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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Home and Community Participation Patterns, Quality of Life and Family Routines among Preschool Children with ADHD | Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Home and Community Participation Patterns, Quality of Life and Family Routines among Preschool Children with ADHD"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities - Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms manifest early in childhood and impact participation in daily activities and quality of..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="10882"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Home and Community Participation Patterns, Quality of Life and Family Routines among Preschool Children with ADHD"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 2024"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-11-04"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms manifest early in childhood and impact participation in daily activities and quality of life (QoL). Family routines may enhance the participation of children with ADHD. However, few studies have examined the correlations linking participation, QoL, and family routines in this population. This study aimed to describe participation patterns, environmental factors, family routines, and QoL of preschool children with ADHD, and examine the relationships of these variables. Parents of 70 children aged 4–6 (79% boys), clinically-evaluated as having ADHD or suspected ADHD, completed demographic, participation and environment, QoL and family routines measures. Frequency of participation and desire for change at home were found to be significantly higher compared to the community, while involvement did not differ between settings. Environmental factors supporting and inhibiting participation were identified. Significant correlations were found between home participation and family routines, and between home participation and QoL. The findings reinforce the need for an in-depth examination of participation patterns, environmental factors, and family routines to determine appropriate intervention goals that promote the participation and QoL of preschool children with ADHD."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1573-3580"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-11-04"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="20"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="J Dev Phys Disabil"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer US"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1573-3580"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Home and Community Participation Patterns, Quality of Life and Family Routines among Preschool Children with ADHD"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/11/04"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="20"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="ORIGINAL ARTICLE"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="size" content="187978"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms manifest early in childhood and impact participation in daily activities and quality of life (QoL)"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Golos, Anat"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Paz, Sapir Weintraub"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Zaguri-Vittenberg, Shahar"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Child and School Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Public Health"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Pediatrics"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_id=CR1; citation_publisher=American Psychiatric Association"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Pediatrics; citation_title=Media and young mind; citation_author=; citation_volume=138; citation_issue=5; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=e20162591; citation_doi=10.1542/peds.2016-2591; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Journal of Attention Disorders; citation_title=The impact of ADHD on children’s health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis; citation_author=SW Arachchige Dona, N Badloe, E Sciberras, L Gold, D Coghill, HN Le; citation_volume=27; citation_issue=6; citation_publication_date=2023; citation_pages=598-611; citation_doi=10.1177/10870547231155438; citation_id=CR3"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Barkley, R. 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Family routines may enhance the participation of children with ADHD. However, few studies have examined the correlations linking participation, QoL, and family routines in this population. This study aimed to describe participation patterns, environmental factors, family routines, and QoL of preschool children with ADHD, and examine the relationships of these variables. Parents of 70 children aged 4–6 (79% boys), clinically-evaluated as having ADHD or suspected ADHD, completed demographic, participation and environment, QoL and family routines measures. Frequency of participation and desire for change at home were found to be significantly higher compared to the community, while involvement did not differ between settings. Environmental factors supporting and inhibiting participation were identified. Significant correlations were found between home participation and family routines, and between home participation and QoL. The findings reinforce the need for an in-depth examination of participation patterns, environmental factors, and family routines to determine appropriate intervention goals that promote the participation and QoL of preschool children with ADHD."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" 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Family routines may enhance the participation of children with ADHD. However, few studies have examined the correlations linking participation, QoL, and family routines in this population. This study aimed to describe participation patterns, environmental factors, family routines, and QoL of preschool children with ADHD, and examine the relationships of these variables. Parents of 70 children aged 4–6 (79% boys), clinically-evaluated as having ADHD or suspected ADHD, completed demographic, participation and environment, QoL and family routines measures. Frequency of participation and desire for change at home were found to be significantly higher compared to the community, while involvement did not differ between settings. Environmental factors supporting and inhibiting participation were identified. Significant correlations were found between home participation and family routines, and between home participation and QoL. The findings reinforce the need for an in-depth examination of participation patterns, environmental factors, and family routines to determine appropriate intervention goals that promote the participation and QoL of preschool children with ADHD.","datePublished":"2024-11-04T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-11-04T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"1","pageEnd":"20","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z","keywords":["Preschool children","ADHD","Environmental factors","Frequency","Involvement","Child and School Psychology","Public Health","Pediatrics"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig1_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig2_HTML.png"],"isPartOf":{"name":"Journal of Developmental and Physical 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Quality of Life and Family Routines among Preschool Children with ADHD </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" 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class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms manifest early in childhood and impact participation in daily activities and quality of life (QoL). Family routines may enhance the participation of children with ADHD. However, few studies have examined the correlations linking participation, QoL, and family routines in this population. This study aimed to describe participation patterns, environmental factors, family routines, and QoL of preschool children with ADHD, and examine the relationships of these variables. Parents of 70 children aged 4–6 (79% boys), clinically-evaluated as having ADHD or suspected ADHD, completed demographic, participation and environment, QoL and family routines measures. Frequency of participation and desire for change at home were found to be significantly higher compared to the community, while involvement did not differ between settings. Environmental factors supporting and inhibiting participation were identified. Significant correlations were found between home participation and family routines, and between home participation and QoL. The findings reinforce the need for an in-depth examination of participation patterns, environmental factors, and family routines to determine appropriate intervention goals that promote the participation and QoL of preschool children with ADHD.