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<span>Key reactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Key reactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Key_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrogen_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogen_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hydrogen fusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helium_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helium_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Helium fusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helium_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Reaction rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Stellar nucleosynthesis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تفاعلات الانصهار النجمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفاعلات الانصهار النجمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleos%C3%ADntesis_estelar" title="Nucleosíntesis estelar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nucleosíntesis estelar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="নাক্ষত্রিক নিউক্লিওসংশ্লেষণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নাক্ষত্রিক নিউক্লিওসংশ্লেষণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Космологичен нуклеосинтез – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Космологичен нуклеосинтез" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvjezdana_nukleosinteza" title="Zvjezdana nukleosinteza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zvjezdana nukleosinteza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleos%C3%ADntesi_estel%C2%B7lar" title="Nucleosíntesi estel·lar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nucleosíntesi estel·lar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%83%D0%BB%D1%82%C4%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Çăлтăрсенчи нуклонсарла реакци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çăлтăрсенчи нуклонсарла реакци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stjernenukleosyntese" title="Stjernenukleosyntese – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stjernenukleosyntese" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleos%C3%ADntesis_estelar" title="Nucleosíntesis estelar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nucleosíntesis estelar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stela_nukleosintezo" title="Stela nukleosintezo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Stela nukleosintezo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izarren_nukleosintesi" title="Izarren nukleosintesi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Izarren nukleosintesi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="هسته‌زایی ستاره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هسته‌زایی ستاره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucl%C3%A9osynth%C3%A8se_stellaire" title="Nucléosynthèse stellaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nucléosynthèse stellaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EC%84%B1_%ED%95%B5%ED%95%A9%EC%84%B1" title="항성 핵합성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항성 핵합성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="स्टेल्लर नाभिकीय संश्लेषण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्टेल्लर नाभिकीय संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nch%E1%BB%8Bk%E1%BB%8Dta_kpakpando" title="Nchịkọta kpakpando – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Nchịkọta kpakpando" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleosintesis_bintang" title="Nukleosintesis bintang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nukleosintesis bintang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosintesi_stellare" title="Nucleosintesi stellare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nucleosintesi stellare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%96%D7%94_%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="נוקליאוסינתזה כוכבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נוקליאוסינתזה כוכבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%85%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Ѕвездена нуклеосинтеза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ѕвездена нуклеосинтеза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="अणू-संमेलन क्रिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणू-संमेलन क्रिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintesis_nuklear_najam" title="Sintesis nuklear najam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sintesis nuklear najam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F%E5%86%85%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E5%90%88%E6%88%90" title="恒星内元素合成 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="恒星内元素合成" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stjernenukleosyntese" title="Stjernenukleosyntese – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stjernenukleosyntese" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleosyntese_i_astronomi" title="Nukleosyntese i astronomi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nukleosyntese i astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoss%C3%ADntese_estelar" title="Nucleossíntese estelar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nucleossíntese estelar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosintez%C4%83_stelar%C4%83" title="Nucleosinteză stelară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nucleosinteză stelară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%B7%D0%B2%D1%91%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%85" title="Ядерные реакции в звёздах – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерные реакции в звёздах" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Stellar nucleosynthesis" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stellar nucleosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvezdana_nukleosinteza" title="Zvezdana nukleosinteza – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Zvezdana nukleosinteza" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvjezdana_nukleosinteza" title="Zvjezdana nukleosinteza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zvjezdana nukleosinteza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4hden_ydinsynteesi" title="Tähden ydinsynteesi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tähden ydinsynteesi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B9%8C" title="การสังเคราะห์นิวเคลียสของดาวฤกษ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสังเคราะห์นิวเคลียสของดาวฤกษ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_n%C3%BCkleosentezi" title="Yıldız nükleosentezi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yıldız nükleosentezi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Creation of chemical elements within stars</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_energy_generation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nuclear_energy_generation.svg/330px-Nuclear_energy_generation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nuclear_energy_generation.svg/495px-Nuclear_energy_generation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nuclear_energy_generation.svg/660px-Nuclear_energy_generation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">Logarithmic scale</a> plot of the relative energy output (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ε</span>) of the following fusion processes at different temperatures (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid lime 2px;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a> (PP)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid blue 2px;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid red 2px;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-α process</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:dashed black 2px;"> </span> Combined energy generation of PP and CNO within a star</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid orange 1px;"> </span> The Sun's core temperature, at which PP is more efficient</div></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <b>stellar nucleosynthesis</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">creation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions within <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>. Stellar nucleosynthesis has occurred since the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">original creation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. As a <a href="/wiki/Predictive_power" title="Predictive power">predictive theory</a>, it yields accurate estimates of the <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">observed abundances</a> of the elements. It explains why the observed abundances of elements change over time and why some elements and their <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> are much more abundant than others. The theory was initially proposed by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> in 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle1946_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle1946-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who later refined it in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle1954_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle1954-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further advances were made, especially to nucleosynthesis by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> of the elements heavier than <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burbidge" title="Margaret Burbidge">Margaret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Burbidge" title="Geoffrey Burbidge">Geoffrey Burbidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> in their famous 1957 <a href="/wiki/B2FH_paper" title="B2FH paper">B<sup>2</sup>FH paper</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-B2FH_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B2FH-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became one of the most heavily cited papers in astrophysics history. