">morphosyntactic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morphophonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonological">morphophonological</a> entity, one that owes its existence to the fact that certain nouns happened to be left out when a new pattern for marking attributive possession arose."<sup id="cite_ref-Heine_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considers that nouns that are "ignored" by a new marking pattern come to form a separate noun class. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphosyntactic_strategies_for_marking_distinction">Morphosyntactic strategies for marking distinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Morphosyntactic strategies for marking distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distinction between alienable and inalienable possession is often marked by various morphosyntactic properties such as <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological markers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>. The morphosyntactic differences are often referred to as <b>possession split</b> or <b>split possession</b>, which refer to instances of a language making a grammatical distinction between different types of possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Lødrup_2014_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lødrup_2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a language with possession split, grammatical constructions with alienable nouns will differ from constructions with inalienable nouns. </p><p>There is a strong <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> pattern for inalienable possession to require fewer morphological markers than alienable possession constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inalienable possession constructions involve two nouns or nominals: the possessor and the possessee. Together, they form a unit, the <a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">determiner phrase</a> (DP), in which the possessor nominal may occur either before the possessee (<b>prenominal</b>) or after its possessee (<b>postnominal</b>), depending on the language.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French, for example, can use a postnominal possessor (the possessor <i>(of) Jean</i> occurs after the possessee <i>the arm</i>): </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Postnominal_DP_structure_-_French.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Postnominal_DP_structure_-_French.png/150px-Postnominal_DP_structure_-_French.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Postnominal_DP_structure_-_French.png 1.5x" data-file-width="175" data-file-height="163" /></a><figcaption><i>de Jean</i> is a <b>postnominal possessor</b>, as it occurs after the noun. This sentence adapted from Guéron 2007: 590 (1a)</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prenominal_possessor.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Prenominal_possessor.png" decoding="async" width="146" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="147" /></a><figcaption><i>John</i> is a <b>prenominal possessor</b> and occurs before the possessed noun <i>brother</i>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(2) a.</div><div><b>French: inalienable body-part noun = postnominal possessor</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bras</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arm</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>de</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>Jean</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>Jean</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">le bras <b>de</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="display: none;">the arm <b>of</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'John's arm'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Guéron 2007: 590 (la))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(2)</span> b.</div><div><b>French: inalienable kin noun = postnominal possessor</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">frère</p><p style="margin: 0px;">brother</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>de</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>Jean</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>Jean</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">le frère <b>de</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="display: none;">the brother <b>of</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'John's brother'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(2)</span> c.</div><div><b>French: alienable noun = postnominal possessor</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">livre</p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>de</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>Jean</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>Jean</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">le livre <b>de</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="display: none;">the book <b>of</b> <b>Jean</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'John's book'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In contrast, English generally uses a prenominal possessor (<i>John<b><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s</b> brother</i>). However, in some situations, it may also use a postnominal possessor, as in <i>the brother <b>of John</b></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphological_markers">Morphological markers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Morphological markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="No_overt_possessive_markers">No overt possessive markers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: No overt possessive markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/South_American_language" class="mw-redirect" title="South American language">South American language</a> <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A2w_language" title="Dâw language">Dâw</a> uses a special possessive <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> (bold in the examples below) to indicate alienable possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Martins_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martins-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The possessive morpheme <i><b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b></i> in examples (3a) and (3b) indicates an alienable relationship between the possessor and the possessee. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(3) a.</div><div><b>Alienable</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɔp</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tũk-<b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Tũk-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">tɔp Tũk-<b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b></p><p style="display: none;">house Tũk-<b>POSS</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'Tũk's house'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(3)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tih-<b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cɤ̀g</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrow</p></div><p style="display: none;">tih-<b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b> cɤ̀g</p><p style="display: none;">3SG-<b>POSS</b> arrow</p><p style="clear: left;">'his arrow'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Martins 2004: 546)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The possessive marker does not occur in inalienable possession constructions. Thus, the absence of <i><b>ɛ̃̀ɟ</b></i>, as in example (4), indicates that the relationship between the possessor and the possessee is inalienable possession. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(4)</div><div><b>Inalienable</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tih</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nũh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">head</p></div><p style="display: none;">tih nũh</p><p style="display: none;">3SG head</p><p style="clear: left;">‘his head'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Martins 2004: 547)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Identical_possessor_deletion">Identical possessor deletion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Identical possessor deletion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=West_African_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West African language (page does not exist)">West African language</a>, the possessor is <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">deleted</a> in a sentence if both its <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> and the possessor of an inalienable noun <a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">refer</a> to the same entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> In (5a), both <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referents</a> are the same, but it is ungrammatical to keep both of them in a sentence. Igbo uses the processes of identical possessor deletion, and the <i><b>yá</b></i> (<i>his</i>), is dropped, as in the grammatical (5b). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(5) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">He<sub>i</sub></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sàra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>yá</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>his<sub>i</sub> (own)</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">* Ó sàra áka <b>yá</b></p><p style="display: none;">{} He<sub>i</sub> washed hands {<b>his<sub>i</sub> (own)</b>}</p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> washed his<sub>i</sub> hands'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(5)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">He</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sàra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">Ó sàra áka</p><p style="display: none;">He washed hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> washed his<sub>i</sub> hands'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Hyman et al. 1970: 87 (11, 12))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>A similar process occurs in some <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(6) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Oprao</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">je</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he<sub>i</sub>.is</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>svoje</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>his<sub>i</sub> (own)</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ruke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">* Oprao je <b>svoje</b> ruke</p><p style="display: none;">{} Washed he<sub>i</sub>.is {<b>his<sub>i</sub> (own)</b>} hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> washed his<sub>i</sub> hands'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(6)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Oprao</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">je</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he.is</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ruke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">Oprao je ruke</p><p style="display: none;">Washed he.is hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> washed his<sub>i</sub> hands'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessor_switch">Possessor switch</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Possessor switch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distinction between alienable and inalienable possession constructions may be marked by a difference in word order. Igbo uses another <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> process when the subject and the possessor refer to different entities.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89">: 89 </span></sup> In possessor switch, the possessor of the inalienable noun is placed as close as possible to the <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following examples, the possessor <i><b>yá</b></i> is not deleted because both referents are different: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(7) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">He</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hùru</p><p style="margin: 0px;">saw</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><p style="display: none;">* Ó hùru áka</p><p style="display: none;">{} He saw hand</p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> saw his<sub>j</sub> hand'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(7)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">He</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hùru</p><p style="margin: 0px;">saw</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>yá</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>his</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Ó hùru áka <b>yá</b></p><p style="display: none;">He saw hand <b>his</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'He<sub>i</sub> saw his<sub>j</sub> hand'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Hyman et al. 1970: 87 (27, 28))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the ungrammatical (8a), the verb <i>wàra</i> (<i>to split</i>) follows the possessor <i><b>m</b></i>. Possessor switch requires the verb to be placed nearer to the possessor. The grammatical (8b) does so switching <i>wàra</i> with the possessor: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(8) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ísi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Head</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">m</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wàra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">split</p></div><p style="display: none;">* ísi m wàra</p><p style="display: none;">{} Head my split</p><p style="clear: left;">'I have a headache'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(8)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ísi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Head</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wàra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">split</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ig" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">m</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to me</p></div><p style="display: none;">ísi wàra m</p><p style="display: none;">Head split {to me}</p><p style="clear: left;">'I have a headache'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Hyman et al. 1970: 87 (44, 45))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genitive-noun_ordering">Genitive-noun ordering</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Genitive-noun ordering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Maybrat_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Maybrat languages">Maybrat languages</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> vary the order of the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> and the noun between alienable and inalienable constructions:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dryer_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dryer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In (9), the genitive <i><b>Sely</b></i> precedes the possessee <i><b>me</b></i>, marking inalienable possession. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(9)</div><div><b>Inalienable: Gen-N</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Sely</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Sely</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>m-me</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">F</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr>-mother</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Sely <b>m-me</b></p><p style="display: none;">Sely <b>3SG.F.POSS-mother</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'Sely's mother'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Dol 1999: 93)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, the genitive follows the possessee in alienable possession constructions, such as (10) whose genitive <i><b>Petrus</b></i> follows the possessee <i><b>amah</b></i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(10)</div><div><b>Alienable: N-Gen</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">amah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ro</b>-Petrus</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></b>-Petrus</p></div><p style="display: none;">amah <b>ro</b>-Petrus</p><p style="display: none;">house <b>GEN</b>-Petrus</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Petrus' house'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Dol 1999: 97)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessor_marking">Possessor marking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Possessor marking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Explicit_possessors">Explicit possessors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Explicit possessors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another way for languages to distinguish between alienable and inalienable possession is to have one noun class that cannot appear without an explicit possessor.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols4_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian language</a>, has a class of nouns that must have explicit possessors.<sup id="cite_ref-Valentine_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentine-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-concise_dictionary_of_Ojibwe_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-concise_dictionary_of_Ojibwe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If explicit possessors are absent (as in (11b) and (12b)), the phrase is ungrammatical. In (11), the possessor <i><b>ni</b></i> is necessary for the inalienable noun <i><b>nik</b></i> (<i>arm</i>). In (12), the same phenomenon is found with the inalienable noun <i><b>ookmis</b></i> (<i>grandmother</i>), which requires the possessor morpheme <i><b>n</b></i> to be grammatical. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(11) a.</div><div><b>inalienable body part noun</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ni</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nik</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arm</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>ni</b> nik</p><p style="display: none;"><b>POSS</b> arm</p><p style="clear: left;">'<b>my</b> arm'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(11)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nik</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arm</p></div><p style="display: none;">* nik</p><p style="display: none;">{} arm</p><p style="clear: left;">'(an) arm'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Nichols & Nyholm 1995: 138)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(12) a.</div><div><b>inalienable kin noun</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>n</b>ookmis</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></b>-grandmother</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>n</b>ookmis</p><p style="display: none;"><b>POSS</b>-grandmother</p><p style="clear: left;">'<b>my</b> grandmother'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(12)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ookmis</p><p style="margin: 0px;">grandmother</p></div><p style="display: none;">* ookmis</p><p style="display: none;">{} grandmother</p><p style="clear: left;">'(a) grandmother'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Nichols & Nyholm 1995: 189)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prepositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a> uses different <a href="/wiki/Prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositions">prepositions</a> to mark possession, depending on the noun's alienability: <i><b>a</b></i> (alienable <i>of</i>) is used to indicate alienable possession as in (13a), and <i><b>o</b></i> (inalienable <i>of</i>) indicates inalienable possession as in (13b).<sup id="cite_ref-Elbert_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elbert-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(13) a.</div><div><b>alienable possession</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iwi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bones</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>a</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Pua</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Pua</p></div><p style="display: none;">nā iwi <b>a</b> Pua</p><p style="display: none;">the bones <b>of</b> Pua</p><p style="clear: left;">'Pua's bones' [as in the chicken bones she is eating]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(13)</span> b.</div><div><b>inalienable possession</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iwi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bones</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>o</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Pua</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Pua</p></div><p style="display: none;">nā iwi <b>o</b> Pua</p><p style="display: none;">the bones <b>of</b> Pua</p><p style="clear: left;">'Pua's [own] bones'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Elbert & Pukui 1979: 139)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, the distinction between <i><b>a</b></i> (alienable <i>of</i>) and <i><b>o</b></i> (inalienable <i>of</i>) is used for other <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> distinctions that are less clearly attributable to common alienability relationships except <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorically</a>. Although <i>lei</i> is a tangible object, but in Hawaiian, it can be either alienable (15a) or inalienable (15b), depending on the context. </p> <table width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Alienable </th> <th>Inalienable </th></tr> <tr> <td valign="top">(14) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kanaka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>a</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aliʻi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">king</p></div><p style="display: none;">ke kanaka <b>a</b> ke aliʻi</p><p style="display: none;">the man <b>of</b> the king</p><p style="clear: left;">'the subject [controlled or appointed by] the chief'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kanaka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>o</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aliʻi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">king</p></div><p style="display: none;">ke kanaka <b>o</b> ke aliʻi</p><p style="display: none;">the man <b>of</b> the king</p><p style="clear: left;">'the [hereditary] subject of the chief' (Elbert & Pukui 1979: 139)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td valign="top">(15) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lei</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lei</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>a</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Pua</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Pua</p></div><p style="display: none;">ka lei <b>a</b> Pua</p><p style="display: none;">the lei <b>of</b> Pua</p><p style="clear: left;">'Pua's lei [to sell]'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lei</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lei</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>o</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>of</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Pua</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Pua</p></div><p style="display: none;">ka lei <b>o</b> Pua</p><p style="display: none;">the lei <b>of</b> Pua</p><p style="clear: left;">'Pua's lei [to wear]' (Elbert & Pukui 1979: 139)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Definite_articles">Definite articles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Definite articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subtler cases of syntactic patterns sensitive to alienability are found in many languages. For example, French can use a <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a>, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Possessive_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive (linguistics)">possessive</a>, for body parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakamoto_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamoto-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(16)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Il</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lève</p><p style="margin: 0px;">raises</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>les</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mains.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">Il lève <b>les</b> mains.</p><p style="display: none;">he raises <b>the</b> hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He raises <b>his</b> hands.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Nakamoto 2010: 75 (2a))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Using the definite article with body parts, as in the example above, creates <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity#Linguistic_forms" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a>. Thus, the sentence has both an alienable and an inalienable interpretation: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>a) he raises his own hands [inalienable] b) he raises another pair of hands [alienable] </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Such an ambiguity also occurs in English with body-part constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-VZ_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VZ-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> also uses a definite article (<i><b>el</b></i>, <i><b>los</b></i>, <i><b>la</b></i>, or <i><b>las</b></i>) to indicate inalienable possession for body parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Kockelman_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kockelman-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(17)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="es" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Él</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="es" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">se</p><p style="margin: 0px;">himself</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="es" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lava</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="es" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>las</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="es" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">manos.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">Él se lava <b>las</b> manos.</p><p style="display: none;">he himself washes <b>the</b> hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He washes <b>his</b> hands.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Kockelman 2009: 30)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> uses a definite article (<i><b>die</b></i>) for inalienable body parts but a possessive (<i><b>meine</b></i>) for alienable possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Kockelman_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kockelman-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(18)</div><div><b>Inalienable</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Er</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wäscht</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sich</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="reflexive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REFL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>die</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hände.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hands</p></div><p style="display: none;">Er wäscht sich <b>die</b> Hände.</p><p style="display: none;">he washes REFL <b>the</b> hands</p><p style="clear: left;">'He is washing <b>his</b> hands.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Kockelman 2009: 29)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(19)</div><div><b>Alienable</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ich</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zerriss</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tore</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>meine</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>my</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hose.