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3Aplaceholder%2Fimages/placeholder-figure-springernature.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10802-016-0217-x?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s10802-016-0217-x">Factors Associated with Healthy and Impaired Social Functioning in Young Adolescents with ADHD </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">28 October 2016</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs13034-023-00588-w/MediaObjects/13034_2023_588_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1186/s13034-023-00588-w?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1186/s13034-023-00588-w">Associations of meeting 24-h movement behavior guidelines with cognitive difficulty and social relationships in children and adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactive disorder </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">27 March 2023</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12888-021-03638-9/MediaObjects/12888_2021_3638_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1186/s12888-021-03638-9?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1186/s12888-021-03638-9">Cognitive, emotional, and social functioning of preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity problems </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">01 February 2022</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732398669, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=10882" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Study Rational"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Study Rational</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Attention deficit hyperactive may pose challenge to preschool children's participation in daily activities and consequently to their quality of life. Parents, as the primary caregivers who structure their children's routines, are agents of change to their children's participation. Thus, parents can create a predictable environment that supports the child's participation in daily activities. This research aims to describe participation patterns across home and community settings, explore the environmental factors affecting participation, and examine the connections between participation and family routines, and between participation and quality of life in this population.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is prevalent among 5–9% of children (American Psychiatric Association; APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e337">2013</a>). It is characterized by difficulties in attention and/or inhibition/impulsivity and hyperactivity, and it is accompanied by executive functions impairments (i.e., verbal and nonverbal working memory and self-regulation; APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e340">2013</a>; Barkley, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Barkley, R. A. (2015). Executive functioning and self-regulation viewed as an extended phenotype: Implications of the theory for ADHD and its treatment. In Barkley, R. A (ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 405–434). Guilford. " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e343">2015</a>). ADHD usually manifests alongside additional neurodevelopmental and/or psychiatric disorders (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e346">2013</a>; Gnanavel et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Gnanavel, S., Sharma, P., Kaushal, P., & Hussain, S. (2019). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbidity: A review of literature. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 7(17), 2420–2426. 
 https://doi.org/10.12998/wjcc.v7.i17.2420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e349">2019</a>), and in early childhood it is primarily associated with co-occurring motor, speech, and sensory deficits (Yochman et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Yochman, A., Ornoy, A., & Parush, S. (2006). Co-occurrence of developmental delays among preschool children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 48(6), 483–488. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2006.tb01300.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e353">2006</a>). Preschool children diagnosed with ADHD are at significant risk for reduced motor, social, and behavioral performance, as well as emotional and academic difficulties, compared to their typically developing peers (Perrin et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Perrin, H. T., Heller, N. A., & Loe, I. M. (2019). School readiness in preschoolers with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 144(2).‏ 
 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0038
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e356">2019</a>). Starting from early stages of childhood, these ADHD symptoms and their implications may negatively impact functioning and participation in self-care, learning, and leisure activities (Dunn et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Dunn, L., Coster, W. J., Cohn, E. S., & Orsmond, G. I. (2009). Factors associated with participation of children with and without ADHD in household tasks. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 29(3), 274–294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942630903008327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e359">2009</a>; Perrin et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Perrin, H. T., Heller, N. A., & Loe, I. M. (2019). School readiness in preschoolers with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 144(2).‏ 
 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0038
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e362">2019</a>), as well as quality of life (QoL; Schwörer et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Schwörer, M. C., Reinelt, T., Petermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2020). Influence of executive functions on the self-reported health-related quality of life of children with ADHD. Quality of Life Research, 29(5), 1183–1192. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-019-02394-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e365">2020</a>).</p><p>The current study is grounded in theoretical frameworks that sought to understand the factors that contribute to participation in daily activities and QoL. At the core of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth version (ICF-CY; World Health Organization; WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e371">2007</a>) is the claim that participation is a central determinant of QoL. Participation is defined as the individual's engagement in a variety of life situations (WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e374">2007</a>), encompassing both attendance and involvement in activity (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Imms, C., Adair, B., Keen, D., Ullenhag, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Granlund, M. (2016). ‘Participation’: A systematic review of language, definitions, and constructs used in intervention research with children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58(1), 29–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12932
