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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smooth_muscle_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Smooth muscle physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smooth_muscle_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Endogenous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endogenous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Endogenous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endogenous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autonomic_nervous_system_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomic_nervous_system_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Autonomic nervous system control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomic_nervous_system_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold-induced" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold-induced"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Cold-induced</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold-induced-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_vasodilation_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_vasodilation_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Direct vasodilation drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_vasodilation_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor_agonists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor_agonists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor agonists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor_agonists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_vessel_muscle_relaxants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_vessel_muscle_relaxants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Blood vessel muscle relaxants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_vessel_muscle_relaxants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Therapeutic_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapeutic_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Therapeutic applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapeutic_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vasodilation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B9_%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="توسيع وعائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توسيع وعائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Вазадылатацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вазадылатацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatacija" title="Vazodilatacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vazodilatacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilataci%C3%B3" title="Vasodilatació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vasodilatació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatace" title="Vazodilatace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vazodilatace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasudilatazioni" title="Vasudilatazioni – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Vasudilatazioni" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatation" title="Vasodilatation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vasodilatation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatation" title="Vasodilatation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vasodilatation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatatsioon" title="Vasodilatatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vasodilatatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilataci%C3%B3n" title="Vasodilatación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vasodilatación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatado" title="Vazodilatado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vazodilatado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basodilatazio" title="Basodilatazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Basodilatazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%B1%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="گشادشدن رگ‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گشادشدن رگ‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatateur" title="Vasodilatateur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vasodilatateur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%88%EA%B4%80_%ED%99%95%EC%9E%A5" title="혈관 확장 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="혈관 확장" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatatori" title="Vazodilatatori – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vazodilatatori" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilasi" title="Vasodilasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Vasodilasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatazione" title="Vasodilatazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vasodilatazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatatio" title="Vasodilatatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vasodilatatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatatie" title="Vasodilatatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vasodilatatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilator" title="Vasodilator – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vasodilator" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatatsiya" title="Vazodilatatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vazodilatatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wazodylatacja" title="Wazodylatacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wazodylatacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilata%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Vasodilatação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vasodilatação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вазодилатация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вазодилатация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vasodilation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatator" title="Vazodilatator – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vazodilatator" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Вазодилатација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вазодилатација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatacija" title="Vazodilatacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vazodilatacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilatation" title="Vasodilatation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vasodilatation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF" title="இரத்தநாள விரிவூக்கி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரத்தநாள விரிவூக்கி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vazodilatasyon" title="Vazodilatasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vazodilatasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A3n_m%E1%BA%A1ch" title="Giãn mạch – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giãn mạch" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E7%AE%A1%E8%88%92%E5%BC%B5" title="血管舒張 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="血管舒張" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q14859627#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vasodilation%22">"Vasodilation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vasodilation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vasodilation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vasodilation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vasodilation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vasodilation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vasodilation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Vasodilation.jpg/254px-Vasodilation.jpg" decoding="async" width="254" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Vasodilation.jpg/381px-Vasodilation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Vasodilation.jpg/508px-Vasodilation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Normal blood vessel (left) vs. vasodilation (right)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Vasodilation</b>, also known as <b>vasorelaxation</b>, is the widening of <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Vasodilation_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Vasodilation-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It results from relaxation of <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a>, and smaller <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arterioles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an <a href="/wiki/Adventitia" title="Adventitia">adventitia</a> over the smooth muscle layers.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_2024_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2024-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation is the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a>, which is the narrowing of blood vessels. </p><p>When blood vessels <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dilate#Verb" class="extiw" title="wikt:dilate">dilate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Blood_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood flow">flow of blood</a> is increased due to a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">vascular resistance</a> and increase in <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Not obvious how vasodilation would increase cardiac output. Explain. (January 2020)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Vascular resistance is the amount of force circulating blood must overcome in order to allow <a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">perfusion</a> of body tissues. Narrow vessels create more vascular resistance, while dilated vessels decrease vascular resistance. Vasodilation acts to increase cardiac output by decreasing <a href="/wiki/Afterload" title="Afterload">afterload</a>, −one of the four determinants of cardiac output.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By expanding available area for blood to circulate, vasodilation decreases <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramanlal_2024_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramanlal_2024-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The response may be <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic">intrinsic</a> (due to local processes in the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrinsic">extrinsic</a> (due to <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>). In addition, the response may be localized to a specific <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</a> (depending on the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> needs of a particular tissue, as during strenuous exercise), or it may be systemic (seen throughout the entire <a href="/wiki/Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Endogeny_(biology)" title="Endogeny (biology)">Endogenous</a> substances and <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> that cause vasodilation are termed vasodilators. Many of these substances are <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> released by perivascular nerves of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptors</a> sense blood pressure and allow adaptation via the mechanisms of vasoconstriction or vasodilation to maintain <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary function of vasodilation is to increase blood flow in the body to tissues that need it most. This is often in response to a localized <a href="/wiki/Dioxygen_in_biological_reactions" title="Dioxygen in biological reactions">need for oxygen</a> but can occur when the tissue in question is not receiving enough <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>, or other <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a>. Vasodilation, both localized and systemic, also facilitates immune response.