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pants</p></div><p style="display: none;">Ich zerriss <b>meine</b> Hose.</p><p style="display: none;">I tore <b>my</b> pants</p><p style="clear: left;">'I tore <b>my</b> pants.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Kockelman 2009: 30)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="No_distinction_in_grammar">No distinction in grammar</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: No distinction in grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although English has alienable and inalienable nouns (<i>Mary's brother</i> [inalienable] vs. <i>Mary's squirrel</i> [alienable]), it has few such formal distinctions in its grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One subtle grammatical distinction is the postnominal genitive construction, which is normally reserved for inalienable relational nouns. For example, <i>the <b>brother</b> of Mary</i> [inalienable] is normal, but *<i>the <b>squirrel</b> of Mary</i> [alienable] would be awkward.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the alienability distinction is rooted in semantics, languages like English with few morphological or syntactic distinctions sensitive to alienability can have ambiguities occur. For example, the phrase <i>she has her <b>father's eyes</b></i> has two different meanings: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>a) her eyes resemble her father's [inalienable possession] <br />b) she is in actual physical possession of the eyes [alienable possession] </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Another example in <a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar#Semantic_dependencies" title="Dependency grammar">semantic dependency</a> is the difference between possible interpretations in a language that marks inalienable possession (such as French) with a language that does not mark it (such as English). Inalienable possession is semantically dependent and is defined in reference to another object to which it belongs.<sup id="cite_ref-VZ_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VZ-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sentence (20) is ambiguous and has two possible meanings. In the inalienable possessive interpretation, <i>la main</i> belongs to the subject, <i>les enfants</i>. The second interpretation is that <i>la main</i> is an alienable object and does not belong to the subject. The English equivalent of the sentence (<i>The children raised the hand</i>) has only the alienable possessive reading in which the hand does not belong to the children. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(20)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Les</p><p style="margin: 0px;">The</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">enfants</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ont</p><p style="margin: 0px;">have</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">levé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">raised</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>la</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>the</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">main</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><p style="display: none;">Les enfants ont levé <b>la</b> main</p><p style="display: none;">The children have raised <b>the</b> hand</p><p style="clear: left;">'The children raised the hand' (Vergnaud and Zubizarreta 1992: 596 (1))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Syntactically, <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> proposed that some genitive or possessive cases originate as part of the <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> in the underlying structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 680">: 680 </span></sup> The inalienable possessives are derived from a different <a href="/wiki/Deep_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep structure">deep structure</a> than that of alienable possession. An example is interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a> <i>John's arm</i>: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>a) an arm that is part of John's body [inalienable] b) the arm that John happens to have physical possession of [alienable] </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the inalienable reading, <i>arm</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a> of the determiner phrase. That contrasts to the alienable reading in which <i>John has an arm</i> is part of the determiner.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 690">: 690 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Fillmore" title="Charles J. Fillmore">Charles J. Fillmore</a> and Chomsky make a syntactic distinction between alienable and inalienable possession and suggest that the distinction is relevant to English.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, others have argued that semantics plays a role in inalienable possession, but it is not central to the syntactic class of case-derived possessives. An example is the difference between <i>the book's contents</i> and <i>the book's jacket</i>. A book cannot be divorced from its contents, but it can be removed from its jacket.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 690">: 690 </span></sup> Still, both phrases have the same syntactic structure. Another example is <i>Mary's mother</i> and <i>Mary's friend</i>. The mother will always be Mary's mother, but an individual might not always be Mary's friend. Again, both have the same syntactic structure. </p><p>The distinction between alienable and inalienable possessions can be influenced by cognitive factors.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Languages such as English that do not encode the alienability distinction in their grammar rely on the real-world relationship between the possessed noun and possessor noun. Nouns that are "inherently relational" and whose possession is associated with a single dominant interpretation (<i>mother</i>) are of the inalienable type, and nouns whose possession is open to interpretation (<i>car</i>) are of the alienable type.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_coreference">Interaction with coreference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Interaction with coreference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are few grammatical distinctions between alienable and inalienable possession in English, but there are differences in the way coreference occurs for such possessive constructions. For instance, examples (21a) and (21b) have interpretations that differ by the type of (in)alienable possession: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(21) a. Lucy<sub>1</sub> raised her<sub>1/2</sub> horse [alienable] b. Lucy<sub>1</sub> raised her<sub>1/*2</sub> hand [inalienable] </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In example (1a), the pronominal possessor (<i>her</i>) can refer to <i>Lucy</i> or to another possessor not mentioned in the sentence. As such, two interpretations of the sentence are possible: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>i) The horse belongs to Lucy, and Lucy raised this horse ii) The horse belongs to someone else, but Lucy raised the horse </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, in example (21b), the pronominal possessor (<i>her</i>) can only grammatically refer to Lucy. As such, the hand being discussed must belong to Lucy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anaphoric_binding.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anaphoric_binding.png/220px-Anaphoric_binding.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anaphoric_binding.png/330px-Anaphoric_binding.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anaphoric_binding.png/440px-Anaphoric_binding.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>The pronominal possessor (<i>her</i>) of the inalienable noun (<i>hand</i>) is c-commanded and co-indexed by an antecedent DP (<i>Lucy</i>) that is in its domain</figcaption></figure> <p>Therefore, the pronominal possessor patterns with pronominal binding in the alienable construction, but the pronominal possessor patterns with anaphoric binding in the inalienable construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In anaphoric binding, an anaphor requires a coreferent antecedent that c-commands the anaphor and that is in the domain of the anaphor.<sup id="cite_ref-Sportich_et_al._2014_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sportich_et_al._2014-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example (1b) to obey those conditions, the pronominal possessor must refer to <i>Lucy</i>, not to another possessor that is not mentioned in the sentence. Thus, by having only one grammatical interpretation, (1b) is consistent with anaphoric binding. On the other hand, the interpretation of alienable constructions such as 1a can be ambiguous since it is not restricted by the same properties of anaphoric binding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cross-linguistic_properties">Cross-linguistic properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cross-linguistic properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although there are different methods of marking inalienability, inalienable possession constructions usually involve the following features:<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The distinction is confined to attributive possession.</li> <li>Alienable possession requires more <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> features than inalienable possession.</li> <li>Inalienable possession involves a tighter structural bond between the possessor and the possessee.</li> <li>Possessive markers on inalienable nouns are <a href="/wiki/Etymologically" class="mw-redirect" title="Etymologically">etymologically</a> older<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Inalienable nouns include kinship terms and/or body parts.</li> <li>Inalienable nouns form a <a href="/wiki/Closed_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed class">closed class</a>, but alienable nouns form an <a href="/wiki/Open_class_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open class (linguistics)">open class</a>.</li></ul> <p>(Heine 1997: 85-86 (1-6)) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restricted_to_attributive_possession">Restricted to attributive possession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Restricted to attributive possession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attributive_possession_DP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Attributive_possession_DP.jpg/170px-Attributive_possession_DP.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Attributive_possession_DP.jpg/255px-Attributive_possession_DP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Attributive_possession_DP.jpg/340px-Attributive_possession_DP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>Attribution possession: the possessor (Ron) and the possessee (dog) form a <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Predicative_possession_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Predicative_possession_1.jpg/170px-Predicative_possession_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Predicative_possession_1.jpg/255px-Predicative_possession_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Predicative_possession_1.jpg/340px-Predicative_possession_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Predicative possession: the possessor (Ron) and the possessee (dog) form not a phrase but instead a <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Alienability can be expressed only in attributive possession constructions, not in predicative possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Attributive possession is a type of possession in which the possessor and possessee form a <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a>. That contrasts to predicative possession constructions in which the possessor and possessee are part of a <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a>, and the verb affirms the possessive relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-Herslund_and_Baron_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herslund_and_Baron-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The examples in (22) express the same alienable relationship between possessor and possessee but illustrate the difference between attributive and predicative possession: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><b>Attributive possession</b> (22) a. Ron's dog <b>Predicative possession</b> b. Ron has a dog c. The dog is Ron's (Heine 1997: 87 (2)) </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Requires_fewer_morphological_features">Requires fewer morphological features</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Requires fewer morphological features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a language has separate alienable and inalienable possession constructions, and one of the constructions is overtly marked and the other is "zero-marked", the marked form tends to be alienable possession. Inalienable possession is indicated by the absence of the overt marker.<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#No_overt_possessive_markers">data from Dâw</a>. </p><p>One typological study showed that in 78% of South American languages that distinguish between inalienable and alienable possession, inalienable possession was associated with fewer <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> markers than was its alienable counterpart. By contrast, only one of the surveyed languages required more <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> features to mark inalienable possession than alienable possession.