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e377">2016</a>). Attendance, also referred to as frequency, refers to the objective aspect of being physically present during the activity and is measured by the frequency and/or variety of attended activities. Involvement refers to the subjective experience of the individual during participation in activities and includes aspects such as choice, motivation, social connectedness, and meaning (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Imms, C., Adair, B., Keen, D., Ullenhag, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Granlund, M. (2016). ‘Participation’: A systematic review of language, definitions, and constructs used in intervention research with children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58(1), 29–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12932
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e380">2016</a>). Another concept related to participation is satisfaction (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Imms, C., Adair, B., Keen, D., Ullenhag, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Granlund, M. (2016). ‘Participation’: A systematic review of language, definitions, and constructs used in intervention research with children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58(1), 29–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12932
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e383">2016</a>), which may be reflected in the desire for change in the frequency, quality or level of performance. QoL is a subjective and dynamic appraisal of one's position in life, measured by internal views regarding values, interests, goals, concerns, expectations, and culture (WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e387">2007</a>). QoL is also related to one's subjective appraisal of the influence of their health on their physical, psychological, social functioning, and environmental settings (WHOQOL Group, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="The WHOQOL Group. (1995). The World Health Organization quality of life assessment (WHOQOL): Position paper from the World Health Organization. Social Science & Medicine, 41(10), 1403–1409. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00112-K
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e390">1995</a>).</p><p>Participation and QoL are not only based on one’s health condition and biological characteristics (i.e., executive dysfunction), but are continuously in mutual relationship by means of their contextual-personal and environmental factors (WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e396">2007</a>). It has been suggested that changes in participation throughout one’s lifespan, and individual variations in participation levels across settings, may be the result of interaction between contextual factors over time (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Imms, C., Granlund, M., Wilson, P. H., Steenbergen, B., Rosenbaum, P. L., & Gordon, A. M. (2017). Participation, both a means and an end: A conceptual analysis of processes and outcomes in childhood disability. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 59(1), 16–25. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13237
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e399">2017</a>; WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e402">2007</a>). Contextual factors that influence participation include personal factors such as gender and sense of self; and environmental factors such as physical characteristics and social relationships, availability of services, or accommodability of situations (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Imms, C., Adair, B., Keen, D., Ullenhag, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Granlund, M. (2016). ‘Participation’: A systematic review of language, definitions, and constructs used in intervention research with children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58(1), 29–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12932
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e405">2016</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Imms, C., Granlund, M., Wilson, P. H., Steenbergen, B., Rosenbaum, P. L., & Gordon, A. M. (2017). Participation, both a means and an end: A conceptual analysis of processes and outcomes in childhood disability. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 59(1), 16–25. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13237
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e408">2017</a>).</p><p>Children with ADHD demonstrate reduced participation in daily and social activities (Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020a" title="Coussens, M., Destoop, B., De Baets, S., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Van Waelvelde, H., & Van de Velde, D. (2020a). A Qualitative photo elicitation research study to elicit the perception of young children with developmental disabilities such as ADHD and/or DCD and/or ASD on their participation. Public Library of Science One, 15(3), e0229538. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229538
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e414">2020a</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e417">2021</a>) as well as lower QoL compared to typical peers (Arachchige Dona et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Arachchige Dona, S. W., Badloe, N., Sciberras, E., Gold, L., Coghill, D., & Le, H. N. (2023). The impact of ADHD on children’s health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(6), 598–611. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231155438
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e420">2023</a>; Schwörer et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Schwörer, M. C., Reinelt, T., Petermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2020). Influence of executive functions on the self-reported health-related quality of life of children with ADHD. Quality of Life Research, 29(5), 1183–1192. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-019-02394-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e423">2020</a>); this points to a negative association linking the severity of ADHD symptoms, co-occurring health conditions, and/or QoL in this population (Rocco et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Rocco, I., Bonati, M., Corso, B., & Minicuci, N. (2021). Quality of life improvement in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder reduces family’s strain: A structural equation model approach. Child: Care, Health and Development, 47(5), 667–674. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12874
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e426">2021</a>). Additionally, research indicates that contextual and environmental factors significantly impact the participation of children with ADHD. These include requirement for external social support, influence of home versus community settings on frequency, advantages of older age and having an older sibling, significance of relationships with peers, and teachers' attitudes, as well as the importance attributed by parents to tasks at home (Mendes et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mendes, C. G., Mancini, M. C., & Miranda, D. M. (2018). Household task participation of children and adolescents with ADHD: A systematic review. Cadernos Brasileiros De Terapia Ocupacional, 26, 658–667. 