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Localized tissues have multiple ways to increase blood flow, including releasing vasodilators, primarily <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a>, into the local <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial fluid</a>, which diffuses to <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillary</a> beds, provoking local vasodilation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9576114_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9576114-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15772334_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15772334-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some physiologists have suggested that it is the lack of oxygen itself that causes capillary beds to vasodilate by the smooth muscle <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a> of the vessels in the region. This latter hypothesis is posited due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Precapillary_sphincter" title="Precapillary sphincter">precapillary sphincters</a> in capillary beds. These approaches to the mechanism of vasodilation have not been found to be <a href="/wiki/Mutually_exclusive" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually exclusive">mutually exclusive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immune_system">Immune system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Immune system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vasodilation plays a major role in immune system function. Wider blood vessels allow more blood containing immune cells and proteins to reach the infection site. Vasodilation occurs as part of the process of <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, which is caused by several factors including presence of a pathogen, injury to tissues or blood vessels, and <a href="/wiki/Immune_complex" title="Immune complex">immune complexes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In severe cases, inflammation can lead to <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> or distributive shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2013_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation is also a major component of <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pałgan_2023_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pałgan_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inflammation causes not only vasodilation but also causes increased <a href="/wiki/Vascular_permeability" title="Vascular permeability">vascular permeability</a>, allowing <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complement_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement proteins">complement proteins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> to reach the site of infection or damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elevated vascular permeability can allow excess fluid to leave blood vessels and collect in tissues resulting in <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>; vasodilation prevents blood vessels from constricting to adapt to reduced volume in the vessels, causing low blood pressure and <a href="/wiki/Septic_shock" title="Septic shock">septic shock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2013_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of inflammation, vasodilation is caused by <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">Interferon gamma</a>, <a href="/wiki/TNF-a" class="mw-redirect" title="TNF-a">TNF-a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1_beta" title="Interleukin 1 beta">interleukin 1 beta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_12" title="Interleukin 12">interleukin 12</a> are a few examples of some inflammatory cytokines produced by immune cells such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">natural killer cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">mast cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-inflammatory cytokines that regulate inflammation and help prevent negative results such as septic shock are also produced by these immune cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague_2009_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague_2009-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability also allow immune <a href="/wiki/Effector_cell" title="Effector cell">effector cells</a> to leave blood vessels and follow <a href="/wiki/Chemoattractant" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoattractant">chemoattractants</a> to the infection site via a process called <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte_extravasation" title="Leukocyte extravasation">leukocyte extravasation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nourshargh_2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nourshargh_2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation allows the same volume of blood to move more slowly according to the flow rate equation Q = Av, where Q represents flow rate, A represents cross-sectional area, and v represents velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immune effector cells can more easily attach to <a href="/wiki/Selectin" title="Selectin">selectins</a> expressed on endothelial cells when blood is flowing slowly, enabling these cells to exit the blood vessel via <a href="/wiki/Diapedesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Diapedesis">diapedesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nourshargh_2014_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nourshargh_2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">Anaphylaxis</a> is a severe allergic reaction characterized by elevated vascular permeability, systemic vasodilation, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and respiratory dysfunction.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anaphylatoxin" title="Anaphylatoxin">Anaphylatoxins</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Complement_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement protein">complement proteins</a> C3a and C5a, bind to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing <a href="/wiki/Degranulation" title="Degranulation">degranulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pałgan_2023_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pałgan_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Granules in these cells contain <a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platelet-activating_factor" title="Platelet-activating factor">platelet-activating factor</a>, and other compounds causing clinical manifestation of anaphylaxis- including systemic vasodilation causing dangerously low blood pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Pałgan_2023_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pałgan_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_E" title="Immunoglobulin E">Immunoglobulin E</a>, an antibody produced by <a href="/wiki/Plasma_cell" title="Plasma cell">plasma cells</a>, also binds to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing degranulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Pałgan_2023_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pałgan_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A basic understanding of <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">vascular resistance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> is necessary to understand the causes and impacts of vasodilation. Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood pumped through the heart over 1 minute, in units of liters per minute, equal to <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> multiplied by <a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">stroke volume</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2008_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is directly related to <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_contractility" title="Myocardial contractility">myocardial contractility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Preload_(cardiology)" title="Preload (cardiology)">preload</a>, and inversely related with <a href="/wiki/Afterload" title="Afterload">afterload</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2008_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elevated vascular resistance due to constricted blood vessels causes in increase in afterload, the amount of force against which the heart must contract.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2008_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation therefore decreases vascular resistance, which decreases afterload, elevating cardiac output and allowing perfusion of tissues. Blood pressure measures how much pressure blood exerts on blood vessel walls; <a href="/wiki/Systolic_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Systolic blood pressure">systolic blood pressure</a> measures pressure while the heart contracts (<a href="/wiki/Systole" title="Systole">systole</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Diastolic_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Diastolic blood pressure">diastolic blood pressure</a> reflects pressure between contractions (<a href="/wiki/Diastole" title="Diastole">diastole</a>). <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">Mean arterial pressure</a> (MAP)is a weighted average of systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and is a better measurement of perfusion over the duration of the cardiac cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation works to decrease vascular resistance and blood pressure through relaxation of smooth muscle cells in the <a href="/wiki/Tunica_media" title="Tunica media">tunica media</a> layer of large <a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">arteries</a> and smaller arterioles.<sup id="cite_ref-CVPharmacology2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CVPharmacology2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When vasodilation causes systolic blood pressure to fall below 90 mmHg, <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_Shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulatory Shock">circulatory shock</a> is observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_2013_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vascular resistance depends on several factors, including the length of the vessel, the viscosity of blood (determined by <a href="/wiki/Hematocrit" title="Hematocrit">hematocrit</a>) and the diameter of the blood vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter is the most important variable in determining resistance, with the vascular resistance changing by the fourth power of the radius.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An increase in either of these physiological components (cardiac output or vascular resistance) causes a rise in MAP. <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">Arterioles</a> create the most vascular resistance of any blood vessel type, as they are very narrow and possess concentric layers of smooth muscle unlike <a href="/wiki/Venule" title="Venule">venules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vasodilation occurs in superficial blood vessels of <a href="/wiki/Warm-blooded" title="Warm-blooded">warm-blooded</a> animals when their ambient environment is hot; this process diverts the flow of heated blood to the skin of the animal, where heat can be more easily released to the environment. The opposite physiological process is <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a>. These processes are naturally modulated by local <a href="/wiki/Paracrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine">paracrine</a> agents from <a href="/wiki/Endothelial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial cells">endothelial cells</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">bradykinin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium ions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a>), and by the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>, both of which secrete <a href="/wiki/Catecholamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Catecholamines">catecholamines</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Charkoudian_2010_pp._1221–12282_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charkoudian_2010_pp._1221–12282-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_2010_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smooth_muscle_physiology">Smooth muscle physiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Smooth muscle physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tunica_media" title="Tunica media">tunica media</a> of the walls of arteries, arterioles, and veins is composed of <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> and causes vasodilation and vasoconstriction.