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<span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Displacive_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Displacive_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Displacive theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Displacive_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffusive_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffusive_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Diffusive theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffusive_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upper_bainite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_bainite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Upper bainite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_bainite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_bainite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_bainite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Lower bainite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_bainite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incomplete_transformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incomplete_transformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Incomplete transformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incomplete_transformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difference_between_martensite_and_bainite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_between_martensite_and_bainite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Difference between martensite and bainite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_between_martensite_and_bainite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bainite</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="باينيت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="باينيت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinit" title="Beinit – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Beinit" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainita" title="Bainita – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bainita" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Μπαινίτης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπαινίτης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainita" title="Bainita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bainita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="باینیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باینیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bainite" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainita" title="Bainita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bainita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EC%9D%B4%EB%82%98%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="베이나이트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베이나이트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bainite" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Бейнит – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бейнит" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainiet" title="Bainiet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bainiet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88" title="ベイナイト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベイナイト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainitt" title="Bainitt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bainitt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainita" title="Bainita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bainita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit%C4%83" title="Bainită – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bainită" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Бейнит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бейнит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Беинит – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Беинит" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainiitti" title="Bainiitti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bainiitti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainit" title="Bainit – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bainit" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82" title="Бейніт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бейніт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E6%B0%8F%E4%BD%93" title="贝氏体 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Plate-like microstructure in steels</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bainite_TEM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bainite_TEM.jpg/250px-Bainite_TEM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bainite_TEM.jpg/330px-Bainite_TEM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bainite_TEM.jpg/500px-Bainite_TEM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>Bainite in steel with composition Fe–0.98C–1.46Si–1.89Mn–0.26Mo–1.26Cr–0.09V wt%, which was transformed at 200 °C for 15 days</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/250px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/330px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3861" data-file-height="2574" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">Austenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">Cementite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">Martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">Graphite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">Microstructures</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel#Heat_treatment" title="Carbon steel">Spheroidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">Pearlite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bainite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledeburite" title="Ledeburite">Ledeburite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)#Physical_processes" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempered martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">Widmanstätten structures</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Classes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">Spring steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">Alloy steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">High-speed steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">Weathering steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">Tool steel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other iron-based materials</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_iron" title="Gray iron">Gray iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron#White_cast_iron" title="Cast iron">White iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">Ductile iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malleable_iron" title="Malleable iron">Malleable iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bainite</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">plate-like</a> microstructure that forms in steels at temperatures of 125–550 °C (depending on alloy content).