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a language makes a grammatical distinction between alienable and inalienable nouns, having an overt possessive marker to mark inalienability is redundant. After all, by being inalienable, a noun must be possessed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tighter_structural_bond_between_possessor_and_possessee">Tighter structural bond between possessor and possessee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tighter structural bond between possessor and possessee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In inalienable possession constructions, the relationship between the possessor and possessee is stronger than in alienable possession constructions. <a href="/wiki/Johanna_Nichols" title="Johanna Nichols">Johanna Nichols</a> characterizes that by the tendency of inalienable possession to be <a href="/wiki/Head-marking_language" title="Head-marking language">head-marked</a> but alienable possession to be <a href="/wiki/Dependent-marking_language" title="Dependent-marking language">dependent-marked</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-space_and_time_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space_and_time-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In head-marking, the <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a> of an inalienable possession construction (the possessed noun) is marked, but in dependent-marking, the dependent (the possessor noun) is marked.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_representation_in_syntax">Theories of representation in syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Theories of representation in syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the possessor is crucially linked to an inalienable noun's meaning, inalienable nouns are assumed to take their possessors as a semantic <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">argument</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possessors to alienable and inalienable nouns can be expressed with different constructions. Possessors in the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> like <i>the friend <b>of Mary</b></i> appear as <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complements</a> to the possessed noun, as part of the phrase headed by the inalienable noun.<sup id="cite_ref-VZ_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VZ-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is an example of <b>internal possession</b> since the possessor of the noun is inside the determiner phrase. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_possession">External possession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External possession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:External_possession_structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/External_possession_structure.png/220px-External_possession_structure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/External_possession_structure.png 1.5x" data-file-width="226" data-file-height="182" /></a><figcaption><b>External possession</b> in French. The possessor is outside the phrase with the possessee (circled in red). Sentence adapted from Vergnaud and Zubizarreta 1992: 596 (4b)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internal_possession_structure_-_French.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Internal_possession_structure_-_French.png" decoding="async" width="211" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="147" /></a><figcaption><b>Internal possession</b> in French. The possessor and the possessee are in the same phrase (circled in red). Sentence adapted from Vergnaud and Zubizarreta 1992: 596 (6b)</figcaption></figure> <p>Inalienable possession can also be marked with <b>external possession</b>. Such constructions have the possessor appearing outside the determiner phrase. For example, the possessor may appear as a dative complement of the verb. </p><p>French exhibits both external possessor construction and internal possessor construction, as in (23):<sup id="cite_ref-VZ_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VZ-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(23) a.</div><div><b>External possession:</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">médecin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">doctor</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>leur</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>to them</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a examiné</p><p style="margin: 0px;">examined</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gorge.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">throat</p></div><p style="display: none;">Le médecin <b>leur</b> {a examiné} la gorge.</p><p style="display: none;">the doctor {<b>to them</b>} examined SG.DEF.DET throat</p><p style="clear: left;">'The doctor examined their throats.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(23)</span> b.</div><div><b>Internal possession:</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Le</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">médecin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">doctor</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a examiné</p><p style="margin: 0px;">examined</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>leurs</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr>(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>)</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gorges.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">throat</p></div><p style="display: none;">Le médecin {a examiné} <b>leurs</b> gorges.</p><p style="display: none;">the doctor examined <b>POSS(3PL)</b> throat</p><p style="clear: left;">'The doctor examined their throats.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Vergnaud and Zubizarreta 1992: 596 (4b, 6b))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, those types of possessors are problematic. There is a discrepancy between the possessor appearing syntactically in an inalienable possession construction and what its semantic relationship to the inalienable noun seems to be. Semantically, the possessor of an inalienable noun is intrinsic to its meaning and acts like a <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)#Syntactic_vs._semantic_arguments" title="Argument (linguistics)">semantic argument</a>. On the surface syntactic structure, however, the possessor appears in a position that marks it as an argument of the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, there are different views on how those types of inalienable possession constructions should be represented in the syntactic structure. The binding hypothesis argues that the possessor is an argument of the verb. Conversely, the possessor-raising hypothesis argues that the possessor originates as an argument of the possessed noun and then <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_movement" title="Syntactic movement">moves</a> to a position in which on the surface, it looks like an argument of the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Kempchinsky_1992_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kempchinsky_1992-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Binding_hypothesis_(Guéron_1983)"><span id="Binding_hypothesis_.28Gu.C3.A9ron_1983.29"></span>Binding hypothesis (Guéron 1983)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Binding hypothesis (Guéron 1983)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The binding hypothesis reconciles the fact that the possessor appears both as a syntactic and semantic argument of the verb but as a semantic argument of the possessed noun. It assumes that inalienable possession constructions are subject to the following syntactic constraints:<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>There must be an obligatory possessor.</li> <li>The possessor must be in the same minimal <a href="/wiki/Locality_(linguistics)#Dldomain" title="Locality (linguistics)">domain</a> of the possessee.</li> <li>The possessor must <a href="/wiki/C-command" title="C-command">c-command</a> the possessee or its <a href="/wiki/Trace_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace (linguistics)">trace</a> (The c-command must occur in the underlying or <a href="/wiki/Transformational_grammar#Deep_structure_and_surface_structure" title="Transformational grammar">surface structures</a> of the inalienable possession constructions.</li></ol> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG/300px-Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG/450px-Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Binding_between_possessor_and_possessee.PNG 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption><b>Inalienable possession binding:</b>: the possessor c-commands the possessee in its domain. The possessor and possessee constitute a lexical chain and receive the same theta-roles from the verb.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is assumed that inalienable possession constructions are one form of <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">anaphoric binding</a>: <a href="/wiki/Control_(linguistics)" title="Control (linguistics)">obligatory control</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the possessor DP originates in the <a href="/wiki/Specifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specifier (linguistics)">specifier</a> of the verb; the fact that the possessor seems to be a semantic argument of the noun arises from the binding relationship between the possessor and the possessee DPs. The parallel between inalienable possession constructions and obligatory control can be seen in the examples below:<sup id="cite_ref-Nakamoto_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamoto-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(24) a.</div><div><b>Inalienable possession</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jean<sub>i</sub></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Jean</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lève</p><p style="margin: 0px;">raise</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la<sub>i</sub></p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">main</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><p style="display: none;">Jean<sub>i</sub> lève la<sub>i</sub> main</p><p style="display: none;">Jean raise the hand</p><p style="clear: left;">'Jean raises his hand.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(24)</span> b.</div><div><b>Obligatory control</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jean<sub>i</sub></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Jean</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">veut</p><p style="margin: 0px;">want</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr><sub>i</sub></p><p style="margin: 0px;">(Jean)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">partir</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to leave</p></div><p style="display: none;">Jean<sub>i</sub> veut <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr><sub>i</sub> partir</p><p style="display: none;">Jean want (Jean) {to leave}</p><p style="clear: left;">'Jean wants to leave'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Nakamoto 2010: 80 (30a,b))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The hypothesis accounts for differences between French and English, and it may also eliminate the ambiguity created by definite determiners.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the hypothesis, anaphoric binding in inalienable possession constructions relates to the <a href="/wiki/Theta-role" class="mw-redirect" title="Theta-role">theta-features</a> that a language assigns to its determiners.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis predicts that inalienable possession constructions exist in languages that assign variable theta-features to its determiners and that inalienable possession constructions do not exist in languages that lack variable theta-feature assignment.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, inalienable possession is predicted to exist in <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> and also <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> but not in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the French sentence <i>Il lève les mains</i>, the determiner <i>les</i> is assigned theta-features. Thus, it is understood as inalienable possession. However, in the English translation, the determiner <i>the</i> does not have theta-features since English is considered not to assign theta-features to its determiners. Therefore, <i>the</i> does not necessarily signify inalienable possession and so ambiguity surfaces. </p><p>That hypothesis, however, does not account for verbs allowing <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive</a> anaphora (<i>Jean <b>se</b></i> lave 'Jean washes himself').<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To account for the grammaticality of such verbs, Guéron proposes that in an inalienable construction the <b>POSS DP</b> (possessor DP) and <b>BP DP</b> (body part DP) constitute two links of a <a href="/wiki/Lexical_chain" title="Lexical chain">lexical chain</a>, in addition to their anaphoric relation.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two links of a lexical chain must obey the same constraints as anaphora, which accounts for the locality restrictions on inalienable construals. Every chain is then associated with one theta-role. Inalienable possession surfaces as ungrammatical when the possessed DP and the possessor DP are assigned two different theta-roles by the verb. That explains why sentence (25b) is ungrammatical. The POSS DP is assigned an <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agent</a> theta-role, and the BP DP is assigned a <a href="/wiki/Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">theme</a> theta-role. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(25) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jean</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Jean</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lève</p><p style="margin: 0px;">raise</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">main</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><p style="display: none;">Jean lève la main</p><p style="display: none;">Jean raise the hand</p><p style="clear: left;">'Jean raises his hand.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(25)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jean lave/gratte/chatouille</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Jean wash/scratch/tickle</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AGENT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la main.