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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exponential_vs._logistic_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fisheries_and_wildlife_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fisheries_and_wildlife_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fisheries and wildlife management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fisheries_and_wildlife_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-r/K_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#r/K_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>r/K selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-r/K_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Offspring_Quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Top-down_controls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Top-down controls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Top-down_controls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bottom-up_controls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bottom-up_controls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Bottom-up controls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bottom-up_controls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Do_all_ecosystems_have_to_be_either_top-down_or_bottom-up?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Do_all_ecosystems_have_to_be_either_top-down_or_bottom-up?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Do all ecosystems have to be either top-down or bottom-up?</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Do_all_ecosystems_have_to_be_either_top-down_or_bottom-up?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survivorship_curves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survivorship_curves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Survivorship curves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survivorship_curves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metapopulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metapopulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Metapopulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metapopulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Population ecology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="علم البيئة التجمعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم البيئة التجمعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demekologiya" title="Demekologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Demekologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Дэмэкалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дэмэкалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populacijska_ekologija" title="Populacijska ekologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Populacijska ekologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populations%C3%B6kologie" title="Populationsökologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Populationsökologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dem%C3%B6koloogia" title="Demökoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Demökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolog%C3%ADa_de_poblaciones" title="Ecología de poblaciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecología de poblaciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populaciekologio" title="Populaciekologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Populaciekologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populazioen_ekologia" title="Populazioen ekologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Populazioen ekologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="بوم‌شناسی جمعیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌شناسی جمعیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9m%C3%A9cologie" title="Démécologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Démécologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%9C%EC%B2%B4%EA%B5%B0%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%ED%95%99" title="개체군생태학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="개체군생태학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Դեմէկոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դեմէկոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi_populasi" title="Ekologi populasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekologi populasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_della_popolazione" title="Ecologia della popolazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ecologia della popolazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аутоэкология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аутоэкология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Демэкология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Демэкология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%8B%E4%BD%93%E7%BE%A4%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="個体群生態学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="個体群生態学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populasjons%C3%B8kologi" title="Populasjonsøkologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Populasjonsøkologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia_populacyjna" title="Ekologia populacyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekologia populacyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_de_popula%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Ecologia de populações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecologia de populações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_popula%C8%9Biei" title="Ecologia populației – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ecologia populației" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Демэкология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Демэкология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija_populacije" title="Ekologija populacije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ekologija populacije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populaatioekologia" title="Populaatioekologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Populaatioekologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationsekologi" title="Populationsekologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Populationsekologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Демекологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Демекологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_th%C3%A1i_h%E1%BB%8Dc_qu%E1%BA%A7n_th%E1%BB%83" title="Sinh thái học quần thể – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh thái học quần thể" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E7%BE%A4%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="种群生态学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="种群生态学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1049866#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg/275px-Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg/413px-Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg/550px-Jellyfish_population_trends_by_LME.