 https://doi.org/10.4322/2526-8910.ctoAR1184
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e430">2018</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e433">2021</a>). Yet, most studies that examined the participation of children with ADHD have concentrated on school age children and/or adolescents rather than preschool children (e.g., Kaya Kara et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Kaya Kara, O., Kose, B., Cetin, S. Y., Sahin, S., & Kara, K. (2024). Community participation, supports and barriers of adolescents with and without ADHD. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 44(3), 380–397. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2023.2253899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e436">2024</a>; Mendes et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mendes, C. G., Mancini, M. C., & Miranda, D. M. (2018). Household task participation of children and adolescents with ADHD: A systematic review. Cadernos Brasileiros De Terapia Ocupacional, 26, 658–667. 
 https://doi.org/10.4322/2526-8910.ctoAR1184
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e439">2018</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e442">2021</a>). Additionally, studies on preschool children with ADHD have not specifically focused on their participation (Rimestad et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Rimestad, M. L., Lambek, R., Zacher Christiansen, H., & Hougaard, E. (2019). Short-and long-term effects of parent training for preschool children with or at risk of ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(5), 423–434. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716648775
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e445">2019</a>; Tandon & Pergjika, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Tandon, M., & Pergjika, A. (2017). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool-age children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 26(3), 523–538. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2017.02.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e449">2017</a>). While studies on the participation of preschool children typically involve those with typical development and various neurodevelopmental disabilities, they do not specifically address preschool children with ADHD (e.g., Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Coussens, M., Van Driessen, E., De Baets, S., Van Regenmortel, J., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Waelvelde, H. V., & Van de Velde, D. (2020b). Parents’ perspectives on participation of young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, and/or autism spectrum disorder: A systematic scoping review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 46(2), 232–243. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12735
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e452">2020b</a>).</p><p>A theoretical synthesis by Clark (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Clark, F. A. (2000). The concept of habits and routines: A preliminary theoretical synthesis. The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 20(1), 123–137. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/15394492000200S114
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e459">2000</a>) pointed to routines as an important contextual factor that affects daily activities. Because routines structure and organize activities in one's life, and are automatic and predictable in nature, they reduce the planning and attentional requirements, and therefore support the sense of involvement in activities. Specifically, young children, whose parents are primary figures in their social environment, find great importance in structured and organized family routines (Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Coussens, M., Van Driessen, E., De Baets, S., Van Regenmortel, J., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Waelvelde, H. V., & Van de Velde, D. (2020b). Parents’ perspectives on participation of young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, and/or autism spectrum disorder: A systematic scoping review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 46(2), 232–243. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12735
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e462">2020b</a>). Family routines are defined as repetitive family behaviors or activities involving at least two family members (Jensen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Jensen, E. W., James, S. A., Boyce, W. T., & Hartnett, S. A. (1983). The family routines inventory: Development and validation. Social Science & Medicine, 17(4), 201–211. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(83)90117-X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e465">1983</a>). During childhood, family routines include self-care activities such as eating and dressing, activities such as meal preparation and housecleaning, and play and leisure activities (Romano et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Romano, M., Lorio, C., Delehanty, A., Eugenio, J., Abarca, D., Trivedi, B., & Brown, J. A. (2022). Family routines within caregiver-implemented early interventions: A scoping review. Journal of Early Intervention, 10538151211062206.‏ 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151211062206