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the hand</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">THEME</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">{Jean lave/gratte/chatouille} {la main.}</p><p style="display: none;">{Jean wash/scratch/tickle} {the hand}</p><p style="display: none;">AGENT THEME</p><p style="clear: left;">'Jean washes/scratches/tickles the hand.'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Guéron 2007: 598 (40, 42))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessor-raising_hypothesis_(Landau_1999)"><span id="Possessor-raising_hypothesis_.28Landau_1999.29"></span>Possessor-raising hypothesis (Landau 1999)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Possessor-raising hypothesis (Landau 1999)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising,_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg/220px-Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg/330px-Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg/440px-Tree_diagram_of_possessor-raising%2C_movement_from_SpecDP_to_SpecVP.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1001" data-file-height="863" /></a><figcaption><b>Possessor-raising</b> from SpecDP to SpecVP</figcaption></figure> <p>Possessor-raising is a syntactic hypothesis that attempts to explain the structures of inalienable <a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">DPs</a>. Landau argues that the possessor is initially introduced in the specifier position of DP (Spec-DP), but it later raises to the specifier of the <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">VP</a>. The possessor DP gets its <a href="/wiki/Theta-role" class="mw-redirect" title="Theta-role">theta-role</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a> D, which gives rise to the meaning that the possessor is related to the possessee.<sup id="cite_ref-Landau_1999_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landau_1999-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Landau's analysis is made on the basis of several properties possessives in the data case in Romance languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakamoto_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamoto-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The possessor dative must be interpreted as a possessor, not an object/theme.</li> <li>Possession interpretation is obligatory.</li> <li>The possessed DP cannot be an external argument.</li> <li>The possessor dative must c-command the possessed DP (or its trace).</li> <li>Possessive interpretation is constrained by locality. (Nakamoto 2010: 76)</li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg/220px-French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg/330px-French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg/440px-French_example_of_possessor-raising.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of possessor-raising in French. Sentence adapted from (Guéron 2007: 611 (100b)</figcaption></figure> <p>The French data below illustrate how the analysis is thought to work. The possessor <i>lui</i> originates in the specifier of DP as an argument of the noun <i>figure</i>. That is equivalent to an underlying structure <i>Gilles a lavé <b>lui</b> la figure</i>. The possessor raises to the specifier of VP, which is seen in the surface structure <i>Gilles <b>lui</b> a lavé la figure</i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(26)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Gilles</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Gilles</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="tense phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TP</abbr> Gilles</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lui</p><p style="margin: 0px;">him.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="verb phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">VP</abbr> <b>lui<sub>i</sub></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a lavé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washed</p><p style="margin: 0px;">a lavé</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="fr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la figure</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the face</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DP</abbr> <b>t<sub>i</sub></b> la figure]]]</p></div><p style="display: none;">Gilles lui {a lavé} {la figure}</p><p style="display: none;">Gilles him.DAT washed {the face}</p><p style="display: none;">[{TP Gilles} {[VP <b>lui<sub>i</sub></b>} {a lavé} {[DP <b>t<sub>i</sub></b> la figure]]]}</p><p style="clear: left;">'Gilles washed his face'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Guéron 2007: 611 (100b))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>According to Guéron, a benefit of the hypothesis is that it is consistent with principles of <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_movement" title="Syntactic movement">syntactic movement</a> such as locality of selection and <a href="/wiki/C-command" title="C-command">c-command</a>. If the position to which it must move is already filled, as with a <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a> like <i>see</i>, the possessor cannot raise, and the sentence is correctly predicted to be ungrammatical.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(27)</div><div><b>Hebrew</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Gil</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Gil</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="tense phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TP</abbr> <b>Gil<sub>j</sub></b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ra'a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">saw</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="verb phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">VP</abbr> <b>t<sub>j</sub></b> ra'a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le-Rina</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to Rina</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner phrase" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DP</abbr> le-Rina</p><p style="margin: 0px;">*<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">et</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p><p style="margin: 0px;">et</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="he" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ha-panim</p><p style="margin: 0px;">face</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ha panim]]]</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">* Gil ra'a le-Rina et ha-panim</p><p style="display: none;">{} Gil saw {to Rina} the face</p><p style="display: none;">{} {[TP <b>Gil<sub>j</sub></b>} {[VP <b>t<sub>j</sub></b> ra'a} {[DP le-Rina} et {ha panim]]]}</p><p style="display: none;">{} NOM {} *<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> {} ACC</p><p style="clear: left;">'Gil saw Rina's face'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Guéron 2007: 613 (109))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, some languages like Russian do not have to raise the DP possessor and can leave it <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> and so it is unclear why the possessor would ever have to raise.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possessor-raising also violates a <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_movement#Islands_and_barriers_to_movement" title="Syntactic movement">constraint on syntactic movement</a>, the <b>specificity constraint</b>: an element cannot be moved out of a DP if that DP is <a href="/wiki/Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">specific</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion_17-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell_Companion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In (23), the DP <i>lui</i> is specific, but possessor-raising predicts it can be moved out of the larger DP <i>lui la figure</i>. Such movement is excluded by the specificity constraint. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessor_suppression_with_kin_and_body-part_nouns_(Lødrup_2014)"><span id="Possessor_suppression_with_kin_and_body-part_nouns_.28L.C3.B8drup_2014.29"></span>Possessor suppression with kin and body-part nouns (Lødrup 2014)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Possessor suppression with kin and body-part nouns (Lødrup 2014)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> is a <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> that is spoken mainly in <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and is its official language. Norwegian expresses inalienability by possessor suppression,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which takes place when noun phrases referring to inalienable possessions use the definite form and contain no possessive determiner. </p><p>In sentence (28), "haken", the syntactic object, contains a suppressed possessor in its definite form. It does not contain an explicit possessive marker. In contrast, the English translation contains an explicit possessive determiner, "her", which denote possession. Possessive determiners are obligatory in English for subject-controlled body-part terms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:27a_and_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/27a_and_b.jpg/220px-27a_and_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/27a_and_b.jpg/330px-27a_and_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/27a_and_b.jpg/440px-27a_and_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of (28a) and (28b): possessor suppression in Norwegian compared to an explicit possessive marker in English (Thunes, 2013: 168)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(28)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">She</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">løftet</p><p style="margin: 0px;">raised</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>haken</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">chin.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Hun løftet <b>haken</b></p><p style="display: none;">She raised chin.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'She raised <b>her</b> chin'; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'She raised the chin'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Thunes 2013: 168)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Norwegian treats kinship nouns and body-part nouns similarly in relation to bound variable interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a definite noun is present, it usually has a referential reading. In (29a), the referential reading is present. However, the presence of definite kinship or body part nouns may also bring about the bound variable reading in which a kinship or body part noun contains a variable bound by the quantifier in the subject, and (29b) may produce both the referential and bound variable readings. With the referential reading, the professors washed a face or father, mentioned earlier. With the bound variable reading, the professors washed their own face or father. Additionally, both kinship and body part nouns behave similarly in sentences with VP pronominalization. VP pronominalization involving both nouns allow for both a referential reading and a "sloppy reading", which involves variable binding. In (29c) in the referential reading, John and Mari wash a face or a mother been mentioned earlier. In the "sloppy reading", John washes his face or mother, and Mari washes hers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syntax_tree_(40).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png/220px-Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png/330px-Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png/440px-Syntax_tree_%2840%29.png 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of (29b) in which <i>pro</i> is a silent pronoun</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(29) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hver</p><p style="margin: 0px;">every</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eneste</p><p style="margin: 0px;">single</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">professor</p><p style="margin: 0px;">professor</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">beskøte</p><p style="margin: 0px;">visited</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>museet</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">museum.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Hver eneste professor beskøte <b>museet</b></p><p style="display: none;">every single professor visited museum.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'Every single professor visited the museum'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:45)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(29)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hver</p><p style="margin: 0px;">every</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eneste</p><p style="margin: 0px;">single</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">professor</p><p style="margin: 0px;">professor</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vasket</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ansiktet</b>/<b>faren</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">face.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr>/father.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Hver eneste professor vasket <b>ansiktet</b>/<b>faren</b></p><p style="display: none;">every single professor washed face.DEF/father.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'Every single professor washed his/her face/father'<br /> </p><p>Referential reading: Every single professor washed a face or father that was mentioned earlier.<br /> </p> Bound variable reading: Every single professor washed their own face or father.<p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:45)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(29)</span> c.