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1022" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Map of population trends of native and invasive species of <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E51A1D; color:white;"> </span> Increase (high certainty)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#F1A341; color:black;"> </span> Increase (low certainty)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4DAF4A; color:black;"> </span> Stable/variable</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#377CB5; color:black;"> </span> Decrease</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#CCCCCA; color:black;"> </span> No data</div></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Population ecology</b> is a sub-field of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> that deals with the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> and how these populations interact with the <a href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environment</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Birth_rate" title="Birth rate">birth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Death_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Death rate">death rates</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Odum1959_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odum1959-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discipline is important in <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>, especially in the development of <a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">population viability analysis</a> which makes it possible to predict the long-term probability of a species persisting in a given patch of <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although population ecology is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, it provides interesting problems for <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statisticians</a> who work in <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">population dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1940s, ecology was divided into autecology—the study of individual species in relation to the environment—and <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">synecology</a>—the study of groups of species in relation to the environment. The term autecology (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B1%E1%BD%90%CF%84%CE%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:αὐτο">αὐτο</a>, <i>aúto</i>, "self"; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:οίκος">οίκος</a>, <i>oíkos</i>, "household"; and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:λόγος">λόγος</a>, <i>lógos</i>, "knowledge"), refers to roughly the same field of study as concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">behaviour</a> as adaptations to the environment by individual organisms. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Eugene Odum</a>, writing in 1953, considered that synecology should be divided into population ecology, <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">community ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> ecology, renaming autecology as 'species ecology' (Odum regarded "autecology" as an archaic term), thus that there were four subdivisions of ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-Odum1959_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odum1959-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A population is defined as a group of interacting organisms of the same species. A demographic structure of a population is how populations are often quantified. The total number of individuals in a population is defined as a population size, and how dense these individuals are is defined as population density. There is also a population's geographic range, which has limits that a species can tolerate (such as temperature). </p><p>Population size can be influenced by the per capita population growth rate (rate at which the population size changes per individual in the population.) Births, deaths, emigration, and immigration rates all play a significant role in growth rate. The maximum per capita growth rate for a population is known as the intrinsic rate of increase. </p><p>In a population, carrying capacity is known as the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain, which is determined by resources available. In many classic population models, r is represented as the intrinsic growth rate, where K is the carrying capacity, and N0 is the initial population size.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> Terms used to describe natural groups of individuals in ecological studies<sup id="cite_ref-Wells95_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells95-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th width="120">Term </th> <th>Definition </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Species population</b></td> <td>All individuals of a species. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Metapopulation</b></td> <td>A set of spatially disjunct populations, among which there is some migration. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Population</b></td> <td>A group of conspecific individuals that is demographically, genetically, or spatially disjunct from other groups of individuals. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Aggregation</b></td> <td>A spatially clustered group of individuals. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Deme</b></td> <td>A group of individuals more genetically similar to each other than to other individuals, usually with some degree of spatial isolation as well. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Local population</b></td> <td>A group of individuals within an investigator-delimited area smaller than the geographic range of the species and often within a population (as defined above). A local population could be a disjunct population as well. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><b>Subpopulation</b></td> <td>An arbitrary spatially delimited subset of individuals from within a population (as defined above). </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Immigration</b> </td> <td>The number of individuals that join a population over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Rockwood_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rockwood-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Emigration</b> </td> <td>The number of individuals that leave a population over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Rockwood_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rockwood-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_dynamics">Population dynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Population dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></div> <p>The development of population ecology owes much to the mathematical models known as <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">population dynamics</a>, which were originally formulae derived from <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> at the end of the 18th and beginning of 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Turchin01_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turchin01-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginning of population dynamics is widely regarded as the work of <a href="/wiki/Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthus">Malthus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-malthus_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-malthus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formulated as the <a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a>. According to Malthus, assuming that the conditions (the environment) remain constant (<i><a href="/wiki/Ceteris_paribus" title="Ceteris paribus">ceteris paribus</a></i>), a population will grow (or decline) <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Turchin01_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turchin01-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup> This principle provided the basis for the subsequent predictive theories, such as the <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demographic</a> studies such as the work of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gompertz" title="Benjamin Gompertz">Benjamin Gompertz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_Verhulst" title="Pierre François Verhulst">Pierre François Verhulst</a> in the early 19th century, who refined and adjusted the Malthusian demographic model.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more general model formulation was proposed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=F._J._Richards&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="F. J. Richards (page does not exist)">F. J. Richards</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> further expanded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simon_Hopkins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simon Hopkins (page does not exist)">Simon Hopkins</a>, in which the models of Gompertz, Verhulst and also <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a> are covered as special cases of the general formulation. The <a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotka–Volterra equation">Lotka–Volterra predator-prey equations</a> are another famous example, as well as the alternative <a href="/wiki/Arditi%E2%80%93Ginzburg_equations" title="Arditi–Ginzburg equations">Arditi–Ginzburg equations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exponential_vs._logistic_growth">Exponential vs. logistic growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Exponential vs. logistic growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When describing growth models, there are two main types of models that are most commonly used: exponential and logistic growth. </p><p>When the per capita rate of increase takes the same positive value regardless of population size, the graph shows exponential growth. Exponential growth takes on the assumption that there is unlimited resources and no predation. An example of exponential population growth is that of the Monk Parakeets in the United States. Originally from South America, Monk Parakeets were either released or escaped from people who owned them. These birds experienced exponential growth from the years 1975-1994 and grew about 55 times their population size from 1975. This growth is likely due to reproduction within their population, as opposed to the addition of more birds from South America (Van Bael & Prudet-Jones 1996). </p><p>When the per capita rate of increase decreases as the population increases towards the maximum limit, or <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a>, the graph shows logistic growth. Environmental and social variables, along with many others, impact the carrying capacity of a population, meaning that it has the ability to change (Schacht 1980).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fisheries_and_wildlife_management">Fisheries and wildlife management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fisheries and wildlife management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics_of_fisheries" title="Population dynamics of fisheries">Population dynamics of fisheries</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Matrix_population_models" title="Matrix population models">Matrix population models</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">wildlife management</a>, population is affected by three dynamic rate functions. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natality_in_population_ecology" title="Natality in population ecology">Natality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Birth_rate" title="Birth rate">birth rate</a>, often recruitment, which means reaching a certain size or reproductive stage. Usually refers to the age a fish can be caught and counted in nets.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Population growth rate">Population growth rate</a>, which measures the growth of individuals in size and length. More important in fisheries, where population is often measured in biomass.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality</a>, which includes harvest mortality and natural mortality. Natural mortality includes non-human predation, disease and old age.</li></ul> <p>If <i>N</i><sub>1</sub> is the number of individuals at time 1 then <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{1}=N_{0}+B-D+I-E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{1}=N_{0}+B-D+I-E}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0462f642115696235247754a36e9d6e5cd947d22" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:26.937ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{1}=N_{0}+B-D+I-E}"></span> where <i>N</i><sub>0</sub> is the number of individuals at time 0, <i>B</i> is the number of individuals born, <i>D</i> the number that died, <i>I</i> the number that immigrated, and <i>E</i> the number that emigrated between time 0 and time 1. </p><p>If we measure these rates over many time intervals, we can determine how a population's density changes over time. Immigration and emigration are present, but are usually not measured. </p><p>All of these are measured to determine the harvestable surplus, which is the number of individuals that can be harvested from a population without affecting long-term population stability or average population size. The harvest within the harvestable surplus is termed "compensatory" mortality, where the harvest deaths are substituted for the deaths that would have occurred naturally. Harvest above that level is termed "additive" mortality, because it adds to the number of deaths that would have occurred naturally. These terms are not necessarily