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Stars evolve</a> because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen burning">burning hydrogen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a> star), then <a href="/wiki/Helium_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Helium burning">helium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Horizontal_branch" title="Horizontal branch">horizontal branch</a> star), and progressively burning <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">higher elements</a>. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the star. Later in its life, a low-mass star will slowly eject its atmosphere via <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar wind</a>, forming a <a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">planetary nebula</a>, while a higher–mass star will eject mass via a sudden catastrophic event called a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>. The term <a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">supernova nucleosynthesis</a> is used to describe the creation of elements during the explosion of a massive star or <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>. </p><p>The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> and its associated heating, resulting in the subsequent burning of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon burning">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon burning">silicon</a>. However, most of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range <span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">A</a></i> = 28–56</span> (from silicon to nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star <a href="/wiki/Supernova#Core_collapse" title="Supernova">collapsing onto the core</a>, creating a compressional <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second. This final burning in massive stars, called <i>explosive nucleosynthesis</i> or <a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">supernova nucleosynthesis</a>, is the final epoch of stellar nucleosynthesis. </p><p>A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements#Universe" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">abundances of elements found in the universe</a>. The need for a physical description was already inspired by the relative abundances of the chemical elements in the solar system. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of the atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_nucleosynthesis_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nucleosynthesis theory">history of nucleosynthesis theory</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggested a natural process that is not random. A second stimulus to understanding the processes of stellar nucleosynthesis occurred during the 20th century, when it was realized that the <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> as a source of heat and light.<sup id="cite_ref-Clayton1968_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayton1968-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg/250px-Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg/375px-Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg/500px-Arthur_Stanley_Eddington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="688" /></a><figcaption>In 1920, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> proposed that stars obtained their energy from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion#Astrophysical_reaction_chains" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and also raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1920, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>, on the basis of the precise measurements of atomic masses by <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">F.W. Aston</a> and a preliminary suggestion by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Perrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Perrin">Jean Perrin</a>, proposed that stars obtained their energy from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a preliminary step toward the idea of stellar nucleosynthesis. In 1928 <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a> derived what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Gamow_factor" title="Gamow factor">Gamow factor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum-mechanical</a> formula yielding the probability for two contiguous nuclei to overcome the electrostatic <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> between them and approach each other closely enough to undergo nuclear reaction due to the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong nuclear force">strong nuclear force</a> which is effective only at very short distances.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 410">: 410 </span></sup> In the following decade the Gamow factor was used by <a href="/wiki/Robert_d%27Escourt_Atkinson" title="Robert d'Escourt Atkinson">Atkinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Houtermans" title="Fritz Houtermans">Houtermans</a> and later by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> and Gamow himself to derive the rate at which nuclear reactions would occur at the high temperatures believed to exist in stellar interiors. </p><p>In 1939, in a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize#Nobel_lecture" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel lecture</a> entitled "Energy Production in Stars", <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> analyzed the different possibilities for reactions by which hydrogen is fused into helium.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He defined two processes that he believed to be the sources of energy in stars. The first one, the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>, is the dominant energy source in stars with masses up to about the mass of the Sun. The second process, the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle</a>, which was also considered by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker">Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker</a> in 1938, is more important in more massive main-sequence stars.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 167">: 167 </span></sup> These works concerned the energy generation capable of keeping stars hot. A clear physical description of the proton–proton chain and of the CNO cycle appears in a 1968 textbook.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 365">: 365 </span></sup> Bethe's two papers did not address the creation of heavier nuclei, however. That theory was begun by Fred Hoyle in 1946 with his argument that a collection of very hot nuclei would assemble thermodynamically into <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle1946_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle1946-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoyle followed that in 1954 with a paper describing how advanced fusion stages within massive stars would synthesize the elements from carbon to iron in mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle1954_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle1954-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hoyle's theory was extended to other processes, beginning with the publication of the 1957 review paper "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burbidge" title="Margaret Burbidge">Burbidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Burbidge" title="Geoffrey Burbidge">Burbidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Hoyle</a>, more commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/B2FH_paper" title="B2FH paper">B<sup>2</sup>FH paper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-B2FH_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B2FH-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This review paper collected and refined earlier research into a heavily cited picture that gave promise of accounting for the observed relative abundances of the elements; but it did not itself enlarge Hoyle's 1954 picture for the origin of primary nuclei as much as many assumed, except in the understanding of nucleosynthesis of those elements heavier than iron by neutron capture. Significant improvements were made by <a href="/wiki/Alastair_G._W._Cameron" title="Alastair G. W. Cameron">Alastair G. W. Cameron</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Donald_D._Clayton" title="Donald D. Clayton">Donald D. Clayton</a>. In 1957 Cameron presented his own independent approach to nucleosynthesis,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> informed by Hoyle's example, and introduced computers into time-dependent calculations of evolution of nuclear systems. Clayton calculated the first time-dependent models of the <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process"><i>s</i>-process</a> in 1961<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of the <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process"><i>r</i>-process</a> in 1965,<sup id="cite_ref-Seeger1965_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeger1965-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as of the burning of silicon into the abundant alpha-particle nuclei and iron-group elements in 1968,<sup id="cite_ref-Bodansky1968a_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodansky1968a-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bodansky1968b_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodansky1968b-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and discovered radiogenic chronologies<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for determining the age of the elements. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif/220px-Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif/330px-Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif/440px-Nucleosynthesis_in_a_star.gif 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of a <a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">supergiant</a> showing nucleosynthesis and elements formed.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_reactions">Key reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Key reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/500px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/750px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/1000px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>A version of the periodic table indicating the origins – including stellar nucleosynthesis – of the elements.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most important reactions in stellar nucleosynthesis: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> fusion: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium fusion</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> fusion: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">triple-alpha process</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">alpha process</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fusion of heavier elements: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Lithium burning</a>: a process found most commonly in <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">Carbon-burning process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Neon-burning process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">Oxygen-burning process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Silicon-burning process</a></li></ul></li> <li>Production of elements heavier than <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a> capture: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a> capture: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp-process</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen_fusion">Hydrogen fusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hydrogen fusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hydrogen burning" redirects here. For the combustion of hydrogen gas, see <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen#Combustion" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen § Combustion</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">Proton–proton chain reaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium fusion</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/300px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/450px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/600px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><b>Proton–proton chain reaction</b></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CNO_Cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/300px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/450px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/600px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><b>CNO-I cycle</b><br />The helium nucleus is released at the top-left step.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Hydrogen fusion (nuclear fusion of four protons to form a <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> nucleus<sup id="cite_ref-jones2009_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones2009-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is the dominant process that generates energy in the cores of <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main-sequence</a> stars. It is also called "hydrogen burning", which should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen#Combustion" title="Hydrogen">combustion of hydrogen</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing">oxidizing</a> atmosphere. There are two predominant processes by which stellar hydrogen fusion occurs: <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a> and the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen (CNO) cycle. Ninety percent of all stars, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/White_dwarfs" class="mw-redirect" title="White dwarfs">white dwarfs</a>, are fusing hydrogen by these two processes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> </p><p>In the cores of lower-mass main-sequence stars such as the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, the dominant energy production process is the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>. This creates a helium-4 nucleus through a sequence of reactions that begin with the fusion of two protons to form a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nucleus (one proton plus one neutron) along with an ejected positron and neutrino.<sup id="cite_ref-bohm_vitense1992_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohm_vitense1992-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In each complete fusion cycle, the proton–proton chain reaction releases about 26.2 MeV.<sup id="cite_ref-bohm_vitense1992_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohm_vitense1992-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proton-proton chain with a dependence of approximately T^4, meaning the reaction cycle is highly sensitive to temperature; a 10% rise of temperature would increase energy production by this method by 46%, hence, this hydrogen fusion process can occur in up to a third of the star's radius and occupy half the star's mass. For stars above 35% of the Sun's mass,<sup id="cite_ref-aaa496_3_787_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa496_3_787-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Energy_flux" title="Energy flux">energy flux</a> toward the surface is sufficiently low and energy transfer from the core region remains by <a href="/wiki/Radiative_heat_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiative heat transfer">radiative heat transfer</a>, rather than by <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">convective heat transfer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-deloore_doom1992_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deloore_doom1992-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, there is little mixing of fresh hydrogen into the core or fusion products outward. </p><p>In higher-mass stars, the dominant energy production process is the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_cycle" title="Catalytic cycle">catalytic cycle</a> that uses nuclei of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries and in the end produces a helium nucleus as with the proton–proton chain.<sup id="cite_ref-bohm_vitense1992_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohm_vitense1992-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a complete CNO cycle, 25.0 MeV of energy is released. The difference in energy production of this cycle, compared to the proton–proton chain reaction, is accounted for by the energy lost through <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> emission.<sup id="cite_ref-bohm_vitense1992_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohm_vitense1992-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CNO cycle is highly sensitive to temperature, with rates proportional to T^{16-20}, a 10% rise of temperature would produce a 350% rise in energy production. About 90% of the CNO cycle energy generation occurs within the inner 15% of the star's mass, hence it is strongly concentrated at the core.<sup id="cite_ref-jeffrey2010_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeffrey2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in such an intense outward energy flux that <a href="/wiki/Convective" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective">convective</a> energy transfer becomes more important than does <a href="/wiki/Radiative_transfer" title="Radiative transfer">radiative transfer</a>. As a result, the core region becomes a <a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">convection zone</a>, which stirs the hydrogen fusion region and keeps it well mixed with the surrounding proton-rich region.<sup id="cite_ref-karttunen_oja2007_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-karttunen_oja2007-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This core convection occurs in stars where the CNO cycle contributes more than 20% of the total energy. As the star ages and the core temperature increases, the region occupied by the convection zone slowly shrinks from 20% of the mass down to the inner 8% of the mass.