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">John</p><p style="margin: 0px;">John</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">skal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shall</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vaske</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wash</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ansiket</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">face.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">/<b>moren</b>,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/mother.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">og</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">det</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">skal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shall</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Mari</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Mari</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">også</p><p style="margin: 0px;">too</p></div><p style="display: none;">John skal vaske <b>ansiket</b> /<b>moren</b>, og det skal Mari også</p><p style="display: none;">John shall wash face.DEF /mother.DEF and that shall Mari too</p><p style="clear: left;">'John will wash his face/mother, and Mari will, too'<br /> </p><p>Referential reading: John and Mari will wash a face or a mother that was mentioned earlier.<br /> </p> Sloppy reading: John will wash his own face or mother and Mari will wash her own face or mother.<p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:46)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Finally, both kinship and body part nouns bear similarities in locality. Both behave in such a way that the definite form of the noun is bound by the closest subject. In (30a), the possessor must be the subordinate clause subject, not the main clause subject. Likewise, in (30b), the father mentioned is preferably the father of the subordinate clause subject referent, not of the main clause subject referent. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_29a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tree_29a.jpg/220px-Tree_29a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tree_29a.jpg/330px-Tree_29a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tree_29a.jpg/440px-Tree_29a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of (30a): locality with a body part noun in Norwegian in which the noun is bound by the closest subject. 'Håret' is the subordinate clause subject referent and 'John' is the subordinate clause subject. (Lødrup 2014: 47)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(30) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">said</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">at</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">John</p><p style="margin: 0px;">John</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vasket</p><p style="margin: 0px;">washed</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>håret</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">hair.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Hun sa at John vasket <b>håret</b></p><p style="display: none;">she said that John washed hair.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'She said that John washed his hair'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(30)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">visste</p><p style="margin: 0px;">knew</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ikke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">not</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">at</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">John</p><p style="margin: 0px;">John</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hadde</p><p style="margin: 0px;">had</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">snakket</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">med</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>faren</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">father.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Hun visste ikke at John hadde snakket med <b>faren</b></p><p style="display: none;">she knew not that John had talked to father.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'She did not know that John had talked to his father'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:47)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>On the other hand, definite kinship and body-part nouns in Norwegian have a syntactic difference. Definite body part nouns allow a first- or second-person possessor, but some definite kinship nouns do not. For instance, the sentence in (31a) is not allowed as it contains a first-person possessor and kinship term. The kinship term can be used only with a third-person possessor, such as in (31b). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:30a_and_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/30a_and_b.jpg/220px-30a_and_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/30a_and_b.jpg/330px-30a_and_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/30a_and_b.jpg/440px-30a_and_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of (31a) and (31b): syntactic restrictions on first- and second-person possessors of definite body part nouns in Norwegian (Lødrup 2014: 49-50) in which '*' denotes an ungrammatical sentence</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(31) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jeg</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">snakket</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">med</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>faren</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">father.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">* Jeg snakket med <b>faren</b></p><p style="display: none;">{} I talked to father.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'I talked to my father'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(31)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Han</p><p style="margin: 0px;">He</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">snakket</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">med</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>far</b>/<b>faren</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">father/father.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Han snakket med <b>far</b>/<b>faren</b></p><p style="display: none;">He talked to father/father.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'He talked to his father'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:49-50)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, body part nouns do not have the restriction on first- or second-person possessors like in (32). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(32)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jeg</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">klør</p><p style="margin: 0px;">itch</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">på</p><p style="margin: 0px;">on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="no" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ryggen</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">back.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Jeg klør på <b>ryggen</b></p><p style="display: none;">I itch on back.DEF</p><p style="clear: left;">'My back is itching'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Lødrup 2014:49)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_function_motivations">Form function motivations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Form function motivations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inalienable possession constructions often lack overt possessors.<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a debate as to how to account for the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">linguistically-universal</a> difference in form. Iconicity explains the in terms of the relationship between the conceptual distance between the possessor and the possessee,<sup id="cite_ref-Haiman_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiman-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and economy explains it by the frequency of possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iconic_motivation_(Haiman_1983)"><span id="Iconic_motivation_.28Haiman_1983.29"></span>Iconic motivation (Haiman 1983)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Iconic motivation (Haiman 1983)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Haiman describes iconic expression and conceptual distance and how both concepts are conceptually close if they share semantic properties, affect each other and cannot be separated from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Haiman_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiman-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> hypothesizes that the distance between the possessor and possessee in a sentence with alienable possession is greater than in a sentence with inalienable constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine3_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine3-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the possessor and the possessee have a close conceptual relationship, their relative positions with a sentence reflect that, and there is little distance between them. Increasing the distance between both would in turn increase their conceptual independence. </p><p>That is demonstrated in <a href="/wiki/Yagaria_language" title="Yagaria language">Yagaria</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Papuan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuan language">Papuan language</a> that marks alienable possession by a free form pronoun as in (33a). In contrast, inalienable possession constructions use an inalienable possessor that is <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixed</a> on the possessee, as in (33b), a construction that has less linguistic distance between the possessor and possessee than the alienable construction has: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(33) a.</div><div><b>Alienable</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ygr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dgai'</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ygr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pig</p></div><p style="display: none;">dgai' fu</p><p style="display: none;">my pig</p><p style="clear: left;">'my pig'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(33)</span> b.</div><div>'<i>Inalienable</i></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ygr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">d-za'</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-arm</p></div><p style="display: none;">d-za'</p><p style="display: none;">my-arm</p><p style="clear: left;">'my arm'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Haiman 1983: 793 (30a,b))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, there are cases of linguistic distance not necessarily reflecting conceptual distance. <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> has two ways to express the same type of possession: POSSESSOR + POSSESSEE and POSSESSOR + de + POSSESSEE. The latter has more linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee, but it reflects the same conceptual distance.<sup id="cite_ref-hsu_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsu-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both possessive expressions, with and without the marker <i><b>de</b></i>, are found in the Mandarin phrase "my friend", which is seen in (34a) unlike (34b):<sup id="cite_ref-Li_and_Thompson_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_and_Thompson-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(34) a.</div><div><b>POSSESSOR + de + POSSESSEE</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>DE</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>de</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">péngyǒu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">friend</p></div><p style="display: none;">wǒ <b>DE</b> péngyǒu</p><p style="display: none;">I <b>de</b> friend</p><p style="clear: left;">'My friend'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(34)</span> b.</div><div><b>POSSESSOR + POSSESSEE</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">péngyǒu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">friend</p></div><p style="display: none;">wǒ péngyǒu</p><p style="display: none;">I friend</p><p style="clear: left;">'My friend'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Hsu 2009: 101 (22a,b))</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In contrast to the previous example, the omission of the marker <i>de</i> is ungrammatical, as in example (35b). The linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee is much smaller in (35b) than in (35a). It has been argued that the omission of <i>de</i> occurs only in kinship relationships, but phrasal constructions with a mandatory <i>de</i> encompasse other cases of inalienable possession, such as body parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Haiman_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiman-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 783">: 783 </span></sup> That contradicts the notion that inalienable possession is marked by less linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(35) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">xǐhuān</p><p style="margin: 0px;">like</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nǐ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>DE</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>de</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tóufà</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hair</p></div><p style="display: none;">wǒ xǐhuān nǐ <b>DE</b> tóufà</p><p style="display: none;">I like you <b>de</b> hair</p><p style="clear: left;">'I like your hair'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:5em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(35)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">*</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">xǐhuān</p><p style="margin: 0px;">like</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nǐ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="zh" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tóufà</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hair</p></div><p style="display: none;">* wǒ xǐhuān nǐ tóufà</p><p style="display: none;">{} I like you hair</p><p style="clear: left;">'I like your hair'</p><p style="margin-top:0">(Li & Thompson 1981: 169)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_motivation_(Nichols_1988)"><span id="Economic_motivation_.28Nichols_1988.29"></span>Economic motivation (Nichols 1988)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Economic motivation (Nichols 1988)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nichols notes that frequently-possessed nouns, such as body parts and kinship terms, almost always occur with possessors, and alienable nouns occur less often with possessors.