judged as "good" and "bad," respectively, in population management. For example, a fish & game agency might aim to reduce the size of a deer population through additive mortality. Bucks might be targeted to increase buck competition, or does might be targeted to reduce reproduction and thus overall population size. </p><p>For the management of many fish and other wildlife populations, the goal is often to achieve the largest possible long-run sustainable harvest, also known as <a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">maximum sustainable yield</a> (or MSY). Given a population dynamic model, such as any of the ones above, it is possible to calculate the population size that produces the largest harvestable surplus at equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the use of population dynamic models along with statistics and optimization to set harvest limits for fish and game is controversial among some scientists,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it has been shown to be more effective than the use of human judgment in computer experiments where both incorrect models and natural resource management students competed to maximize yield in two hypothetical fisheries.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To give an example of a non-intuitive result, fisheries produce more fish when there is a nearby <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(ecology)" title="Refuge (ecology)">refuge</a> from human predation in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">nature reserve</a>, resulting in higher catches than if the whole area was open to fishing.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="r/K_selection"><span id="r.2FK_selection"></span>r/K selection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: r/K selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="R/K selection">r/K selection</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>At its most elementary level, interspecific competition involves two species utilizing a similar <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resource</a>. It rapidly gets more complicated, but stripping the phenomenon of all its complications, this is the basic principle: two consumers consuming the same resource.<sup id="cite_ref-Vandermeer03_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vandermeer03-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 222">: 222 </span></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <p>An important concept in population ecology is the <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="R/K selection">r/K selection</a> theory. For example, if an animal has the choice of producing one or a few offspring, or to put a lot of effort or little effort in offspring—these are all examples of trade-offs. In order for species to thrive, they must choose what is best for them, leading to a clear distinction between r and K selected species.<sup id="cite_ref-r_and_K_selection_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r_and_K_selection-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first variable is <i>r</i> (the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size, density independent) and the second variable is <i>K</i> (the carrying capacity of a population, density dependent).<sup id="cite_ref-Begon06_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Begon06-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to understand the difference between density-independent factors when selecting the intrinsic rate and density-dependent for the selection of the carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is only found during a density-dependent population. Density-dependent factors influence the carrying capacity are predation, harvest, and genetics, so when selecting the carrying capacity it is important to understand to look at the predation or harvest rates that influence the population (Stewart 2004). An <i>r</i>-selected species (e.g., many kinds of insects, such as aphids<sup id="cite_ref-Whitman78_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitman78-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is one that has high rates of fecundity, low levels of parental investment in the young, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favors productivity in r-selected species. </p><p>In contrast, a <i>K</i>-selected species (such as humans) has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Evolution in <i>K</i>-selected species favors efficiency in the conversion of more <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resources</a> into fewer offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-MacArthur67_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacArthur67-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pianka72_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pianka72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K-selected species generally experience stronger competition, where populations generally live near carrying capacity. These species have heavy investment in offspring, resulting in longer lived organisms, and longer period of maturation. Offspring of K-selected species generally have a higher probability of survival, due to heavy parental care and nurturing.<sup id="cite_ref-r_and_K_selection_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r_and_K_selection-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Offspring_Quality">Offspring Quality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Offspring Quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The offspring fitness is mainly affected by the size and quality of that specific offspring [depending on the species]. Factors that contribute to the relative fitness of offspring size is either the resources the parents provide to their young or morphological traits that come from the parents. The overall success of the offspring after the initial birth or hatching is the survival of the young, the growth rate, and the birthing success of the offspring. There is found to be no effect of the young being raised by the natural parents or foster parents, the offspring need the proper resources to survive (Kristi 2010). </p><p>A study that was conducted on the egg size and offspring quality in birds found that, in summary, that the egg size contributes to the overall fitness of the offspring. This study shows the direct relationship to the survivorship curve Type I in that if the offspring is cared for during its early stages of life by a parent, it will die off later in life. However, if the offspring is not cared for by the parents due to an increase in egg quantity, then the survivorship curve will be similar to Type III, in that the offspring will die off early and will survive later in life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Top-down_and_bottom-up_controls">Top-down and bottom-up controls</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Top-down and bottom-up