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e468">2022</a>). Most family routines involving young children take place in the home setting (versus community). Additionally, community activities include multiple sociocultural activities, such as community events and dining out (Khetani et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Khetani, M. A., Graham, J. E., Davies, P. L., Law, M. C., & Simeonsson, R. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the young children’s participation and environment measure. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(2), 307–316. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.031
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e471">2015</a>); they are more affected by personal factors, such as the mother’s education and family income, compared to home activities (Guichard & Grande, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Guichard, S., & Grande, C. (2019). The role of environment in explaining frequency of participation of pre-school children in home and community activities. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 65(2), 108–115. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2017.1378160
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e475">2019</a>). Therefore, it is possible to hypothesize that among young children, family routines are associated with participation at home.</p><p>Among children with ADHD, family routines potentially provide a predictable environment, which supports children's understanding of how they are expected to relate to their surroundings. Thus, family routines can address their impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, and associated behavioral issues (McRae et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="McRae, E., Stoppelbein, L., O’Kelley, S., Fite, P., & Smith, S. (2020). Comorbid internalizing and externalizing symptoms among children with ADHD: The influence of parental distress, parenting practices, and child routines. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 51(5), 813–826. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01019-z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e481">2020</a>). In a study by Spaulding et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Spaulding, S. L., Fruitman, K., Rapoport, E., Soled, D., & Adesman, A. (2021). Impact of ADHD on household chores. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(10), 1374–1383. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720903359
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e484">2021</a>) that examined task performance at home as part of the routine of children with ADHD, most parents reported that their children did not complete tasks independently or satisfactorily, and they attributed the difficulties to ADHD characteristics. Unsurprisingly, family routines have been found to be associated with the health and QoL of children with and without disabilities (Crespo et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Crespo, C., Santos, S., Canavarro, M. C., Kielpikowski, M., Pryor, J., & Féres-Carneiro, T. (2013). Family routines and rituals in the context of chronic conditions: A review. International Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 729–746. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2013.806811
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e487">2013</a>). Yet, as far as we know, there are no studies on the relationship of family routines, participation (including both frequency and involvement), and QoL in the population of preschool children with ADHD.</p><p>In summary, the evidence to date indicates that ADHD among children has negative effects on their participation and QoL (Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Coussens, M., Van Driessen, E., De Baets, S., Van Regenmortel, J., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Waelvelde, H. V., & Van de Velde, D. (2020b). Parents’ perspectives on participation of young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, and/or autism spectrum disorder: A systematic scoping review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 46(2), 232–243. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12735
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e493">2020b</a>; Rocco et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Rocco, I., Bonati, M., Corso, B., & Minicuci, N. (2021). Quality of life improvement in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder reduces family’s strain: A structural equation model approach. Child: Care, Health and Development, 47(5), 667–674. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12874
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e496">2021</a>), and it confirms the potential impact of environmental factors and family routines on these outcomes (Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Coussens, M., Van Driessen, E., De Baets, S., Van Regenmortel, J., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Waelvelde, H. V., & Van de Velde, D. (2020b). Parents’ perspectives on participation of young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, and/or autism spectrum disorder: A systematic scoping review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 46(2), 232–243. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12735
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e499">2020b</a>; Mendes et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mendes, C. G., Mancini, M. C., & Miranda, D. M. (2018). Household task participation of children and adolescents with ADHD: A systematic review. Cadernos Brasileiros De Terapia Ocupacional, 26, 658–667. 