<sup id="cite_ref-jeffrey2010_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeffrey2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sun produces on the order of 1% of its energy from the CNO cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 357">: 357 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The type of hydrogen fusion process that dominates in a star is determined by the temperature dependency differences between the two reactions. The proton–proton chain reaction starts at temperatures about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006400000000000000♠"></span>4<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>6</sup> <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-reid_hawley2005_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reid_hawley2005-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it the dominant fusion mechanism in smaller stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain requires a higher temperature of approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007160000000000000♠"></span>1.6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>7</sup> K</span>, but thereafter it increases more rapidly in efficiency as the temperature rises, than does the proton–proton reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-salaris_cassini2005_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salaris_cassini2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Above approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007170000000000000♠"></span>1.7<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>7</sup> K</span>, the CNO cycle becomes the dominant source of energy. This temperature is achieved in the cores of main-sequence stars with at least 1.3 times the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-apj701_1_837_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj701_1_837-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sun itself has a core temperature of about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007157000000000000♠"></span>1.57<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>7</sup> K</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> As a main-sequence star ages, the core temperature will rise, resulting in a steadily increasing contribution from its CNO cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-jeffrey2010_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeffrey2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helium_fusion">Helium fusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Helium fusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">Alpha process</a></div> <p>Main sequence stars accumulate helium in their cores as a result of hydrogen fusion, but the core does not become hot enough to initiate helium fusion. Helium fusion first begins when a star leaves the <a href="/wiki/Red_giant_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Red giant branch">red giant branch</a> after accumulating sufficient helium in its core to ignite it. In stars around the mass of the Sun, this begins at the tip of the red giant branch with a <a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">helium flash</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">degenerate</a> helium core, and the star moves to the <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_branch" title="Horizontal branch">horizontal branch</a> where it burns helium in its core. More massive stars ignite helium in their core without a flash and execute a <a href="/wiki/Blue_loop" title="Blue loop">blue loop</a> before reaching the <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">asymptotic giant branch</a>. Such a star initially moves away from the AGB toward bluer colours, then loops back again to what is called the <a href="/wiki/Hayashi_track" title="Hayashi track">Hayashi track</a>. An important consequence of blue loops is that they give rise to classical <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variables</a>, of central importance in determining distances in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> and to nearby galaxies.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 250">: 250 </span></sup> Despite the name, stars on a blue loop from the red giant branch are typically not blue in colour but are rather yellow giants, possibly Cepheid variables. They fuse helium until the core is largely <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The most massive stars become supergiants when they leave the main sequence and quickly start helium fusion as they become <a href="/wiki/Red_supergiant" title="Red supergiant">red supergiants</a>. After the helium is exhausted in the core of a star, helium fusion will continue in a shell around the carbon–oxygen core.<sup id="cite_ref-jones2009_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones2009-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-deloore_doom1992_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deloore_doom1992-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In all cases, helium is fused to carbon via the triple-alpha process, i.e., three helium nuclei are transformed into carbon via <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-8" title="Beryllium-8"><sup>8</sup>Be</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> This can then form oxygen, neon, and heavier elements via the alpha process. In this way, the alpha process preferentially produces elements with even numbers of protons by the capture of helium nuclei. Elements with odd numbers of protons are formed by other fusion pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 398">: 398 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_rate">Reaction rate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reaction rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reaction rate density between species <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, having number densities <i>n</i><sub><i>A</i>,<i>B</i></sub>, is given by: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=n_{A}\,n_{B}\,k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=n_{A}\,n_{B}\,k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a364cd7dd9f1edd7a616919706214f4444c4b8c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.866ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=n_{A}\,n_{B}\,k}"></span> where <i>k</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_rate_constant" title="Reaction rate constant">reaction rate constant</a> of each single elementary binary reaction composing the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> process: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=\langle \sigma (v)\,v\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>v</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=\langle \sigma (v)\,v\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/96078ab8d3571dcdb262ecb8c8e1a27f1d657da1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.9ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=\langle \sigma (v)\,v\rangle }"></span> here, <i>σ</i>(<i>v</i>) is the cross-section at relative velocity <i>v</i>, and averaging is performed over all velocities. </p><p>Semi-classically, the cross section is proportional to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \pi \,\lambda ^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \pi \,\lambda ^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cdb9e7ed99a9e8d649d5ce7abc0650fe58befccf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.129ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \pi \,\lambda ^{2}}"></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =h/p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =h/p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/53d90749442f4524695c449142b03c24d80ef986" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.125ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =h/p}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">de Broglie wavelength</a>. Thus semi-classically the cross section is proportional to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\frac {m}{E}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>m</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\frac {m}{E}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ef5cb50b72d378bf7b9362a1b023099ca782827a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:2.279ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\frac {m}{E}}}"></span>. </p><p>However, since the reaction involves <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a>, there is an exponential damping at low energies that depends on <a href="/wiki/Gamow_factor" title="Gamow factor">Gamow factor</a> <i>E</i><sub>G</sub>, giving an <a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_equation" title="Arrhenius equation">Arrhenius equation</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma (E)={\frac {S(E)}{E}}e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>G</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma (E)={\frac {S(E)}{E}}e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a700e0a310f8c4dafbcaa7db02e51889a0a985aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:21.172ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma (E)={\frac {S(E)}{E}}e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}}"></span> where <i>S</i>(<i>E</i>) depends on the details of the nuclear interaction, and has the dimension of an energy multiplied for a cross section. </p><p>One then integrates over all energies to get the total reaction rate, using the <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution#Distribution_for_the_energy" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a> and the relation: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}=n_{A}n_{B}\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {S(E)}{E}}\,e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}2{\sqrt {\frac {E}{\pi (kT)^{3}}}}e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}\,{\sqrt {\frac {2E}{m_{\text{R}}}}}dE}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>r</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>G</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}=n_{A}n_{B}\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {S(E)}{E}}\,e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}2{\sqrt {\frac {E}{\pi (kT)^{3}}}}e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}\,{\sqrt {\frac {2E}{m_{\text{R}}}}}dE}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1fff89f16e6b67b82cdc90c436a2e42c85706ce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:56.567ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}=n_{A}n_{B}\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {S(E)}{E}}\,e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}2{\sqrt {\frac {E}{\pi (kT)^{3}}}}e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}\,{\sqrt {\frac {2E}{m_{\text{R}}}}}dE}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\text{R}}={\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1}+m_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\text{R}}={\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1}+m_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/98dbb2d0e6df707507fd9222c2750eb3add01649" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:16.446ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\text{R}}={\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1}+m_{2}}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_mass" title="Reduced mass">reduced mass</a>. </p><p>Since this integration has an exponential damping at high energies of the form <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sim e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>∼</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sim e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6f140b7d5af4ddf3535f8b2c5803afe8de6b34cd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.518ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sim e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}}"></span> and at low energies from the Gamow factor, the integral almost vanished everywhere except around the peak, called <b>Gamow peak</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185">: 185 </span></sup> at <i>E</i><sub>0</sub>, where: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial E}}\left(-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}-{\frac {E}{kT}}\right)\,=\,0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>G</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>=</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial E}}\left(-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}-{\frac {E}{kT}}\right)\,=\,0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95a3c9df479949fd0fee14b84798ad22223e4cc9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:27.503ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial E}}\left(-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}-{\frac {E}{kT}}\right)\,=\,0}"></span> </p><p>Thus: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{0}=\left({\frac {1}{2}}kT{\sqrt {E_{\text{G}}}}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>G</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{0}=\left({\frac {1}{2}}kT{\sqrt {E_{\text{G}}}}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8dc47e257209ad44cbcc08464423a1b66ce2b673" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:21.432ex; height:7.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{0}=\left({\frac {1}{2}}kT{\sqrt {E_{\text{G}}}}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}}"></span> </p><p>The exponent can then be approximated around <i>E</i><sub>0</sub> as: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}\approx e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {(E-E_{0})^{2}}{{\frac {4}{3}}E_{0}kT}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>G</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>E</mi> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>≈</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>4</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}\approx e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {(E-E_{0})^{2}}{{\frac {4}{3}}E_{0}kT}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fe8dc8ca6f5e331f944f3be2355e1cf5acca3eb8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.505ex; width:40.484ex; height:8.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}\approx e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {(E-E_{0})^{2}}{{\frac {4}{3}}E_{0}kT}}\right)}"></span> </p><p>And the reaction rate is approximated as:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}\approx n_{A}\,n_{B}\,{\frac {4{\sqrt {2}}}{\sqrt {3m_{\text{R}}}}}\,{\sqrt {E_{0}}}{\frac {S(E_{0})}{kT}}e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>r</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≈</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> <msqrt> <mn>3</mn> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}\approx n_{A}\,n_{B}\,{\frac {4{\sqrt {2}}}{\sqrt {3m_{\text{R}}}}}\,{\sqrt {E_{0}}}{\frac {S(E_{0})}{kT}}e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/22557b0b516189ba64d25ac2711c6e177aaaf938" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:37.924ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}\approx n_{A}\,n_{B}\,{\frac {4{\sqrt {2}}}{\sqrt {3m_{\text{R}}}}}\,{\sqrt {E_{0}}}{\frac {S(E_{0})}{kT}}e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}}"></span> </p><p>Values of <i>S</i>(<i>E</i><sub>0</sub>) are typically <span class="nowrap">10<sup>−3</sup> – 10<sup>3</sup> <a href="/wiki/KeV" class="mw-redirect" title="KeV">keV</a>·<a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">b</a></span>, but are damped by a huge factor when involving a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, due to the relation between the intermediate bound state (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Diproton" class="mw-redirect" title="Diproton">diproton</a>) <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> and the beta decay half-life, as in the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>. Note that typical core temperatures in <a href="/wiki/Main-sequence_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-sequence star">main-sequence stars</a> give <i>kT</i> of the order of keV.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: ch. 3">: ch. 3 </span></sup> </p><p>Thus, the limiting reaction in the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a>, proton capture by <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">14</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">7</sub></span></span>N<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span>, has <i>S</i>(<i>E</i><sub>0</sub>) ~ <i>S</i>(0) = 3.5<span class="nowrap"> </span>keV·b, while the limiting reaction in the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>, the creation of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> from two protons, has a much lower <i>S</i>(<i>E</i><sub>0</sub>) ~ <i>S</i>(0) = 4×10<sup>−22</sup><span class="nowrap"> </span>keV·b.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incidentally, since the former reaction has a much higher Gamow factor, and due to the relative <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Abundance of elements">abundance of elements</a> in typical stars, the two reaction rates are equal at a temperature value that is within the core temperature ranges of main-sequence stars.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2934-0">November 2020</a> issue of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)"><i>Nature</i></a>, particle physicist Andrea Pocar points out, "Confirmation of CNO burning in our sun, where it operates at only one percent, reinforces our confidence that we understand how stars work."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"This result therefore paves the way toward a direct measurement of the solar metallicity using CNO neutrinos. Our findings quantify the relative contribution of CNO fusion in the Sun to be of the order of 1 per cent."—M. Agostini, et al.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hoyle1946-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyle1946_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyle1946_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHoyle1946" class="citation journal cs1">Hoyle, F. (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F106.5.343">"The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></i>. <b>106</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">343–</span>383. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946MNRAS.106..343H">1946MNRAS.106..343H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F106.5.343">10.1093/mnras/106.5.343</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=The+synthesis+of+the+elements+from+hydrogen&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E343-%3C%2Fspan%3E383&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F106.5.343&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1946MNRAS.106..343H&rft.aulast=Hoyle&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252F106.5.343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyle1954-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyle1954_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyle1954_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyle1954" class="citation journal cs1">Hoyle, F. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zuserver2.star.ucl.ac.uk/~idh/PHAS2112/Lectures/Current/Part7.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+College+London+astrophysics+course%3A+lecture+7+%E2%80%93+Stars&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzuserver2.star.ucl.ac.uk%2F~idh%2FPHAS2112%2FLectures%2FCurrent%2FPart7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maoz, D., <i>Astrophysics in a Nutshell</i> (<a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s3-10772.pdf">ch. 3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelbergerAustinBahcallBalantekin1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_G._Adelberger" title="Eric G. Adelberger">Adelberger, Eric G.</a>; Austin, Sam M.; Bahcall, John N.; <a href="/wiki/A._Baha_Balantekin" title="A. Baha Balantekin">Balantekin, A. B.</a>; Bogaert, Gilles; <a href="/wiki/Lowell_S._Brown" title="Lowell S. Brown">Brown, Lowell S.</a>; Buchmann, Lothar; Cecil, F. Edward; Champagne, Arthur E.; de Braeckeleer, Ludwig; Duba, Charles A. (1998-10-01). "Solar fusion cross sections". <i>Reviews of Modern Physics</i>. <b>70</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1265–</span>1291. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805121">astro-ph/9805121</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RvMP...70.1265A">1998RvMP...70.1265A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.70.1265">10.1103/RevModPhys.70.1265</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6861">0034-6861</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16061677">16061677</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Solar+fusion+cross+sections&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1265-%3C%2Fspan%3E1291&rft.date=1998-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16061677%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998RvMP...70.1265A&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9805121&rft.issn=0034-6861&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.70.1265&rft.aulast=Adelberger&rft.aufirst=Eric+G.&rft.au=Austin%2C+Sam+M.&rft.au=Bahcall%2C+John+N.&rft.au=Balantekin%2C+A.+B.&rft.au=Bogaert%2C+Gilles&rft.au=Brown%2C+Lowell+S.&rft.au=Buchmann%2C+Lothar&rft.au=Cecil%2C+F.+Edward&rft.au=Champagne%2C+Arthur+E.&rft.au=de+Braeckeleer%2C+Ludwig&rft.au=Duba%2C+Charles+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelberger2011" class="citation journal cs1">Adelberger, E. G. (2011). "Solar fusion cross sections. II. Theppchain and CNO cycles". <i>Reviews of Modern Physics</i>. <b>83</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">195–</span>245. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1004.2318">1004.2318</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011RvMP...83..195A">2011RvMP...83..195A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.83.195">10.1103/RevModPhys.83.195</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119117147">119117147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Solar+fusion+cross+sections.+II.+Theppchain+and+CNO+cycles&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E195-%3C%2Fspan%3E245&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1004.2318&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119117147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.83.195&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011RvMP...83..195A&rft.aulast=Adelberger&rft.aufirst=E.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goupil, M., Belkacem, K., Neiner, C., Lignières, F., & Green, J. J., eds., <i>Studying Stellar Rotation and Convection: Theoretical Background and Seismic Diagnostics</i> (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovO5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA211&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 211</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethe1939" class="citation journal cs1">Bethe, H. A. (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.103">"Energy Production in Stars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>55</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">541–</span>547. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...55..103B">1939PhRv...55..103B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.103">10.1103/PhysRev.55.103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17835673">17835673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Energy+Production+in+Stars&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E541-%3C%2Fspan%3E547&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835673&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...55..103B&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=H.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.55.103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethe1939" class="citation journal cs1">Bethe, H. A. (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.434">"Energy Production in Stars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>55</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">434–</span>456. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...55..434B">1939PhRv...55..434B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.434">10.1103/PhysRev.55.434</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17835673">17835673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Energy+Production+in+Stars&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E434-%3C%2Fspan%3E456&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835673&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.434&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...55..434B&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=H.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.55.434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyle1954" class="citation journal cs1">Hoyle, F. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-08-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Synthesis+of+the+elements+in+stars%3A+forty+years+of+progress&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E995-%3C%2Fspan%3E1084&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F61093&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.69.995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997RvMP...69..995W&rft.au=G.+Wallerstein&rft.au=I.+Iben%2C+Jr.&rft.au=P.+Parker&rft.au=A.+M.+Boesgaard&rft.au=G.+M.+Hale&rft.au=A.+E.+Champagne&rft.au=C.+A.+Barnes&rft.au=F.+K%C3%A4ppeler&rft.au=V.V.+Smith&rft.au=R.+D.+Hoffman&rft.au=F.+X.+Timmes&rft.au=C.+Sneden&rft.au=R.+N.+Boyd&rft.au=B.+S.+Meyer&rft.au=D.+L.+Lambert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcococubed.asu.edu%2Fpapers%2Fwallerstein97.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoosleyA._HegerT._A._Weaver2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_E._Woosley" title="Stanford E. Woosley">Woosley, S. E.</a>; A. Heger; T. A. Weaver (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars". <i><a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a></i>. <b>74</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1015–</span>1071. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002RvMP...74.1015W">2002RvMP...74.1015W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.74.1015">10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55932331">55932331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+evolution+and+explosion+of+massive+stars&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1015-%3C%2Fspan%3E1071&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55932331%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.74.1015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002RvMP...74.1015W&rft.aulast=Woosley&rft.aufirst=S.+E.&rft.au=A.+Heger&rft.au=T.+A.