controls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Top-down_controls">Top-down controls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Top-down controls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some populations, organisms in lower trophic levels are controlled by organisms at the top. This is known as top-down control. </p><p>For example, the presence of top carnivores keep herbivore populations in check. If there were no top carnivores in the ecosystem, then herbivore populations would rapidly increase, leading to all plants being eaten. This ecosystem would eventually collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-eco-intelligent.com_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-intelligent.com-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bottom-up_controls">Bottom-up controls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bottom-up controls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bottom-up controls, on the other hand, are driven by producers in the ecosystem. If plant populations change, then the population of all species would be impacted. </p><p>For example, if plant populations decreased significantly, the herbivore populations would decrease, which would lead to a carnivore population decreasing too. Therefore, if all of the plants disappeared, then the ecosystem would collapse. Another example would be if there were too many plants available, then two herbivore populations may compete for the same food. The competition would lead to an eventual removal of one population.<sup id="cite_ref-eco-intelligent.com_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-intelligent.com-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Do_all_ecosystems_have_to_be_either_top-down_or_bottom-up?"><span id="Do_all_ecosystems_have_to_be_either_top-down_or_bottom-up.3F"></span>Do all ecosystems have to be either top-down or bottom-up?</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Do all ecosystems have to be either top-down or bottom-up?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An ecosystem does not have to be either top-down or bottom-up. There are occasions where an ecosystem could be bottom-up sometimes, such as a marine ecosystem, but then have periods of top-down control due to fishing.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Survivorship_curves">Survivorship curves</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Survivorship curves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Survivorship_curves" class="mw-redirect" title="Survivorship curves">Survivorship curves</a></div> <p>Survivorship curves are graphs that show the distribution of survivors in a population according to age. Survivorship curves play an important role in comparing generations, populations, or even different species.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Type I survivorship curve is characterized by the fact that death occurs in the later years of an organism's life (mostly mammals). In other words, most organisms reach the maximum expected lifespan and the life expectancy and the age of death go hand-in-hand (Demetrius 1978). Typically, Type I survivorship curves characterize K-selected species. </p><p>Type II survivorship shows that death at any age is equally probable. This means that the chances of death are not dependent on or affected by the age of that organism. </p><p>Type III curves indicate few surviving the younger years, but after a certain age, individuals are much more likely to survive. Type III survivorship typically characterizes r-selected species.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Metapopulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></div><p> Populations are also studied and conceptualized through the "<a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">metapopulation</a>" concept. The metapopulation concept was introduced in 1969:<sup id="cite_ref-Levins69_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levins69-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p> "as a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize."<sup id="cite_ref-Levins70_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levins70-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 105">: 105 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p> Metapopulation ecology is a simplified model of the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanski98_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanski98-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patches are either occupied or they are not. Migrants moving among the patches are structured into metapopulations either as sources or sinks. Source patches are productive sites that generate a seasonal supply of migrants to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants. In metapopulation terminology there are emigrants (individuals that leave a patch) and immigrants (individuals that move into a patch). Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to answer questions about spatial and demographic ecology. An important concept in metapopulation ecology is the <a href="/wiki/Rescue_effect" title="Rescue effect">rescue effect</a>, where small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. Metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks, such as dry years, and become sources when conditions are more favorable. Ecologists utilize a mixture of computer models and field studies to explain metapopulation structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanski04_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanski04-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Metapopulation ecology allows for ecologists to take in a wide range of factors when examining a metapopulation like genetics, the bottle-neck effect, and many more. Metapopulation data is extremely useful in understanding population dynamics as most species are not numerous and require specific resources from their habitats. In addition, metapopulation ecology allows for a deeper understanding of the effects of habitat loss, and can help to predict the future of a habitat. To elaborate, metapopulation ecology assumes that, before a habitat becomes uninhabitable, the species in it will emigrate out, or die off. This information is helpful to ecologists in determining what, if anything, can be done to aid a declining habitat. Overall, the information that metapopulation ecology provides is useful to ecologists in many ways (Hanski 1998). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals">Journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first journal publication of the Society of Population Ecology, titled <i>Population Ecology</i> (originally called <i>Researches on Population Ecology</i>) was released in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientific articles on population ecology can also be found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Animal_Ecology" title="Journal of Animal Ecology">Journal of Animal Ecology</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Oikos_(journal)" title="Oikos (journal)">Oikos</a></i> and other journals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Density-dependent_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Density-dependent inhibition">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_overshoot" title="Ecological overshoot">Ecological overshoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irruptive_growth" title="Irruptive growth">Irruptive growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_organisms_by_population" title="Lists of organisms by population">Lists of organisms by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Population distribution">Population distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics_of_fisheries" title="Population dynamics of fisheries">Population dynamics of fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrotzCheungKleisnerPakhomov2012" class="citation journal cs1">Brotz, Lucas; Cheung, William W. L; Kleisner, Kristin; Pakhomov, Evgeny; Pauly, Daniel (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10750-012-1039-7">"Increasing jellyfish populations: Trends in Large Marine Ecosystems"</a>. <i>Hydrobiologia</i>. <b>690</b> (1): 3–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10750-012-1039-7">10.1007/s10750-012-1039-7</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=Increasing+jellyfish+populations%3A+Trends+in+Large+Marine+Ecosystems&rft.volume=690&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-20&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10750-012-1039-7&rft.aulast=Brotz&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft.au=Cheung%2C+William+W.+L&rft.au=Kleisner%2C+Kristin&rft.au=Pakhomov%2C+Evgeny&rft.au=Pauly%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10750-012-1039-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Odum1959-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Odum1959_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Odum1959_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdum1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Odum, Eugene P.</a> (1959). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum/page/546"><i>Fundamentals of Ecology</i></a></span> (Second ed.). Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Co. p. 9, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum/page/546">546</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780721669410" title="Special:BookSources/9780721669410"><bdi>9780721669410</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/554879">554879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Ecology&rft.place=Philadelphia+and+London&rft.pages=9%2C+546&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=W.+B.+Saunders+Co.&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F554879&rft.isbn=9780721669410&rft.aulast=Odum&rft.aufirst=Eugene+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofec0000odum%2Fpage%2F546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110309092803/http://atlas.aaas.org/">AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingsland1995" class="citation book cs1">Kingsland, S. (1995). <i>Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43728-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43728-6"><bdi>978-0-226-43728-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modeling+Nature%3A+Episodes+in+the+History+of+Population+Ecology&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-226-43728-6&rft.aulast=Kingsland&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.nicholas.duke.edu/ecologyapp/modules/population-dynamics/">"Population Dynamics | e-cology"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Population+Dynamics+%7C+e-cology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.nicholas.duke.edu%2Fecologyapp%2Fmodules%2Fpopulation-dynamics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wells95-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wells95_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellsRichmond1995" class="citation journal cs1">Wells, J. V.; Richmond, M. E. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051104081736/http://www.uoguelph.ca/zoology/courses/BIOL3130/wells11.pdf">"Populations, metapopulations, and species populations: What are they and who should care?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Wildlife Society Bulletin</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 458–462. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uoguelph.ca/zoology/courses/BIOL3130/wells11.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 4, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wildlife+Society+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Populations%2C+metapopulations%2C+and+species+populations%3A+What+are+they+and+who+should+care%3F&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=458-462&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=J.+V.&rft.au=Richmond%2C+M.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uoguelph.ca%2Fzoology%2Fcourses%2FBIOL3130%2Fwells11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rockwood-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rockwood_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rockwood_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRockwood2015" class="citation book cs1">Rockwood, Larry L. (2015-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WIoIBwAAQBAJ&q=population+ecology&pg=PR9"><i>Introduction to Population Ecology</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-94757-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-94757-9"><bdi>978-1-118-94757-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Population+Ecology&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1-118-94757-9&rft.aulast=Rockwood&rft.aufirst=Larry+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWIoIBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpopulation%2Becology%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turchin01-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turchin01_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turchin01_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchin2001" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, P. (2001). "Does Population Ecology Have General Laws?". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>94</b> (1): 17–26. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Oikos..94...17T">2001Oikos..94...17T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0706.2001.11310.x">10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.11310.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27090414">27090414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Does+Population+Ecology+Have+General+Laws%3F&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-26&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27090414%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1034%2Fj.1600-0706.2001.11310.