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_2024_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2024-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contraction of smooth muscle cells causes vasoconstriction, and relaxation of smooth muscle causes vasodilation.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Vasodilation_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Vasodilation-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smooth muscle is innervated by the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> and is non-striated (does not contain sarcomeres).<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contraction is dependent on concentrations of Ca<sup>2+</sup> in the cytosol, either via Ca,Mg-ATPase from the <a href="/wiki/Sarcoplasmic_reticulum" title="Sarcoplasmic reticulum">sarcoplasmic reticulum</a> or voltage-gated calcium channels from the extracellular matrix.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calcium ions bind with <a href="/wiki/Calmodulin" title="Calmodulin">calmodulin</a>, activating <a href="/wiki/Myosin_light-chain_kinase" title="Myosin light-chain kinase">myosin light-chain kinase</a> which <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylates" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphorylates">phosphorylates</a> the myosin light-chain.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phosphorylated light-chain myosin interacts with <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> filaments forming a <a href="/wiki/Cross-bridge_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-bridge cycle">cross-bridge</a>, allowing muscle contraction causing vasoconstriction.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vasodilation is caused by <a href="/wiki/Myosin-light-chain_phosphatase" title="Myosin-light-chain phosphatase">myosin-light-chain phosphatase</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Dephosphorylation" title="Dephosphorylation">dephosphorylates</a> the myosin light chain causing muscle relaxation.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smooth muscle cells can remain contracted without use of ATP due to action of the myosin-binding subunit of myosin light-chain phosphatase. Phosphorylation of this subunit by <a href="/wiki/Rho-kinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Rho-kinase">Rho-kinase</a> prevents it from binding to and dephosphorylating the myosin light-chain, allowing the cell to remain contracted.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2003_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vasodilation is the result of relaxation in <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> surrounding the blood vessels. This relaxation, in turn, relies on removing the stimulus for contraction, which depends on intracellular calcium ion concentrations and is tightly linked with <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> of the light chain of the contractile protein <a href="/wiki/Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a>. Thus, vasodilation works mainly either by lowering intracellular calcium concentration or by dephosphorylation (really substitution of ATP for ADP) of myosin. <a href="/wiki/Dephosphorylation" title="Dephosphorylation">Dephosphorylation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Myosin_light-chain_phosphatase" class="mw-redirect" title="Myosin light-chain phosphatase">myosin light-chain phosphatase</a> and induction of calcium <a href="/wiki/Symporters" class="mw-redirect" title="Symporters">symporters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiporters" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiporters">antiporters</a> that pump <a href="/wiki/Calcium_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium ions">calcium ions</a> out of the intracellular compartment both contribute to smooth muscle cell relaxation and therefore vasodilation. This is accomplished through reuptake of ions into the <a href="/wiki/Sarcoplasmic_reticulum" title="Sarcoplasmic reticulum">sarcoplasmic reticulum</a> via exchangers and expulsion across the plasma membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14627618_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14627618-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three main intracellular stimuli that can result in the vasodilation of blood vessels. The specific mechanisms to accomplish these effects vary from vasodilator to vasodilator.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Class </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)" title="Hyperpolarization (biology)">Hyperpolarization</a>-mediated (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium channel blocker</a>) </td> <td>Changes in the <a href="/wiki/Resting_membrane_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Resting membrane potential">resting membrane potential</a> of the cell affects the level of intracellular calcium through modulation of <a href="/wiki/Voltage-sensitive_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-sensitive calcium channel">voltage-sensitive calcium channels</a> in the plasma membrane. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a>-mediated </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic" title="Adrenergic">Adrenergic</a> stimulation results in elevated levels of cAMP and <a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_A" title="Protein kinase A">protein kinase A</a>, which results in increasing calcium removal from the cytoplasm. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prostacyclin" title="Prostacyclin">prostacyclin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic guanosine monophosphate">cGMP</a>-mediated (<a href="/wiki/Nitrovasodilator" title="Nitrovasodilator">Nitrovasodilator</a>) </td> <td>Through stimulation of <a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_G" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein kinase G">protein kinase G</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/PDE5_inhibitor" title="PDE5 inhibitor">PDE5 inhibitors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_channel_opener" title="Potassium channel opener">potassium channel openers</a> can also have similar results. </p><p>Compounds that mediate the above mechanisms may be grouped as <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Exogenous">exogenous</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endogenous">Endogenous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Endogenous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Vasodilators <sup id="cite_ref-boron_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boron-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Receptor <br /> (↑ = opens. ↓ = closes) <sup id="cite_ref-boron_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boron-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> <span style="font-size:87%;"> On <a href="/wiki/Vascular_smooth_muscle_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular smooth muscle cells">vascular smooth muscle cells</a> if not otherwise specified</span> </th> <th>Transduction <br /> (↑ = increases. ↓ = decreases) <sup id="cite_ref-boron_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boron-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Endothelium-derived_hyperpolarizing_factor" title="Endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor">EDHF</a></td> <td>? </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)" title="Hyperpolarization (biology)">hyperpolarization</a> → ↓<a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">VDCC</a> → ↓intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_G" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein kinase G">PKG</a> activity → <ul><li>phosphorylation of <a href="/wiki/Myosin_light_chain_kinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Myosin light chain kinase">MLCK</a> → ↓MLCK activity → dephosphorylation of MLC</li> <li>↑<a href="/wiki/SERCA" title="SERCA">SERCA</a> → ↓intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NO_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="NO receptor">NO receptor</a> on <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a></td> <td>↓<a href="/wiki/Endothelin" title="Endothelin">endothelin</a> synthesis <sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a> (adrenaline) <b>(Vasoconstrictor)</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beta-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Beta-2 adrenergic receptor">β-2 adrenergic receptor</a> </td> <td rowspan="5">↑<a href="/wiki/Gs_alpha_subunit" title="Gs alpha subunit">G<sub>s</sub></a> activity → ↑<a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">AC</a> activity → ↑<a href="/wiki/Cyclic_AMP" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic AMP">cAMP</a> → ↑<a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_A" title="Protein kinase A">PKA</a> activity → phosphorylation of <a href="/wiki/Myosin_light_chain_kinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Myosin light chain kinase">MLCK</a> → ↓MLCK activity → dephosphorylation of MLC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamine</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H2_receptor" title="Histamine H2 receptor">histamine H2 receptor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prostacyclin" title="Prostacyclin">prostacyclin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/IP_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="IP receptor">IP receptor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_D2" title="Prostaglandin D2">prostaglandin D<sub>2</sub></a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/DP_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="DP receptor">DP receptor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_E2" title="Prostaglandin E2">prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub></a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/EP_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="EP receptor">EP receptor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide">VIP</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide_receptor" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor">VIP receptor</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/Gs_alpha_subunit" title="Gs alpha subunit">G<sub>s</sub></a> activity → ↑<a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">AC</a> activity → ↑<a href="/wiki/Cyclic_AMP" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic AMP">cAMP</a> → ↑<a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_A" title="Protein kinase A">PKA</a> activity → <ul><li>phosphorylation of <a href="/wiki/Myosin_light_chain_kinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Myosin light chain kinase">MLCK</a> → ↓MLCK activity → dephosphorylation of