+Weaver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton2003" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Donald D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fXcdHyLUVnEC"><i>Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82381-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82381-4"><bdi>978-0-521-82381-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Isotopes+in+the+Cosmos&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82381-4&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Donald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfXcdHyLUVnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliadis2007" class="citation book cs1">Iliadis, Christian (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9783527618750"><i>Nuclear Physics of Stars</i></a>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9783527618750">10.1002/9783527618750</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40602-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40602-9"><bdi>978-3-527-40602-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Physics+of+Stars&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9783527618750&rft.isbn=978-3-527-40602-9&rft.aulast=Iliadis&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9783527618750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStellar+nucleosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stellar_nucleosynthesis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/how-the-sun-shines/">"How the Sun Shines"</a>, by <a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a> (Nobel prize site, accessed 6 January 2020)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990129020628/http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/nucleo.html">Nucleosynthesis</a> in <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s Cosmicopia</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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id="Stars520" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_stars" title="Lists of stars">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bok_globule" title="Bok globule">Bok globule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_stellar_object" title="Young stellar object">Young stellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">Protostar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-main-sequence_star" title="Pre-main-sequence star">Pre-main-sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig%E2%80%93Haro_object" title="Herbig–Haro object">Herbig–Haro object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_track" title="Hayashi track">Hayashi track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henyey_track" title="Henyey track">Henyey track</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">Main sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-giant_branch" title="Red-giant branch">Red-giant branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_branch" title="Horizontal branch">Horizontal branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_clump" title="Red clump">Red clump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">Asymptotic giant branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-AGB_star" title="Post-AGB star">post-AGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-AGB_star" title="Super-AGB star">super-AGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_loop" title="Blue loop">Blue loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">Planetary nebula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_nebula" title="Protoplanetary nebula">Protoplanetary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_nebula" title="Wolf–Rayet nebula">Wolf–Rayet nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PG_1159_star" title="PG 1159 star">PG1159</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredge-up" title="Dredge-up">Dredge-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OH/IR_star" title="OH/IR star">OH/IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instability_strip" title="Instability strip">Instability strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">Luminous blue variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_population" title="Stellar population">Stellar population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Superluminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">Classification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Early-type star">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-type star">Late</a></li> <li>Main sequence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O-type_main-sequence_star" title="O-type main-sequence star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star" title="B-type main-sequence star">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-type_main-sequence_star" title="A-type main-sequence star">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star" title="F-type main-sequence star">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">M</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf" title="Subdwarf">Subdwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_O_star" title="Subdwarf O star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star" title="Subdwarf B star">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">WR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OB_star" title="OB star">OB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgiant" title="Subgiant">Subgiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_star" title="Giant star">Giant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_giant" title="Blue giant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow giant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright giant">Bright giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant" title="Blue supergiant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_supergiant" title="Red supergiant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_supergiant" title="Yellow supergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergiant" title="Hypergiant">Hypergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_hypergiant" title="Yellow hypergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_star" title="Carbon star">Carbon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-type_star" title="S-type star">S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CN_star" title="CN star">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH_star" title="CH star">CH</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_peculiar_star" title="Chemically peculiar star">Chemically peculiar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Am_star" title="Am star">Am</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ap_and_Bp_stars" title="Ap and Bp stars">Ap/Bp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CEMP_star" title="CEMP star">CEMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-manganese_star" title="Mercury-manganese star">HgMn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-weak_star" title="Helium-weak star">He-weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barium_star" title="Barium star">Barium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_Bo%C3%B6tis_star" title="Lambda Boötis star">Lambda Boötis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_star" title="Lead star">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technetium_star" title="Technetium star">Technetium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_star" title="Be star">Be</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shell_star" title="Shell star">Shell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B(e)_star" title="B(e) star">B[e]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_star" title="Helium star">Helium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_helium_star" title="Extreme helium star">Extreme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_straggler" title="Blue straggler">Blue straggler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Remnants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRAS_00500%2B6713" title="IRAS 00500+6713">Parker's star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar" title="X-ray pulsar">X-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">Burster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">SGR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_star" title="Hypothetical star">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_dwarf_(red-dwarf_stage)" title="Blue dwarf (red-dwarf stage)">Blue dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_dwarf" title="Black dwarf">Black dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boson_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Boson star">Boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroweak star">Electroweak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_star" title="Strange star">Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Preon star">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_star" title="Planck star">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)" title="Dark star (dark matter)">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-energy_star" title="Dark-energy star">Dark-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_star" title="Q star">Q</a></li></ul></li> <li>Black hole star <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_star_(semiclassical_gravity)" title="Black star (semiclassical gravity)">Black</a></li> <li>Hawking</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravastar" title="Gravastar">Gravastar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorne%E2%80%93%C5%BBytkow_object" title="Thorne–Żytkow object">Thorne–Żytkow object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_star" title="Iron star">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzar" title="Blitzar">Blitzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hole" title="White hole">White hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Lithium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">Alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_remnant" title="Nova remnant">Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_red_nova" title="Luminous