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Good_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Good-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following shows the frequency of possession between alienable and unalienable nouns in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Good_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Good-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The table below shows the number of times that each noun occurred with or without a possessor in texts from the German Goethe-Corpus of the works of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Noun category</th> <th>Noun</th> <th>Unpossessed</th> <th>Possessed </th></tr> <tr> <td>Alienable</td> <td><i>Gärtner</i> 'gardener' <br /> <i>Jäger</i> 'hunter' <br /> <i>Pfarrer</i> 'priest'</td> <td>24 <br /> 48 <br /> 12</td> <td>0 <br /> 2 <br /> 0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Inalienable</td> <td><i>Schwester</i> 'sister' <br /> <i>Tante</i> 'aunt' <br /> <i>Tochter</i> 'daughter'</td> <td>32 <br /> 47 <br /> 46</td> <td>58 <br /> 22 <br /> 53 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The alienable nouns above are rarely possessed, but the inalienable kinship terms are frequently possessed.<sup id="cite_ref-Good_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Good-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, inalienable nouns are expected to be possessed even if they lack a distinct possessive marker. Therefore, overt markings on inalienable nouns are redundant, and for economical syntactic construction, languages often have zero-marking for their inalienable nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter_de_Gruyter_&_Co-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That could be explained by <a href="/wiki/Zipf%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Zipf's Law">Zipf's Law</a> in which the familiarity or the frequency of an occurrence motivates the linguistic simplification of the concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Haiman_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haiman-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A listener who hears an inalienable noun can predict that it will be possessed, which eliminates the need for an overt possessor.<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary_of_abbreviations">Glossary of abbreviations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Glossary of abbreviations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morpheme_glosses">Morpheme glosses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Morpheme glosses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>*</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Asterisked_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Asterisked form">ungrammatical</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third person</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ACC</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>DAT</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative case</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>DEF DET</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite</a> <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>F</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">feminine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>GEN</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>NOM</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>PL</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>POSS</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">possessive</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>REFLEX</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>SG</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">singular</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>t<sub>x</sub></i></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trace_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace (linguistics)">trace</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><sub>i</sub></i></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coreference" title="Coreference">co-referenced</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntactic_trees">Syntactic trees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Syntactic trees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>D</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>DP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">determiner phrase</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>N</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>NP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>PP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrases" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrases">prepositional phrase</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>T</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>TP</td> <td>tense phrase </td></tr> <tr> <td>V</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>e</i></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Empty_category" title="Empty category">empty category</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="display:none;"> <p>D:determiner DP:determiner phrase N:noun NP:noun phrase PP:prepositional phrase T:tense TP:tense phrase V:verb VP:verb phrase </p> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austronesian_languages">Austronesian languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Austronesian languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rapa">Rapa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Rapa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old <a href="/wiki/Rapa_language" title="Rapa language">Rapa</a> is the indigenous language of <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Iti" title="Rapa Iti">Rapa Iti</a>, an island of <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a> in the Bass Islands archipelago. The language structure of Rapa has two primary possessive particles: a and o. The usage of both particles is dependent on the relation between the possessor and the object. When words are categorized by possessive particles, there is a very close resemblance to the usage of the possessive particle and the object's alienability. However, the relation is better defined by William Wilson in his article <i>Proto-Polynesian Possessive Marking</i>. </p><p>Briefly, through his two theories, the Simple Control Theory and Initial Control Theory, Wilson contrasts and thus better defines the usage of the possessive particles. The Simple Control Theory speculates that the determining factor directly correlated to the possessor's control over the object and emphasises a dominant vs. less-dominant relationship. Old Rapa adheres closer to the Initial Control Theory, which speculates that "the possessor's control over the initiation of the possessive relationship is the determining factor." Here, the Initial Control Theory can also be generally expanded to the whole Polynesian language family in terms of better describing the "alienability" of possession.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of Old Rapa, the possession particle o is used to define a possession relationship that was not initiated on the basis of choice. The possession particle a defines possession relationships that are initiated with the possessor's control. The following list and classifications are literal examples provided by Mary Walworth in her dissertation of Rapa. Words that are marked with the o possessive markers are nouns that are: </p> <ul><li>Inalienable (leg, hand, foot)</li> <li>A whole of which the possessor is a permanent part (household)</li> <li>Kinship (father, mother, brother)</li> <li>Higher social or religious status (teacher, pastor, president)</li> <li>Vehicles (canoe, car)</li> <li>Necessary actions (work)</li> <li>Involuntary body functions (heartbeat, stomach, pupils, breathing)</li> <li>Words that relate to indigenous identity (language, country)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <caption><i>o-</i>marked and <i>a-</i>marked<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><i>o</i>-marked </th> <th><i>a-</i>marked </th></tr> <tr> <td>house </td> <td>terrain </td></tr> <tr> <td>canoe </td> <td>taro-bed </td></tr> <tr> <td>boat </td> <td>children </td></tr> <tr> <td>parents </td> <td>spouse </td></tr> <tr> <td>brother </td> <td>food </td></tr> <tr> <td>sister </td> <td>animals </td></tr> <tr> <td>country/island </td> <td>oven </td></tr> <tr> <td>god </td> <td>grandchildren </td></tr> <tr> <td>car </td> <td>unborn child </td></tr> <tr> <td>teacher </td> <td>a group (sport's team, association) </td></tr> <tr> <td>preacher </td> <td>trip, coming/goings </td></tr> <tr> <td>friend </td> <td>project/plans </td></tr> <tr> <td>sickness </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>happiness/smile </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>town </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>body and body parts </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>grandparents </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>language </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>chief </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>life </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>idea </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, Wilson's theory falls short of properly categorizing a few miscellaneous items such as articles of clothing and furniture that his theory would incorrectly predict to be marked with the possessive particle a. The reverse occurs for objects such as food and animals. The synthesis of Wilson's theory and others approach a better understanding of the Rapa language. Svenja Völkel proposed the idea of looking further into the ritualistic beliefs of the community: its mana. That idea has been related to other languages in the Eastern Polynesian language family. It states that objects with less mana than the possessor use the a-possessive particle, and the usage of the o-possessive marker is reserved for the possessor's mana that is not superior.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same usage of the possessive particles in possessive pronouns can be seen in the contracted portmanteau, the combination of the articles and possessive markers. The results are the prefixes tō and tā in the following possessive pronouns, as can be seen in the table below: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Possessive Pronouns of Old Rapa<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Dual </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st Person </th> <th>Inclusive </th> <td rowspan="2">tōku </td> <td rowspan="2">tāku </td> <td>tō māua </td> <td>tā māua </td> <td>tō mātou </td> <td>tā mātou </td></tr> <tr> <th>Exclusive </th> <td>tō tāua </td> <td>tā tāua </td> <td>tō tātou </td> <td>tā tātou </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd Person </th> <td>tōkoe </td> <td>tākoe </td> <td>tō kōrua </td> <td>tā kōrua </td> <td>tō koutou </td> <td>tā koutou </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3rd Person </th> <td>tōna </td> <td>tāna </td> <td>tō rāua </td> <td>tā rāua </td> <td>tō rātou </td> <td>tā rātou </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wuvulu">Wuvulu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Wuvulu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Wuvulu-Aua_language" title="Wuvulu-Aua language">Wuvulu language</a> is a small language spoken in <a href="/wiki/Wuvulu_Island" title="Wuvulu Island">Wuvulu Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct possession has a close relationship with inalienability in Oceanic linguistics. Similarly, the inherent possession of the possessor is called the possessum.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The inalienable noun also has a possessor suffix and includes body parts, kinship terms, locative part nouns and derived nouns. According to Hafford's research, "-u" (my), "-mu" (your) and "na-"（his/her/its) are three direct possession suffix in Wuvulu.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Body parts</li></ul> <p>Direct- possession suffix "-u"(my), "-mu" (your) and "na-"（his/her/its) can be taken to attach the noun phrase of body part.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Taba-u </th> <th>taba-mu </th> <th>taba-na </th></tr> <tr> <td>my head </td> <td>your head </td> <td>his/her/its head </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Kinship terms</li></ul> <p>Kinship terms in Wuvulu language take singular possessive suffixes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>ʔama-u </th> <th>ʔama-mu </th> <th>ʔama-na </th></tr> <tr> <td>my father </td> <td>your father </td> <td>his/her/its father </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Derived nouns (Nouns that derived from other words)</li></ul> <p>Example: </p><p>ʔei wareamu (Your word) is derived from the verb ware (talk) </p><p>Such a word can take the direct possessor suffix. "-mu" (your {singular]) </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">faʔua,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">true</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʔei</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ware-a-mu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talk-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="DER: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">DER</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">faʔua, ʔei ware-a-mu</p><p style="display: none;">true the talk-DER-2SG</p><p style="clear: left;">Your words are true.