MLC</li> <li>open <a href="/wiki/Calcium-activated_potassium_channel" title="Calcium-activated potassium channel">Ca<sup>2+</sup>-activated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_potassium_channel" title="Voltage-gated potassium channel">voltage-gated K<sup>+</sup>channels</a> → hyperpolarization → close <a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">VDCC</a> → ↓intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(extracellular) <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A1_receptor" title="Adenosine A1 receptor">A<sub>1</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A2a_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenosine A2a receptor">A<sub>2a</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A2b_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenosine A2b receptor">A<sub>2b</sub></a> <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenosine receptors">adenosine receptors</a></td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/ATP-sensitive_potassium_channel" title="ATP-sensitive potassium channel">ATP-sensitive K<sup>+</sup> channel</a> → hyperpolarization → close <a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">VDCC</a> → ↓intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>(extracellular) <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li>(extracellular) <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li></ul> </td> <td>↑<a href="/wiki/P2Y_receptor" title="P2Y receptor">P2Y receptor</a></td> <td>activate <a href="/wiki/Gq_alpha_subunit" title="Gq alpha subunit">G<sub>q</sub></a> → ↑<a href="/wiki/Phospholipase_c" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipase c">PLC</a> activity → ↑intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> → ↑<a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide_synthase" title="Nitric oxide synthase">NOS</a> activity → ↑<a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">NO</a> → (see nitric oxide) </td></tr> <tr> <td>L-<a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Imidazoline_receptor" title="Imidazoline receptor">imidazoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor">α-2 receptor</a>?</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gi_alpha_subunit" title="Gi alpha subunit">G<sub>i</sub></a> → ↓<a href="/wiki/Cyclic_AMP" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic AMP">cAMP</a> → activation of <a href="/wiki/Na%2B/K%2B-ATPase" class="mw-redirect" title="Na+/K+-ATPase">Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup>-ATPase</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11029299_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11029299-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> → ↓intracellular <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na<sup>+</sup></a> → ↑<a href="/wiki/Sodium-calcium_exchanger" title="Sodium-calcium exchanger">Na<sup>+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup> exchanger</a> activity → ↓intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">bradykinin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor" title="Bradykinin receptor">bradykinin receptor</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">substance P</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">niacin</a> (as nicotinic acid only)</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Platelet-activating_factor" title="Platelet-activating factor">platelet-activating factor</a> (PAF)</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></td> <td>- </td> <td rowspan="2">↓<a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial</a> <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> → ?<sup id="cite_ref-pH_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pH-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial</a> <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> (probably)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>muscle work</td> <td>-</td> <td> <ul><li>↑vasodilators: <ul><li>↑<a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> consumption → ↑<a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a></li> <li>↑<a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> usage → <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li>↑<a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial</a> <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K<sup>+</sup></a></li> <li>↑(extracellular) <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li>↑(extracellular) <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li> <li>↑<a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial</a> <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li>↓<a href="/wiki/Vasoconstrictors" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasoconstrictors">vasoconstrictors</a>: <ul><li>↑<a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> consumption → ↓ ATP (intracellular)</li> <li>↓<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> → ↓<a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">oxidative phosphorylation</a> → ↓ ATP (intracellular)</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natriuretic_peptide" title="Natriuretic peptide">natriuretic peptides</a><sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_I2" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostaglandin I2">prostaglandin I<sub>2</sub></a><sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_E2" title="Prostaglandin E2">prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub></a><sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heparin" title="Heparin">heparin</a><sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td>various receptors on <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a></td> <td>↓<a href="/wiki/Endothelin" title="Endothelin">endothelin</a> synthesis <sup id="cite_ref-lange6th_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lange6th-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The vasodilating action of activation of <a href="/wiki/Beta-2_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-2 receptor">beta-2 receptors</a> (such as by adrenaline) appears to be <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a>-independent.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14749691_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14749691-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autonomic_nervous_system_control">Autonomic nervous system control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Autonomic nervous system control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As referenced in the explanation of smooth muscle physiology, smooth muscle within the tunica media is innervated by the autonomic nervous system. The <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> (ANS) controls essential involuntary body functions and originates as nerves leaving the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brain stem</a> or spinal cord; it contains both sensor and motor nerves.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two divisions of the ANS, the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> (SNS) and the <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous system</a> (PSNS), impact blood vessels differently.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally we understand that these two divisions work against each other, the SNS producing "fight or flight" and the PSNS producing "rest and digest", but in the case of vascular innervation this line becomes blurred<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ANS nerves do not directly innervate the vasculature via synapses with muscle cells; instead, they release <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> that reach target cells and effect smooth muscle contraction or relaxation.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical characteristics of the SNS and PSNS cause the SNS to have a prolonged, systemic impact on blood vessels, while the PSNS causes short-lived, localized change.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SNS stimulation causes a base level of vasoconstriction often referred to as basal neural tone, maintaining blood pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often vasodilation is simply the result of insufficient neurotransmitter to maintain basal neural tone, without the presence of a compound directly causing vasodilation.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurotransmitters can act by binding directly to smooth muscle cells or by binding to endothelial cells mediating the effects of the neurotransmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below is a table summarizing major neurotransmitters involved in regulation of the vasculature. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Neurotransmitter </th> <th>Sympathetic or Parasympathetic </th> <th>Target Cells and Receptors </th> <th>Impact on Vasculature </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> (NE) </td> <td>sympathetic (mostly) </td> <td>adrenergic receptors α1, α2, β1, β2 <p>α1- smooth muscle α2- endothelial β1, β2- smooth muscle </p> </td> <td>α1- increase concentration calcium ions, vasoconstricton<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>α2- inhibit cAMP, release NO, vasodilation<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> β1, β2- possible vasodilation<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> (Ach) </td> <td>parasympathetic </td> <td>nicotonic Ach receptors (nAchRs) <p>muscanaric Ach receptors (mAchRs) - on both endothelial and smooth muscle cells<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td>nAchRs- modulate cytokines, counteract inflammation<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>mAchRs- endothelial M3 AchR release NO, vasodlation smooth muscle M2 and M3 AchRs reduce release NO, vasoconstriction Note: Ach is quickly broken down, diffused, or undergoes reuptake, impacts are brief and localized<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">Adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP) </td> <td>sympathetic </td> <td>purinergic receptors on smooth muscle and endothelial cells<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>smooth muscle- increase calcium ion concentration, vasoconstriction<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>endothelium- possible role as mediator of hyperpolarization of smooth muscle cells<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> co-released with norepinephrine<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y" title="Neuropeptide Y">Neuropeptide Y</a> (NPY) </td> <td>sympathetic </td> <td>receptors on endothelial cells </td> <td>causes vasoconstriction when co-released with norepinephrine<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CGRP" class="mw-redirect" title="CGRP">CGRP</a> </td> <td>? </td> <td>CGRP1, CGRP2 receptors in endothelium<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>vasodilation, role in vascular dysfunction if levels are abnormal<sup id="cite_ref-Sheng_2018_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheng_2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Also worthy of mention when discussing neural control of vasodilation is the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, or RAAS.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kidneys retain water by reabsorbing sodium ions, or eliminate water by eliminating sodium ions.<sup id="cite_ref-Navar_2014_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navar_2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sympathetic nervous system activity, reduced blood volume or reduced arterial pressure trigger β-adrenergic receptors in select kidney cells<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to release <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a>, which converts facilitates formation of angiotensin II from its substrate <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin" title="Angiotensin">angiotensin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Navar_2014_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navar_2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Angiotensin II triggers <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a> to secrete <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a>, a potent vasoconstrictor.