<sup id="cite_ref-stam_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stam-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First described by E. S. Davenport and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bain" title="Edgar Bain">Edgar Bain</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is one of the products that may form when <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Face-centered_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Face-centered cubic">face-centered cubic</a> crystal structure of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>) is cooled past a temperature where it is no longer thermodynamically stable with respect to <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a>, or ferrite and cementite. Davenport and Bain originally described the microstructure as similar in appearance to tempered <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>. </p><p>A fine non-<a href="/wiki/Lamellar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar">lamellar</a> structure, bainite commonly consists of <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">dislocation</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a>. The large density of dislocations in the ferrite present in bainite, and the fine size of the bainite platelets, makes this ferrite harder than it normally would be.<sup id="cite_ref-hard_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hard-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The temperature range for transformation of austenite to bainite (125–550 °C) is between those for <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a> and martensite. In fact, there is no fundamental lower limit to the bainite-start temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-stam_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stam-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When formed during continuous cooling, the cooling rate to form bainite is more rapid than that required to form pearlite, but less rapid than is required to form martensite (in steels of the same composition). Most alloying elements will retard the formation of bainite, though carbon is the most effective in doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_intro_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_intro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aluminium or cobalt are exceptions in that they can accelerate the decomposition of austenite and raise the transformation temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The microstructures of martensite and bainite at first seem quite similar, consisting of thin plates which in low-alloy steels cluster together. This is a consequence of the two microstructures sharing many aspects of their transformation mechanisms. However, morphological differences do exist that require a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron microscope">transmission electron microscope</a> to see. Under a <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light microscope</a>, the microstructure of bainite appears darker than untempered martensite because the bainite has more substructure.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hardness of bainite can be between that of pearlite and untempered martensite in the same steel <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>. The fact that it can be produced during both isothermal or continuous cooling is a big advantage, because this facilitates the production of large components without excessive additions of alloying elements. Unlike martensitic steels, alloys based on bainite often do not need further heat treatment after transformation in order to optimise strength and toughness.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1920s Davenport and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bain" title="Edgar Bain">Bain</a> discovered a new steel microstructure that they provisionally called martensite-troostite, because it is intermediate between the known low-temperature <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> phase and what was then known as troostite (later fine-<a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_intro_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_intro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This microstructure was subsequently named bainite by Bain's colleagues at the United States Steel Corporation,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it took some time for the name to be taken up by the scientific community with books as late as 1947 failing to mention bainite by name.<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_intro_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_intro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bain and Davenport also noted the existence of two distinct forms: 'upper-range' bainite which formed at higher temperatures and 'lower-range' bainite which formed near the <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> start temperature (these forms are now known as upper- and lower-bainite respectively). The early terminology was further confused by the overlap, in some alloys, of the lower-range of the pearlite reaction and the upper-range of the bainite with the additional possibility of proeutectoid ferrite.<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_intro_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_intro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CCT_curve_steel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/CCT_curve_steel.svg/260px-CCT_curve_steel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/CCT_curve_steel.svg/390px-CCT_curve_steel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/CCT_curve_steel.svg/520px-CCT_curve_steel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a continuous cooling transformation (cct) diagram for a steel alloy</figcaption></figure> <p>Above approximately 900 °C a typical low-carbon steel is composed entirely of <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a>, a high-temperature phase of iron that has a cubic close-packed crystal structure.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On cooling, it tends to transform into a mixture of phases, ferrite and cementite, depending on the exact chemical composition. A steel of eutectoid composition will under equilibrium conditions transform into <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a> – an interleaved mixture of <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite (Fe<sub>3</sub>C)</a>. In addition to the thermodynamic considerations indicated by the phase diagram, the phase transformations in steel are heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a>. This is because the diffusion of iron atoms becomes difficult below about 600 °C under typical processing conditions. As a consequence, a complex array of microstructures occurs when the atomic mobility is limited. This leads to the complexity of steel microstructures which are strongly influenced by the cooling rate. This can be illustrated by a <a href="/wiki/Continuous_cooling_transformation" title="Continuous cooling transformation">continuous cooling transformation</a> (CCT) diagram which plots the time required to form a phase when a sample is cooled at a specific rate thus showing regions in time-temperature space from which the expected phase fractions can be deduced for a given thermal cycle. </p><p>If the steel is cooled slowly or isothermally transformed at elevated temperatures, the microstructure obtained will be closer to equilibrium,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> containing for example of allotriomorphic ferrite, cementite and pearlite. However, the transformation from austenite to pearlite is a time-dependent reconstructive reaction which requires the large scale movement of the iron and carbon atoms. While the interstitial carbon diffuses readily even at moderate temperatures the self-diffusion of iron becomes extremely slow at temperatures below 600 °C until, for all practical purposes, it stops. As a consequence, a rapidly cooled steel may reach a temperature where pearlite can no longer form even though the reaction is incomplete and the remaining austenite is thermodynamically unstable.