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Oikos..94...17T&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-malthus-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-malthus_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malthus, Thomas Robert. <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a>: Library of Economics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerhulst1838" class="citation journal cs1">Verhulst, P. 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New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471508830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471508830"><bdi>978-0471508830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+bioeconomics+%3A+the+optimal+management+of+renewable+resources&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0471508830&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicalbioe0002clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinleyOreskes2013" class="citation journal cs1">Finley, C; <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Oreskes" title="Naomi Oreskes">Oreskes, N</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficesjms%2Ffss192">"Maximum sustained yield: A policy disguised as science"</a>. <i>ICES Journal of Marine Science</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 245–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficesjms%2Ffss192">10.1093/icesjms/fss192</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ICES+Journal+of+Marine+Science&rft.atitle=Maximum+sustained+yield%3A+A+policy+disguised+as+science&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-50&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficesjms%2Ffss192&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficesjms%252Ffss192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoldenEllner2016" class="citation journal cs1">Holden, Matthew H; Ellner, Stephen P (2016). "Human judgment vs. Quantitative models for the management of ecological resources". <i>Ecological Applications</i>. <b>26</b> (5): 1553–1565. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1603.04518">1603.04518</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016EcoAp..26.1553H">2016EcoAp..26.1553H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F15-1295">10.1890/15-1295</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27755756">27755756</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1279459">1279459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Human+judgment+vs.+Quantitative+models+for+the+management+of+ecological+resources&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1553-1565&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1279459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016EcoAp..26.1553H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1603.04518&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27755756&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F15-1295&rft.aulast=Holden&rft.aufirst=Matthew+H&rft.au=Ellner%2C+Stephen+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2016" class="citation news cs1">Collins, Nathan (March 11, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psmag.com/environment/sometimes-even-bad-models-make-better-decisions-than-people">"Sometimes, Even Bad Models Make Better Decisions Than People"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Standard" title="Pacific Standard">Pacific Standard</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Metapopulation dynamics". <i>Nature</i>. <b>396</b> (6706): 41–49. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.396...41H">1998Natur.396...41H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F23876">10.1038/23876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Metapopulation+dynamics&rft.volume=396&rft.issue=6706&rft.pages=41-49&rft.date=1998-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F23876&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998Natur.396...41H&rft.aulast=Hanski&rft.aufirst=Ilkka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanski04-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hanski04_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanskiGaggiotti2004" class="citation book cs1">Hanski, I.; Gaggiotti, O. E., eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EP8TAQAAIAAJ&q=ecology,+genetics,+and+evolution+of+metapopulations"><i>Ecology, genetics and evolution of metapopulations</i></a>. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-323448-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-323448-3"><bdi>978-0-12-323448-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecology%2C+genetics+and+evolution+of+metapopulations.&rft.place=Burlington%2C+MA&rft.pub=Elsevier+Academic+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-12-323448-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEP8TAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Decology%2C%2Bgenetics%2C%2Band%2Bevolution%2Bof%2Bmetapopulations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esj-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/1438390X/homepage/productinformation.html">"Population Ecology"</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28ISSN%291438-390X">10.1002/(ISSN)1438-390X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Population+Ecology&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28ISSN%291438-390X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesj-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fhub%2Fjournal%2F1438390X%2Fhomepage%2Fproductinformation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendersonLoreau2019" class="citation journal cs1">Henderson, Kirsten; Loreau, Michel (March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpan3.8">"An ecological theory of changing human population dynamics"</a>. <i>People and Nature</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 31–43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PeoNa...1...31H">2019PeoNa...1...31H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpan3.8">10.1002/pan3.8</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People+and+Nature&rft.atitle=An+ecological+theory+of+changing+human+population+dynamics&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-43&rft.date=2019-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpan3.8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PeoNa...1...31H&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rft.au=Loreau%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fpan3.8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_ecology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKareiva1989" class="citation book cs1">Kareiva, Peter (1989). 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ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ecology" title="Applied ecology">Applied ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" 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ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological 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