<sup id="cite_ref-Navar_2014_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navar_2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</a>, either exogenous or endogenous, is another vasoconstrictor released by the adrenal glands in response to stress.<sup id="cite_ref-Navar_2014_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navar_2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It binds to α and β adrenergic receptors like <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>, causing vasodilation and vasoconstriction in different body parts to redistribute circulation to critical areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_2011_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold-induced">Cold-induced</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cold-induced"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) occurs after cold exposure, possibly to reduce the risk of injury. It can take place in several locations in the human body but is observed most often in the extremities. The fingers are especially common because they are exposed most often.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the fingers are exposed to cold, <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a> occurs first to reduce heat loss, resulting in strong cooling of the fingers. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of the cold exposure of the hand, the blood vessels in the finger tips will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nerves</a> to the muscular coat of the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_anastomosis" title="Circulatory anastomosis">arteriovenous anastomoses</a> due to local cold. The CIVD increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. This can be painful and is sometimes known as the '<a href="/wiki/Hot_aches" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot aches">hot aches</a>' which can be painful enough to bring on vomiting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A new phase of vasoconstriction follows the vasodilation, after which the process repeats itself. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Hunting_reaction" title="Hunting reaction">Hunting reaction</a>. Experiments have shown that three other vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water are possible: a continuous state of vasoconstriction; slow, steady, and continuous rewarming; and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of responses can be classified as the Hunting reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12712346_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12712346-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please review the contents of the section and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vasodilation%22">"Vasodilation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vasodilation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vasodilation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vasodilation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vasodilation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vasodilation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Other suggested vasodilators or vasodilating factors include: <ul><li>absence of high levels of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_noise" title="Environmental noise">environmental noise</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a> - adenosine agonist, used primarily as an anti-<a href="/wiki/Heart_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart arrhythmia">arrhythmic</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_blocker" title="Alpha blocker">alpha blockers</a> (block the <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstricting" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasoconstricting">vasoconstricting</a> effect of <a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">adrenaline</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_peptide" title="Atrial natriuretic peptide">atrial natriuretic peptide</a> (ANP) - a weak vasodilator<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> (alcohol) causes immediate vasodilation followed by increase in blood pressure<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_functions_of_nitric_oxide#Vasodilation_and_smooth_muscles" title="Biological functions of nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> inducers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L-arginine" class="mw-redirect" title="L-arginine">l-arginine</a> (a key amino acid)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrulline" title="Citrulline">citrulline</a> (causes increased levels of L-arginine in the body)<sup id="cite_ref-Figueroa_Wong_Jaime_Gonzales_2017_pp._92–983_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Figueroa_Wong_Jaime_Gonzales_2017_pp._92–983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glyceryl_trinitrate_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)">glyceryl trinitrate</a> (commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isosorbide_mononitrate" title="Isosorbide mononitrate">isosorbide mononitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isosorbide_dinitrate" title="Isosorbide dinitrate">isosorbide dinitrate</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PETN" class="mw-redirect" title="PETN">pentaerythritol tetranitrate</a> (PETN)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitroprusside" title="Sodium nitroprusside">sodium nitroprusside</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDE5_inhibitor" title="PDE5 inhibitor">PDE5 inhibitors</a>: these agents indirectly increase the effects of nitric oxide<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sildenafil" title="Sildenafil">sildenafil</a> (Viagra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadalafil" title="Tadalafil">tadalafil</a> (Cialis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardenafil" title="Vardenafil">vardenafil</a> (Levitra)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">tetrahydrocannabinol</a> (THC), the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobromine" title="Theobromine">theobromine</a>, the principal alkaloid found in <i><a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">Theobroma cacao</a></i>, specifically in <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_solids" title="Cocoa solids">cocoa solids</a> (which is found in chocolate, especially <a href="/wiki/Dark_chocolate" title="Dark chocolate">dark chocolate</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoxidil" title="Minoxidil">minoxidil</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papaverine" title="Papaverine">papaverine</a> an alkaloid found in the opium poppy <a href="/wiki/Papaver_somniferum" title="Papaver somniferum">papaver somniferum</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_vasodilation_drugs">Direct vasodilation drugs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Direct vasodilation drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These drugs can keep vessels staying opened or help vessels refrain from being narrowed.<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_blocker" title="Angiotensin II receptor blocker">Angiotensin II receptor blockers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACE_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="ACE inhibitors">ACE inhibitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blockers" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium channel blockers">Calcium channel blockers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor_agonists">Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor agonists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor agonists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Drugs that appear to work by activating the <a href="/wiki/Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor">α<sub>2A</sub> receptors</a> in the brain thereby decreasing <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-AHFS2019_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHFS2019-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methyldopa" title="Methyldopa">methyldopa</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>According to <a href="/wiki/American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a>, Alpha-methyldopa may cause <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_syncope" title="Orthostatic syncope">Orthostatic syncope</a> as it exerts a greater blood pressure lowering effect when one is standing upright which may lead to feeling weak or fainting if the blood pressure has been lowered too far. Methyldopa's prominent side effects include drowsiness or sluggishness, dryness of the mouth, fever or anemia. Additionally to these, male patients may experience impotence.<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clonidine_hydrochloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Clonidine hydrochloride">clonidine hydrochloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanabenz_acetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Guanabenz acetate">guanabenz acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanfacine_hydrochloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Guanfacine hydrochloride">guanfacine hydrochloride</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Clonidine, guanabenz or guanfacine may give rise to severe dryness of the mouth, constipation or drowsiness. Abrupt cessation taking may raise blood pressure quickly to dangerously high levels.<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_vessel_muscle_relaxants">Blood vessel muscle relaxants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Blood vessel muscle relaxants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Directly relax the muscle in the walls of the blood vessels (especially the arterioles), allowing the vessel to dilate (widen).<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydralazine" title="Hydralazine">hydralazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoxidil" title="Minoxidil">minoxidil</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Hydralazine may cause headaches, swelling around the eyes, heart palpitations or aches and pains in the joints. In clinical setting, hydralazine is not usually used alone.<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>Minoxidil is a <i>potent</i> direct vasodilator used only in <i>resistant</i> severe high blood pressure or when <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> is present. Noted adverse effects comprise fluid retention (marked weight gain) and excessive hair growth.<sup id="cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Therapeutic_applications">Therapeutic applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Therapeutic applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vasodilators are used to treat conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, wherein the patient has an abnormally high blood pressure, as well as <a href="/wiki/Angina_pectoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Angina pectoris">angina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">erectile dysfunction</a>, and where maintaining a lower blood pressure reduces the patient's risk of developing other cardiac problems.