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Austenite that is cooled sufficiently rapidly to avoid higher temperature transformations, can form <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>, without any diffusion of either iron or carbon, by the deformation of the austenite's <a href="/wiki/Face-centered_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Face-centered cubic">face-centred</a> crystal structure into a distorted <a href="/wiki/Tetragonal_crystal_system" title="Tetragonal crystal system">body-centred tetragonal</a> or body-centred cubic structure. This non-equilibrium phase can only form at low temperatures, where the driving force for the reaction is sufficient to overcome the considerable lattice strain imposed by the transformation. The transformation is essentially time-independent with the phase fraction depending only the degree of cooling below the critical martensite start temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, it occurs without the diffusion of either substitutional or interstitial atoms and so martensite inherits the composition of the parent austenite. </p><p>Bainite occupies a region between these two process in a temperature range where iron self-diffusion is limited but there is insufficient driving force to form martensite. The bainite, like martensite, grows without diffusion but some of the carbon then partitions into any residual austenite, or precipitates as cementite. A further distinction is often made between so-called lower-bainite, which forms at temperatures closer to the martensite start temperature, and upper-bainite which forms at higher temperatures. This distinction arises from the diffusion rates of carbon at the temperature at which the bainite is forming. If the temperature is high then the carbon will diffuse rapidly away from the newly formed ferrite and form carbides in the carbon-enriched residual austenite between the ferritic plates leaving them carbide-free. At low temperatures the carbon will diffuse more sluggishly and may precipitate before it can leave the bainitic ferrite. There is some controversy over the specifics of bainite's transformation mechanism; both theories are represented below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Displacive_theory">Displacive theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Displacive theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the theories on the specific formation mechanism for bainite is that it occurs by a shear transformation, as in martensite. The crystal structure change is achieved by a deformation rather than by diffusion. The shape change associated with bainite is an invariant—plane strain with a large shear component. This kind of deformation implies a disciplined motion of atoms (rather than a chaotic transfer associated with diffusion),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is typical of all displacive transformations in steels, for example, martensite, bainite and Widmanstaetten ferrite. There is a strain energy associated with such relief, that leads to the plate shape of the transformation product<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any diffusion is subsequent to the diffusionless transformation of austenite, for example the partitioning of carbon from supersaturated bainitic ferrite, or the precipitation of carbides; this is analogous to the tempering of martensite. </p><p>There are many features of bainite that are correctly predicted by this theory, including: </p> <ul><li>the plate shape, which is a consequence of the minimisation of strain energy due to the shape deformation accompanying transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fact that excess carbon is retained inside the even defect-free regions of bainitic ferrite.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fact that the unit cell of bainitic ferrite can be tetragonal rather than cubic.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fact that the bainite transformation can be dramatically retarded when the austenite is first plastically deformed, a phenomenon known as mechanical stabilisation, which is unique to displacive transformations.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The obvious fact that displacements occur when bainite grows. The transformation is a combination of deformation and crystal structure change, just like martensite.<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_intro_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_intro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffusive_theory">Diffusive theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diffusive theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The diffusive theory of bainite's transformation process is based on the assumption that a bainitic ferrite plate grows with a similar mechanism as Widmanstätten ferrite at higher temperatures. Its growth rate thus depends on how rapidly carbon can diffuse from the growing ferrite into the austenite. A common misconception is that this mechanism excludes the possibility of coherent interfaces and a surface relief. In fact it is accepted by some that formation of Widmanstätten ferrite is controlled by carbon diffusion and do show a similar surface relief.<sup id="cite_ref-JohnAgren_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JohnAgren-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically bainite manifests as aggregates, termed <i>sheaves</i>, of ferrite plates (<i>sub-units</i>) separated by retained austenite, martensite or cementite.<sup id="cite_ref-bain_in_steels_morph_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bain_in_steels_morph-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the sub-units appear separate when viewed on a 2-dimensional section they are in fact interconnected in 3-dimensions and usually take on a lenticular plate or lath morphology. The sheaves themselves are wedge-shaped with the thicker end associated with the nucleation site. </p><p>The thickness of the ferritic plates is found to increase with the transformation temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-singh_bhadeshia_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singh_bhadeshia-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neural_network" title="Neural network">Neural network</a> models have indicated that this is not a direct effect of the temperature per se but rather a result of the temperature dependence of the driving force for the reaction and the strength of the austenite surrounding the plates.