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tokelauan">Tokelauan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Tokelauan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here is a table displaying the predicative possessive pronouns in <a href="/wiki/Tokelauan_language" title="Tokelauan language">Tokelauan</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th>incl. </th> <td rowspan="2">o oku, o kita<br />a aku, a kite </td> <td>o taua, o ta<br />a taua, a ta </td> <td>o tatou<br />a tatou </td></tr> <tr> <th>excl. </th> <td>o maua, o ma o<br />a maua, a ma a </td> <td>matou<br />matou </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd person </th> <td>o ou/o koe<br />a au/a koe </td> <td>o koulua<br />a koulua </td> <td>o koutou<br />a koutou </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3rd person </th> <td>o ona<br />a ona </td> <td>o laua, o la<br />a laua, a la </td> <td>o latou<br />a latou </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Here is a table with the Tokelauan possessive pronouns: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Possessor </th> <th>Singular reference </th> <th>Plural reference </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 singular </th> <td>toku, taku, tota, tata </td> <td>oku, aku, ota, ata </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 singular </th> <td>to, tau </td> <td>o, au </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 singular </th> <td>tona, tana </td> <td>ona, ana </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 dual incl. </th> <td>to ta, to taua<br />ta ta, ta taue </td> <td>o ta, o taue<br />a ta, a taua </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 dual excl. </th> <td>to ma, to maua<br />ta ma, ta maua </td> <td>o ma, o maua<br />a ma, a maua </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 dual </th> <td>toulua, taulua </td> <td>oulua, aulua </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 dual </th> <td>to la, to laue<br />ta la, ta laue </td> <td>o la, o laua<br />a la a laua </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 plural incl. </th> <td>to tatou, ta tatou </td> <td>o tatou, a tatou </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 plural excl. </th> <td>to matou, ta matou </td> <td>o matou, a matou </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 plural </th> <td>toutou, tautau </td> <td>outou, autou </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 plural </th> <td>to latou, ta latau </td> <td>o latou, a latou </td></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">NON-SPECIFIC/INDEFINITE </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 singular </th> <td>hoku, hota<br />haku, hata </td> <td>ni oku, ni ota<br />niaku, niata </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 singular </th> <td>ho, hau </td> <td>ni o, ni au </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 singular </th> <td>hona, hana </td> <td>ni ona, ni ana </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 dual incl. </th> <td>ho ta, ho taua<br />ha ta, ha taua </td> <td>ni o ta, ni o taue<br />ni a ta, ni a taua </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 dual excl. </th> <td>ho ma, ho maua<br />ha ma, ha maua </td> <td>ni o ma, ni o maua<br />ni a ma, ni a maua </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 dual </th> <td>houlua, haulua </td> <td>ni oulua, ni aulua </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligatory_possession" title="Obligatory possession">Obligatory possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">Noun class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">Determiner phrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">Noun phrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive_affix" title="Possessive affix">Possessive affix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">English possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive case</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cinque and Krapova are citing Lamiroy (2003). "Grammaticalization and external possessor structures in Romance and Germanic languages", p.259, who is in turn citing Leclère (1976). "Datifs syntaxiques et datif éthique."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Technically, the obligatory occurrence of a possessor is a property of certain morphemes called <a href="/wiki/Obligatory_possession" title="Obligatory possession">obligatory possession</a>, but linguists often use <i>inalienable possession</i> instead.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American language">Native American language</a> <a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_people#Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumeyaay people">Diegueño</a>, the alienable possessive marker (<i><b>?-ə</b>n<sup>y</sup></i>) appears to have originated from the inalienable possessive marker (<i><b>?-ə</b></i>), which suggests the latter to be older.<sup id="cite_ref-space_and_time_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space_and_time-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/08_springschool/pdf/course_materials/Haspelmath_Possessives.pdf">"Haspelmath Possessives"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.eva.mpg.de</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.eva.mpg.de&rft.atitle=Haspelmath+Possessives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eva.mpg.de%2Flingua%2Fconference%2F08_springschool%2Fpdf%2Fcourse_materials%2FHaspelmath_Possessives.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ling_dictionary-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ling_dictionary_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2007" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, P. H. (2007). <i>Inalienable possession</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199202720.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199202720.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199202720" title="Special:BookSources/9780199202720"><bdi>9780199202720</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inalienable+possession&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199202720.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780199202720&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=P.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtenberkVaidChen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lichtenberk, Frantisek; Vaid, Jyotsna; Chen, Hsin-Chin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philarchive.org/rec/LICOTI">"On the interpretation of alienable vs. inalienable possession: A psycholinguistic investigation"</a>. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i>. <b>22</b> (4): 659–689. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcogl.2011.025">10.1515/cogl.2011.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143993134">143993134</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/919350399">919350399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+the+interpretation+of+alienable+vs.+inalienable+possession%3A+A+psycholinguistic+investigation&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=659-689&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcogl.2011.025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143993134%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lichtenberk&rft.aufirst=Frantisek&rft.au=Vaid%2C+Jyotsna&rft.au=Chen%2C+Hsin-Chin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilarchive.org%2Frec%2FLICOTI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nichols-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols,_JohannaBickel,_Balthasar" class="citation web cs1">Nichols, Johanna; Bickel, Balthasar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/feature/description/59">"Possessive Classification"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Atlas+of+Language+Structures&rft.atitle=Possessive+Classification&rft.au=Nichols%2C+Johanna&rft.au=Bickel%2C+Balthasar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Ffeature%2Fdescription%2F59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsBickel2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nichols, Johanna; Bickel, Balthasar (2013). Dryer, Matthew S; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/chapter/59">"Possessive Classification"</a>. <i>The World Atlas of Language Structures Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Atlas+of+Language+Structures+Online&rft.atitle=Possessive+Classification&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft.au=Bickel%2C+Balthasar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Fchapter%2F59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nichols3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nichols3_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols,_JohannaBickel,_Balthasar" class="citation web cs1">Nichols, Johanna; Bickel, Balthasar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/feature/58">"Feature/Obligatory Possessive Inflection"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-03-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Atlas+of+Language+Structures&rft.atitle=Feature%2FObligatory+Possessive+Inflection&rft.au=Nichols%2C+Johanna&rft.au=Bickel%2C+Balthasar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Ffeature%2F58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chappell,_McGregor-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chappell,_McGregor_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappellMcGregor1996" class="citation book cs1">Chappell, Hilary; McGregor, William (1996). <i>Prolegomena to a theory of inalienability. 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New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-088042-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-088042-1"><bdi>978-0-03-088042-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Major+Syntactic+Structures+of+English&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-03-088042-1&rft.aulast=Stockwell&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft.au=Schachter%2C+Paul&rft.au=Partee%2C+Barbara+Hall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmajorsyntacticst0000stoc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blackwell_Companion2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blackwell_Companion2_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuéron" class="citation book cs1">Guéron, Jacqueline. <i>The Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volume I (Chapter 35)</i>. 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"Possessor Raising and the Structure of VP". <i>Lingua</i>. <b>107</b> (1): 1–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0024-3841%2898%2900025-4">10.1016/S0024-3841(98)00025-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingua&rft.atitle=Possessor+Raising+and+the+Structure+of+VP&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0024-3841%2898%2900025-4&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Idan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thunes, Martha. “The Inalieability Pattern of English and Norwegian.” 1 Feb. 2013, pp. 168–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lødrup, Helge. "Split Possession and the Syntax of Kinship Nouns in Norwegian." The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics, vol. 17, no. 1, 2014, pp. 35-57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haiman-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haiman_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haiman_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haiman_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haiman_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaiman1983" class="citation journal cs1">Haiman, John (1983). 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Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mandarin+Chinese%3A+A+Functional+Reference+Grammar&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Good-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Good_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Good_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Good_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGood2008" class="citation book cs1">Good, Jeff, ed. (2008). <i>Linguistic Universals and Language Change</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Universals+and+Language+Change&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">WILSON, WILLIAM H. 1982. Proto-Polynesian possessive marking. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vökel, Svenja. 2010. <i>Structure, space, and possession in Tongan culture and language: An ethnolinguistic study</i>. John Benjamins Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walworth, Mary E. <i>The Language of Rapa Iti: Description of a Language In Change</i>. Diss. U of Hawaii at Manoa, 2015. Honolulu: U of Hawaii at Manoa, 2015. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Introduction". <i>Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary</i>: 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Possession". <i>Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary</i>: 59–60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Possession&rft.pages=59-60&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Possessor Suffixes". <i>Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary</i>: 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Possessor+Suffixes&rft.pages=61&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Direct possession". <i>Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary</i> – via 61-63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Direct+possession&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooper1994" class="citation book cs1">Hooper, Robin (1994). <i>Studies in Tokelauan syntax</i>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Tokelauan+syntax&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=University+Microfilms+International&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hooper&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInalienable+possession" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inalienable_possession&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/feature/59A#2/25.5/153.5">A map of the world's languages colored by possessive classification complexity</a> from the <a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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