<sup id="cite_ref-CVPharmacology2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CVPharmacology2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flushing_(physiology)" title="Flushing (physiology)">Flushing</a> may be a physiological response to vasodilators. Some <a href="/wiki/Phosphodiesterase_inhibitor" title="Phosphodiesterase inhibitor">phosphodiesterase inhibitors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sildenafil" title="Sildenafil">sildenafil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vardenafil" title="Vardenafil">vardenafil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tadalafil" title="Tadalafil">tadalafil</a>, work to increase blood flow in the penis through vasodilation. They may also be used to treat <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_arterial_hypertension" title="Pulmonary arterial hypertension">pulmonary arterial hypertension</a> (PAH). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arteriolar_vasodilator" title="Arteriolar vasodilator">Arteriolar vasodilator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrophorin" title="Nitrophorin">Nitrophorin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasodilatory_shock" title="Vasodilatory shock">Vasodilatory shock</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasodilation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Definition_of_Vasodilation-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Definition_of_Vasodilation_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Definition_of_Vasodilation_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5965">"Definition of Vasodilation"</a>. MedicineNet.com. 27 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120105174629/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5965">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Heart and Circulatory Physiology</i>. <b>317</b> (2): H395–H404. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpheart.00430.2018">10.1152/ajpheart.00430.2018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6732482">6732482</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31173499">31173499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physiology.+Heart+and+Circulatory+Physiology&rft.atitle=Aging+women+and+their+endothelium%3A+probing+the+relative+role+of+estrogen+on+vasodilator+function&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=H395-H404&rft.date=2019-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6732482%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31173499&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fajpheart.00430.2018&rft.aulast=Somani&rft.aufirst=YB&rft.au=Pawelczyk%2C+JA&rft.au=De+Souza%2C+MJ&rft.au=Kris-Etherton%2C+PM&rft.au=Proctor%2C+DN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6732482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVasodilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-www.heart.org_2017-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.heart.org_2017_47-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/changes-you-can-make-to-manage-high-blood-pressure/types-of-blood-pressure-medications">"Types of Blood Pressure Medications"</a>. <i>www.heart.org</i>. 31 October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190108001018/https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/changes-you-can-make-to-manage-high-blood-pressure/types-of-blood-pressure-medications">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.heart.org&rft.atitle=Types+of+Blood+Pressure+Medications&rft.date=2017-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heart.org%2Fen%2Fhealth-topics%2Fhigh-blood-pressure%2Fchanges-you-can-make-to-manage-high-blood-pressure%2Ftypes-of-blood-pressure-medications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVasodilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHFS2019-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AHFS2019_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/monograph/guanfacine.html">"Guanfacine Monograph for Professionals"</a>. <i>Drugs.com</i>. 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href="/wiki/Antihypertensive_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihypertensive drug">Antihypertensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">Diuretics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vasodilators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_blocker" title="Beta blocker">Beta blockers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium channel blockers</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">renin–angiotensin system</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACE_inhibitor" title="ACE inhibitor">ACE inhibitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II receptor antagonist">Angiotensin II receptor antagonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renin_inhibitor" title="Renin inhibitor">Renin inhibitors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypolipidemic_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypolipidemic agent">Antihyperlipidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">Statins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrate" title="Fibrate">Fibrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_acid_sequestrant" title="Bile acid sequestrant">Bile acid sequestrants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_D" title="ATC code D">D</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emollient" class="mw-redirect" title="Emollient">Emollients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicatrizant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cicatrizant">Cicatrizants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipruritic" title="Antipruritic">Antipruritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipsoriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipsoriatic">Antipsoriatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_D09" title="ATC code D09">Medicated dressings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">genitourinary<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_G" title="ATC code G">G</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">Fertility agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator" title="Selective estrogen receptor modulator">Selective estrogen receptor modulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex hormones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_H" title="ATC code H">H</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary_hormone" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary hormone">Hypothalamic–pituitary hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">Glucocorticoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralocorticoid" title="Mineralocorticoid">Mineralocorticoids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">Thyroid hormones</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antithyroid_agent" title="Antithyroid agent">Antithyroid agents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> and<br /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infestation" class="extiw" title="wikt:infestation">infestations</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J" title="ATC code J">J</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_P" title="ATC code P">P</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATCvet_code_QI" title="ATCvet code QI">QI</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobials</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">Antibacterials</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antimycobacterial" title="Antimycobacterial">Antimycobacterials</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal drug">Antifungals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antivirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparasitic" title="Antiparasitic">Antiparasitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotozoal agent">Antiprotozoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoparasiticide" title="Ectoparasiticide">Ectoparasiticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous immunoglobulin">Intravenous immunoglobulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malignant" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant">malignant</a> disease<br />(<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_L" title="ATC code L">L01–L02</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Anticancer agents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimetabolite" title="Antimetabolite">Antimetabolites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkylating_antineoplastic_agent" title="Alkylating antineoplastic agent">Alkylating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spindle_poison" title="Spindle poison">Spindle poisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineoplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineoplastic">Antineoplastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topoisomerase_inhibitor" title="Topoisomerase inhibitor">Topoisomerase inhibitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a> disease<br />(<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_L" title="ATC code L">L03–L04</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunomodulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunomodulator">Immunomodulators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunostimulant" title="Immunostimulant">Immunostimulants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">Immunosuppressants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">joints</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_M" title="ATC code M">M</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroid" title="Anabolic steroid">Anabolic steroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">Anti-inflammatories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug">Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease-modifying_antirheumatic_drug" title="Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug">Antirheumatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">Muscle relaxants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisphosphonate" title="Bisphosphonate">Bisphosphonates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N" title="ATC code N">N</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">Analgesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthetic" title="Anesthetic">Anesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_anaesthetic" title="General anaesthetic">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_anesthetic" title="Local anesthetic">Local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorectic" title="Anorectic">Anorectics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihyperkinetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihyperkinetic">Anti-ADHD agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Antiaddictives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">Anticonvulsants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidementia_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidementia drug">Antidementia agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimigraine_drug" title="Antimigraine drug">Antimigraine agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_Parkinson%27s_disease#Medication" title="Management of Parkinson's disease">Antiparkinson agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">Anxiolytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphrodisiac" title="Aphrodisiac">Aphrodisiacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">Depressants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entactogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Entactogen">Entactogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">Euphoriants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelics,_dissociatives_and_deliriants" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants">Hallucinogens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">Psychedelics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative" title="Dissociative">Dissociatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliriant" title="Deliriant">Deliriants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">Hypnotics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">Sedatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_stabilizer" title="Mood