<sup id="cite_ref-singh_bhadeshia_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singh_bhadeshia-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At higher temperatures, and hence lower undercooling, the reduced thermodynamic driving force causes a decrease in the nucleation rate which allows individual plates to grow larger before they physically impinge on each other. Further, the growth of the plates must be accommodated by plastic flow in the surrounding austenite which is difficult if the austenite is strong and resists the plate's growth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upper_bainite">Upper bainite</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Upper bainite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Upper bainite" forms around 400–550 °C in sheaves. These sheaves contain several laths of ferrite that are approximately parallel to each other and which exhibit a Kurdjumov-Sachs relationship with the surrounding austenite, though this relationship degrades as the transformation temperature is lowered. The ferrite in these sheaves has a carbon concentration below 0.03%, resulting in carbon-rich austenite around the laths.<sup id="cite_ref-honeycombe_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-honeycombe-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amount of cementite that forms between the laths is based on the carbon content of the steel. For a low carbon steel, typically discontinuous "stringers" or small particles of cementite will be present between laths. For steel with a higher carbon content, the stringers become continuous along the length of the adjacent laths.<sup id="cite_ref-honeycombe_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-honeycombe-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lower_bainite">Lower bainite</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lower bainite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lower bainite forms between 250 and 400 °C and takes a more <a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">plate-like</a> form than upper bainite. There are not nearly as many low angle boundaries between laths in lower bainite. In lower bainite, the habit plane in ferrite will also shift from <a href="/wiki/Miller_index" title="Miller index"><111></a> towards <110> as transformation temperature decreases.<sup id="cite_ref-honeycombe_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-honeycombe-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In lower bainite, <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleates</a> on the interface between <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incomplete_transformation">Incomplete transformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Incomplete transformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the present context, "incomplete transformation" refers to the fact that in the absence of carbide precipitation, the bainite reaction stops well before the austenite reaches its equilibrium or paraequilibrium chemical composition. It stops at the point where the free energies of austenite and ferrite of identical composition become the same, i.e. transformation without a change in chemical composition of the participating phases becomes thermodynamically impossible. </p><p>Early research on bainite found that at a given temperature only a certain volume fraction of the austenite would transform to bainite with the remainder decomposing to pearlite after an extended delay. This was the case despite the fact that a complete austenite to pearlite transformation could be achieved at higher temperatures where the austenite was <i>more</i> stable. The fraction of bainite that could form increased as the temperature decreased. This was ultimately explained by accounting for the fact that when the bainitic ferrite formed the supersaturated carbon would be expelled to the surrounding austenite thus thermodynamically stabilising it against further transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_between_martensite_and_bainite">Difference between martensite and bainite</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Difference between martensite and bainite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bainite can essentially be regarded as martensite that tempers during the course of transformation. It forms at a higher temperature than martensite, and even the latter can autotemper.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the transformation temperature is higher, the austenite itself is mechanically weak so that the shape deformation due to bainite is relaxed by the plastic deformation of the adjacent austenite. As a consequence, the growing plate of bainite is confronted by a forest of dislocations that eventually terminates its growth even before the plate has hit an austenite grain boundary. Plates of bainite can therefore be smaller than those of martensite in the same steel. The transformation then proceeds by a sub-unit mechanism involving the successive nucleation of new plates.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg/250px-Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg/330px-Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg/500px-Bainite_steel_shafts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1597" data-file-height="940" /></a><figcaption>Bainite-rich steel shafts</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bainite_steel_roll.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bainite_steel_roll.jpg/250px-Bainite_steel_roll.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bainite_steel_roll.jpg/330px-Bainite_steel_roll.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bainite_steel_roll.jpg/500px-Bainite_steel_roll.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Bainite-rich steel roll</figcaption></figure> <p>With increasing bainite content in steel, the hardness, yield and tensile strength remain almost constant for bainite content up to 50%, and then increase by ca. 30%.<sup id="cite_ref-hard_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hard-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence meter-size shafts and plates of high-bainite steels have been commercially mass-produced by <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Holdings" title="Rolls-Royce Holdings">Rolls-Royce Holdings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tata_Steel" title="Tata Steel">Tata Steel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stam_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stam-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the railway industry, bainite steel is commonly alloyed with <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Railway_track" title="Railway track">rails</a> of very high strength, with good wear and <a href="/wiki/Rolling_contact_fatigue" title="Rolling contact fatigue">rolling contact fatigue</a> resistance. Bainite rails fabricated by <a href="/wiki/Tata_Steel_Europe" title="Tata Steel Europe">Corus</a> were installed in the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Tunnel" title="Channel Tunnel">Channel Tunnel</a> in 2006, and after 3 years showed no evidence of the cracks found in standard rails of the same age.