red nova">Luminous red nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova#Recurrent_novae" title="Nova">Recurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">Convection zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microturbulence" title="Microturbulence">Microturbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-like_oscillations" title="Solar-like oscillations">Oscillations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">Radiation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">Atmosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">Photosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starspot" title="Starspot">Starspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">Chromosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Stellar corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n_surface" title="Alfvén surface">Alfvén surface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">Stellar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar-wind_bubble" title="Stellar-wind bubble">Bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_outflow" title="Bipolar outflow">Bipolar outflow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proplyd" title="Proplyd">Proplyd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_dust" title="Circumstellar dust">Circumstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddington_luminosity" title="Eddington luminosity">Eddington luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_designations_and_names" title="Stellar designations and names">Designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_temperature" title="Effective temperature">Effective temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">Luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics" title="Stellar kinematics">Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_magnetic_field" title="Stellar magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">Absolute magnitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_mass" title="Stellar mass">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">Metallicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_rotation" title="Stellar rotation">Rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">Variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric_system" title="Photometric system">Photometric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_index" title="Color index">Color index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color%E2%80%93color_diagram" title="Color–color diagram">Color–color diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Str%C3%B6mgren_sphere" title="Strömgren sphere">Strömgren sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kraft_break" title="Kraft break">Kraft break</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">Star systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">Binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_binary" title="Contact binary">Contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_envelope" title="Common envelope">Common envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipsing_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipsing binary">Eclipsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_binary" title="Symbiotic binary">Symbiotic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_system#Multiple_star_systems" title="Star system">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cluster" title="Star cluster">Cluster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">Globular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_star_cluster" title="Super star cluster">Super</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth-centric<br />observations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">Solar eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">Pole star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_star" title="Circumpolar star">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterism_(astronomy)" title="Asterism (astronomy)">Asterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">Magnitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">Apparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_magnitude" title="Photographic magnitude">Photographic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">Radial velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">Proper motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric-standard_star" title="Photometric-standard star">Photometric-standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_stars" title="Lists of stars">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proper_names_of_stars" title="List of proper names of stars">Proper names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_star_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese star names">Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_star_extremes" title="List of star extremes">Extremes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_stars" title="List of most massive stars">Most massive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hottest_stars" title="List of hottest stars">Highest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coolest_stars" title="List of coolest stars">Lowest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_known_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest known stars">Largest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_smallest_known_stars" title="List of smallest known stars">Smallest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars" title="List of brightest stars">Brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_brightest_stars" title="Historical brightest stars">Historical brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_luminous_stars" title="List of most luminous stars">Most luminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars" title="List of nearest stars">Nearest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_bright_stars" title="List of nearest bright stars">bright</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects#List_of_most_distant_objects_by_type" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">Most distant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stars_with_resolved_images" title="List of stars with resolved images">With resolved images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systems" title="List of multiplanetary systems">With multiple exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brown_dwarfs" title="List of brown dwarfs">Brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_red_dwarfs" title="List of red dwarfs">Red dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_white_dwarfs" title="List of white dwarfs">White dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_novae_in_the_Milky_Way_galaxy" title="List of novae in the Milky Way galaxy">Milky Way novae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernovae" title="List of supernovae">Supernovae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">Candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_remnants" title="List of supernova remnants">Remnants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planetary_nebulae" title="List of planetary nebulae">Planetary nebulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_stellar_astronomy" title="Timeline of stellar astronomy">Timeline of stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substellar_object" title="Substellar object">Substellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown-dwarf_desert" title="Brown-dwarf desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-brown_dwarf" title="Sub-brown dwarf">Sub</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guest_star_(astronomy)" title="Guest star (astronomy)">Guest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Intergalactic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet-hosting_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Planet-hosting stars">Planet-hosting stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_disruption_event" title="Tidal disruption event">Tidal disruption event</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Stars" title="Category:Stars">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/14px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/21px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/28px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_processes146" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_processes" title="Template talk:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_processes146" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear processes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">Electron capture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Li burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">α process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process"><i>r</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process"><i>s</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp-process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Capture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Neutron capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">Proton capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exchange</th><td 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