stabilizer">Mood stabilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivation-enhancing_drug" title="Motivation-enhancing drug">Motivation-enhancing drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprotective" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroprotective">Neuroprotectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootropic" title="Nootropic">Nootropics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orexigenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orexigenic">Orexigenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenic" title="Serenic">Serenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">Stimulants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakefulness-promoting_agent" title="Wakefulness-promoting agent">Wakefulness-promoting agents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_R" title="ATC code R">R</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decongestant" title="Decongestant">Decongestants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchodilator" title="Bronchodilator">Bronchodilators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cough_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cough medicine">Cough medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H1_antagonist" title="H1 antagonist">H<sub>1</sub> antagonists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory organs</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_S" title="ATC code S">S</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmologicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otology" title="Otology">Otologicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_V" title="ATC code V">V</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">Antidotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast medium">Contrast media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dressing_(medicine)" title="Dressing (medicine)">Dressings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senotherapeutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Senotherapeutics">Senotherapeutics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Drugs" title="Category:Drugs">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacological_classification_systems" title="Category:Pharmacological classification systems">Pharmacological classification systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:ATC_codes" title="Category:ATC codes">ATC codes</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vasodilators_used_in_cardiac_diseases_(C01D)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vasodilators_used_in_cardiac_diseases" title="Template:Vasodilators used in cardiac diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vasodilators_used_in_cardiac_diseases" title="Template talk:Vasodilators used in cardiac diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vasodilators_used_in_cardiac_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vasodilators used in cardiac diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vasodilators_used_in_cardiac_diseases_(C01D)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vasodilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilator">Vasodilators</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac disease">cardiac diseases</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_C01#C01D" title="ATC code C01">C01D</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrovasodilator" title="Nitrovasodilator">Nitrovasodilators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_use_of_nitroglycerin" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical use of nitroglycerin">Nitroglycerin</a> #</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isosorbide_dinitrate" title="Isosorbide dinitrate">Isosorbide dinitrate</a> #</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isosorbide_mononitrate" title="Isosorbide mononitrate">Isosorbide mononitrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itramin_tosilate" title="Itramin tosilate">Itramin tosilate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linsidomine" title="Linsidomine">Linsidomine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molsidomine" title="Molsidomine">Molsidomine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicorandil" title="Nicorandil">Nicorandil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaerythritol_tetranitrate" title="Pentaerythritol tetranitrate">Pentaerythritol tetranitrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propatylnitrate" title="Propatylnitrate">Propatylnitrate</a></li> <li>Tenitramine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trolnitrate" title="Trolnitrate">Trolnitrate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone" title="Quinolone">Quinolone</a> vasodilators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flosequinan" title="Flosequinan">Flosequinan</a><sup>‡</sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benziodarone" title="Benziodarone">Benziodarone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbocromen" title="Carbocromen">Carbocromen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinepazet" title="Cinepazet">Cinepazet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloridarol" title="Cloridarol">Cloridarol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilazep" title="Dilazep">Dilazep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efloxate" title="Efloxate">Efloxate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etafenone" title="Etafenone">Etafenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gapicomine" title="Gapicomine">Gapicomine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaminol" title="Heptaminol">Heptaminol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexobendine" title="Hexobendine">Hexobendine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imolamine" title="Imolamine">Imolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levosimendan" title="Levosimendan">Levosimendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesiritide" title="Nesiritide">Nesiritide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicorandil" title="Nicorandil">Nicorandil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyfedrine" title="Oxyfedrine">Oxyfedrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimobendan" title="Pimobendan">Pimobendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenylamine" title="Prenylamine">Prenylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serelaxin" title="Serelaxin">Serelaxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapidil" title="Trapidil">Trapidil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vericiguat" title="Vericiguat">Vericiguat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><sup>#</sup><a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li><sup>‡</sup><a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li><sup>§</sup>Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonsympatholytic_vasodilatory_antihypertensives_(C02)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonsympatholytic_vasodilatory_antihypertensives" title="Template:Nonsympatholytic vasodilatory antihypertensives"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonsympatholytic_vasodilatory_antihypertensives" title="Template talk:Nonsympatholytic vasodilatory antihypertensives"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonsympatholytic_vasodilatory_antihypertensives" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonsympatholytic vasodilatory antihypertensives"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonsympatholytic_vasodilatory_antihypertensives_(C02)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Nonsympatholytic <a class="mw-selflink selflink">vasodilatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Antihypertensive" title="Antihypertensive">antihypertensives</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_C02" title="ATC code C02">C02</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrovasodilator" title="Nitrovasodilator">Nitrovasodilator</a> (arterioles and venules)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitroprusside" title="Sodium nitroprusside">Nitroprusside</a> #</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrazinophthalazine" title="Hydrazinophthalazine">Hydrazinophthalazines</a> (arterioles)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydralazine" title="Hydralazine">Hydralazine</a> #</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydralazine" title="Dihydralazine">Dihydralazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endralazine" title="Endralazine">Endralazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadralazine" title="Cadralazine">Cadralazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pildralazine" title="Pildralazine">Pildralazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Potassium_channel_opener" title="Potassium channel opener">Potassium channel openers</a> (arterioles)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoxidil" title="Minoxidil">Minoxidil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium channel blockers</a> (arterioles)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Calcium_channel_blockers" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Calcium channel blockers">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><sup>#</sup><a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li><sup>‡</sup><a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li><sup>§</sup>Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Peripheral_vasodilators_(C04)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Peripheral_vasodilators" title="Template:Peripheral vasodilators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Peripheral_vasodilators" title="Template talk:Peripheral vasodilators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Peripheral_vasodilators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Peripheral vasodilators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Peripheral_vasodilators_(C04)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vasodilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilator"> Peripheral vasodilators</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_C04" title="ATC code C04">C04</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine" title="Phenylethanolamine">Phenylethanolamine derivatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isoxsuprine" title="Isoxsuprine">Isoxsuprine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buphenine" title="Buphenine">Buphenine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamethan" title="Bamethan">Bamethan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_blocker" title="Alpha blocker">Alpha blockers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Non-selective <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buflomedil" title="Buflomedil">Buflomedil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phentolamine" title="Phentolamine">Phentolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoxybenzamine" title="Phenoxybenzamine">Phenoxybenzamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolazoline" title="Tolazoline">Tolazoline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Selective <a href="/wiki/Alpha-1_blocker" title="Alpha-1 