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-stam-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stam_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stam_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stam_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBhadeshia2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harshad_Bhadeshia" title="Harshad Bhadeshia">Bhadeshia, H. 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H.</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5090568">"The first bulk nanostructured metal"</a>. <i>Science and Technology of Advanced Materials</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 014202. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013STAdM..14a4202B">2013STAdM..14a4202B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1468-6996%2F14%2F1%2F014202">10.1088/1468-6996/14/1/014202</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5090568">5090568</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27877550">27877550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Technology+of+Advanced+Materials&rft.atitle=The+first+bulk+nanostructured+metal&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=014202&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5090568%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27877550&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1468-6996%2F14%2F1%2F014202&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013STAdM..14a4202B&rft.aulast=Bhadeshia&rft.aufirst=H.+K.+D.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5090568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBhadeshia2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H. 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"Estimation of Bainite Plate-Thickness in Low-Alloy Steels". <i>Materials Science and Engineering A</i>. <b>245</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">72–</span>79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-5093%2897%2900701-6">10.1016/S0921-5093(97)00701-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materials+Science+and+Engineering+A&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+Bainite+Plate-Thickness+in+Low-Alloy+Steels&rft.volume=245&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0921-5093%2897%2900701-6&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=S.B.&rft.au=Bhadeshia%2C+H.K.D.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-honeycombe-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-honeycombe_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-honeycombe_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-honeycombe_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBhadeshiaHoneycombe2017" class="citation book cs1">Bhadeshia, HKDH; Honeycombe, RWK (2017). <i>Steels: Microstructure & Properties</i>. Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750680844" title="Special:BookSources/9780750680844"><bdi>9780750680844</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steels%3A+Microstructure+%26+Properties&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780750680844&rft.aulast=Bhadeshia&rft.aufirst=HKDH&rft.au=Honeycombe%2C+RWK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZener1946" class="citation journal cs1">Zener, C (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onemine.org/document/abstract.cfm?docid=45433&title=Kinetics-Of-The-Decomposition-Of-Austenite---Contents--Introduction">"Kinetics of the decomposition of austenite"</a>. <i>Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers</i>. <b>167</b>: <span class="nowrap">550–</span>595.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Institute+of+Mining+and+Metallurgical+Engineers&rft.atitle=Kinetics+of+the+decomposition+of+austenite&rft.volume=167&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E550-%3C%2Fspan%3E595&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Zener&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.onemine.org%2Fdocument%2Fabstract.cfm%3Fdocid%3D45433%26title%3DKinetics-Of-The-Decomposition-Of-Austenite---Contents--Introduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKellyNutting1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, P. M.; Nutting, J. (1961). "The martensite transformation in carbon steels". <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences</i>. <b>259</b> (1296): <span class="nowrap">45–</span>58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1960.0210">10.1098/rspa.1960.0210</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:136685252">136685252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+A.+Mathematical+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+martensite+transformation+in+carbon+steels&rft.volume=259&rft.issue=1296&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1960.0210&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A136685252%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=P.+M.&rft.au=Nutting%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHehemann_RF1970" class="citation book cs1">Hehemann RF (1970). "The bainite reaction". <i>Phase Transformations</i>. Ohio, USA: American Society for Metals. p. 397.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+bainite+reaction&rft.btitle=Phase+Transformations&rft.place=Ohio%2C+USA&rft.pages=397&rft.pub=American+Society+for+Metals&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Hehemann+RF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiMilbourn2011" class="citation book cs1">Li, Yu; Milbourn, David (2011). "Vanadium in Bainitic Steels: A Review of Recent Developments". In Weng, Yuqing; Gan, Yong; Dong, Han (eds.). <i>Advanced Steels: The Recent Scenario in Steel Science and Technology</i>. Beijing & Berlin: Metallurgical Industry Press & Springer-Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">303–</span>308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-17665-4_31">10.1007/978-3-642-17665-4_31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642176647" title="Special:BookSources/9783642176647"><bdi>9783642176647</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vanadium+in+Bainitic+Steels%3A+A+Review+of+Recent+Developments&rft.btitle=Advanced+Steels%3A+The+Recent+Scenario+in+Steel+Science+and+Technology&rft.place=Beijing+%26+Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E303-%3C%2Fspan%3E308&rft.pub=Metallurgical+Industry+Press+%26+Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-17665-4_31&rft.isbn=9783642176647&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yu&rft.au=Milbourn%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABainite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bainite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bainite" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bainite">Bainite</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/bainite_NN.html">Free textbooks devoted to bainite</a>, all three editions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2023/Theory_Transformations_Steel.pdf">Theory of transformations in steels</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2004/Bain.Alloying/ecbain.html">The Alloying Elements in Steel, by Edgar C. 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