blocker">α<sub>1</sub>-blockers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfuzosin" title="Alfuzosin">Alfuzosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxazosin" title="Doxazosin">Doxazosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prazosin" title="Prazosin">Prazosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silodosin" title="Silodosin">Silodosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamsulosin" title="Tamsulosin">Tamsulosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terazosin" title="Terazosin">Terazosin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Niacin and derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niacin" title="Niacin">Niacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotinyl_alcohol" title="Nicotinyl alcohol">Nicotinyl alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inositol_nicotinate" title="Inositol nicotinate">Inositol nicotinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciclonicate" title="Ciclonicate">Ciclonicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">Purine derivatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentifylline" title="Pentifylline">Pentifylline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xantinol_nicotinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Xantinol nicotinate">Xantinol nicotinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentoxifylline" title="Pentoxifylline">Pentoxifylline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etofylline_nicotinate" title="Etofylline nicotinate">Etofylline nicotinate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">Ergot alkaloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergoloid" title="Ergoloid">Ergoloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicergoline" title="Nicergoline">Nicergoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroergocristine" title="Dihydroergocristine">Dihydroergocristine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other peripheral vasodilators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclandelate" title="Cyclandelate">Cyclandelate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincamine" title="Vincamine">Vincamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxisylyte" title="Moxisylyte">Moxisylyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bencyclane" title="Bencyclane">Bencyclane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinburnine" title="Vinburnine">Vinburnine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcotidil" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulcotidil">Sulcotidil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftidrofuryl" title="Naftidrofuryl">Naftidrofuryl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butalamine" title="Butalamine">Butalamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visnadine" title="Visnadine">Visnadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetiedil" title="Cetiedil">Cetiedil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinepazide" title="Cinepazide">Cinepazide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifenprodil" title="Ifenprodil">Ifenprodil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azapetine" title="Azapetine">Azapetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasudil" title="Fasudil">Fasudil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_the_cardiovascular_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Template:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Template talk:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_cardiovascular_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Cardiovascular physiology">Physiology of the cardiovascular system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">Cardiac output</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">Cardiac cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">Cardiac output</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">Stroke volume</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">Stroke volume</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/End-diastolic_volume" title="End-diastolic volume">End-diastolic volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-systolic_volume" title="End-systolic volume">End-systolic volume</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterload" title="Afterload">Afterload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preload_(cardiology)" title="Preload (cardiology)">Preload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Starling_law" title="Frank–Starling law">Frank–Starling law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_function_curve" title="Cardiac function curve">Cardiac function curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venous_return_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Venous return curve">Venous return curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiggers_diagram" title="Wiggers diagram">Wiggers diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_volume_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure volume diagram">Pressure volume diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Ultrasound</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventricle_(heart)#Dimensions" title="Ventricle (heart)">Fractional shortening</a> = (<a href="/wiki/End-diastolic_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="End-diastolic dimension">End-diastolic dimension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-systolic_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="End-systolic dimension">End-systolic dimension</a>) / End-diastolic dimension</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_valve_area_calculation" title="Aortic valve area calculation">Aortic valve area calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejection_fraction" title="Ejection fraction">Ejection fraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_index" title="Cardiac index">Cardiac index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_atrial_volume" title="Left atrial volume">Left atrial volume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_pacemaker" title="Cardiac pacemaker">Cardiac pacemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronotropic" title="Chronotropic">Chronotropic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromotropic" title="Dromotropic">Dromotropic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nerve_conduction_velocity" title="Nerve conduction velocity">Conduction velocity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inotrope" title="Inotrope">Inotropic</a> (Contractility)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathmotropic" title="Bathmotropic">Bathmotropic</a> (Excitability)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitropy" title="Lusitropy">Lusitropic</a> (Relaxation)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction system of the heart">Conduction system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Cardiac electrophysiology">Cardiac electrophysiology</a></li> <li>Action potential <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_action_potential" title="Cardiac action potential">cardiac </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_action_potential" title="Atrial action potential">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_action_potential" title="Ventricular action potential">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_refractory_period" title="Effective refractory period">Effective refractory period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacemaker_potential" title="Pacemaker potential">Pacemaker potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">Electrocardiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P_wave_(electrocardiography)" title="P wave (electrocardiography)">P wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PR_interval" title="PR interval">PR interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QRS_complex" title="QRS complex">QRS complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QT_interval" title="QT interval">QT interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ST_segment" title="ST segment">ST segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_wave" title="T wave">T wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_wave" title="U wave">U wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexaxial_reference_system" title="Hexaxial reference system">Hexaxial reference system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chamber pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_venous_pressure" title="Central venous pressure">Central venous</a></li> <li>Right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure" title="Right atrial pressure">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Right ventricular pressure">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary artery pressure">pulmonary artery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure" title="Pulmonary wedge pressure">wedge</a></li></ul></li> <li>Left <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure" title="Pulmonary wedge pressure">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Left ventricular pressure">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_pressure" title="Aortic pressure">Aortic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_remodeling" title="Ventricular remodeling">Ventricular remodeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Vascular system</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">hemodynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Blood flow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(physiology)" title="Compliance (physiology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">Vascular resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">Pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">Perfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">Blood pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">Pulse pressure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systole" title="Systole">Systolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastole" title="Diastole">Diastolic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">Mean arterial pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_venous_pressure" title="Jugular venous pressure">Jugular venous pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_venous_pressure" title="Portal venous pressure">Portal venous pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_closing_pressure" title="Critical closing pressure">Critical closing pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_physiology#Regulation_of_blood_pressure" title="Cardiovascular physiology">Regulation of BP</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroreflex" title="Baroreflex">Baroreflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinin%E2%80%93kallikrein_system" title="Kinin–kallikrein system">Kinin–kallikrein system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin–angiotensin system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">Vasoconstrictors</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vasodilators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregulation" title="Autoregulation">Autoregulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myogenic_mechanism" title="Myogenic mechanism">Myogenic mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubuloglomerular_feedback" title="Tubuloglomerular feedback">Tubuloglomerular feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_autoregulation" title="Cerebral autoregulation">Cerebral autoregulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraganglion" title="Paraganglion">Paraganglia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_body" title="Aortic body">Aortic body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_body" title="Carotid body">Carotid body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomus_cell" title="Glomus cell">Glomus cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14859627#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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