 https://doi.org/10.4322/2526-8910.ctoAR1184
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e502">2018</a>). Given the pivotal role of health professions in promoting participation and QoL outcomes by altering environmental factors, it is important to describe these constructs and their relationships. However, there is a lack of research examining the relationships linking these factors, specifically in preschool children with ADHD or suspected ADHD.</p><p>Therefore, our study sought to describe these variables among preschool children aged 4 to 6 years with diagnosed ADHD or suspected ADHD. Our specific aims were: (1) to describe participation patterns, and to examine differences across home and community settings; (2) to describe the environmental factors that support or hinder children’s participation; (3) to examine the relationships between participation patterns in the home/ community and QoL; and (4) to describe family routines and examine their relationship to participation patterns at home.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Method"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3">Method</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Participants</h3><p>Seventy parents of 70 preschool children aged 4–6 years (M<sub>age</sub> = 5.11, SD = 0.69; 79% boys) with ADHD diagnosis and/or suspected ADHD, who attended general education settings, participated in this study. The parents were recruited using a convenience sampling via child development clinics in Israel and social media. Sample size was determined based on the expectation of 80% power and a type-I error of 0.05; it was estimated that a sample of 64 participants was needed for a medium-large effect size.</p><p>Inclusion criteria included: (a) a qualified medical professional who gave the child either diagnosis of ADHD or suspected ADHD (Nomura et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Nomura, K., Okada, K., Noujima, Y., Kojima, S., Mori, Y., Amano, M., Ogura, M., Hatagaki, C., Shibata, Y., Fukumoto, R., & Fukumoto, R. (2014). A clinical study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschool children—prevalence and differential diagnoses. Brain and Development, 36(9), 778–785. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2013.11.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e525">2014</a>); and (b) scored above the cutoff on the ADHD-RS (DuPaul et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="DuPaul, G. J., Reid, R., Anastopoulos, A. D., Lambert, M. C., Watkins, M. W., & Power, T. J. (2016). Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Factor structure and normative data. Psychological Assessment, 28(2), 214–225. 
 https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000166
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e528">2016</a>), indicating current manifestation of ADHD symptoms. Exclusion criteria included: (a) complex neurodevelopmental or psychiatric disorders, such as cerebral palsy, autism spectrum disorder, epilepsy, or intellectual disability; (b) severe sensory impairment, such as blindness or deafness; and (c) attendance in a special education setting.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5">Measurements</h3> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Demographics Questionnaire</h3> <p>A short questionnaire, designed for this study, included questions regarding medical, developmental, and demographic status, such as age, gender, parents' marital status, and family income.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">ADHD Rating Scale- DSM-5 (ADHS-RS; DuPaul et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="DuPaul, G. J., Reid, R., Anastopoulos, A. D., Lambert, M. C., Watkins, M. W., & Power, T. J. (2016). Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Factor structure and normative data. Psychological Assessment, 28(2), 214–225. 
 https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000166
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e549">2016</a>)</h3> <p>This questionnaire assesses the frequency of ADHD symptoms in children up to 16 years old, using 18 items based on the DSM criteria. For the present study, we used the parent-report version of the questionnaire, where parents rated their child's inattention and impulsivity/ hyperactivity symptoms manifestation on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (“not at all”) to 3 (“very much”). Higher summing score represent more sever ADHD symptoms. Cut off was determined if at least six of the first or second group of nine items received a score above 2. In this study the Hebrew version, that was also used in previous studies (e.g., Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e555">2021</a>) was used, and it showed good internal consistency (α = 0.81) and test–retest reliability (r > 0.87).</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar3">Young Children’s Participation and Environment Measure (YC-PEM; Khetani et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Khetani, M. A., Graham, J. E., Davies, P. L., Law, M. C., & Simeonsson, R. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the young children’s participation and environment measure. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(2), 307–316. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.031
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e564">2015</a>)</h3> <p>The YC-PEM is a parent-report questionnaire designed to assess participation patterns and environmental factors affecting the participation of children aged 0 to 5 years. However, it has also been used for preschool children aged 6–7 (Ng et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Ng, C. K., Lam, S. H., Tsang, S. T., Yuen, C., & Chien, C. W. (2020). The relationship between affiliate stigma in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder and their children’s activity participation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1799. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051799
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e570">2020</a>). It was used in the current study in line with the author’s recommendations, focusing on activities relevant to preschool children. The YC-PEM assesses participation in 24 activities in the settings of home (13 activities), preschool (3 activities), and community (11 activities). In the current study, we included activities in home and community settings. Parents rated their child’s participation frequency from 0 (“never”) to 7 (“daily”), level of involvement from 1 (“minimally involved”) to 5 (“very involved”), and parental desire for change (0 = “No”, 1 = “Yes” for on one or more of following: the frequency of their child participation-to participate more or less often-, be more interactive, be more helpful, or participate in a broader variety of activities). In the second part, parents rated environmental barriers/supports affecting their child's participation (“No impact,” “Usually helps,” “Sometimes helps,” “Sometimes makes harder,” “Usually makes harder”) and the availability of supporting resources (“Not needed,” “Usually yes,” “Sometimes yes, sometimes no,” “Usually no”). Dichotomous variables were assigned to the supporting factors (1 = usually helpful/usually yes, 0 = other answers) and the limiting factors (1 = usually limiting/usually no, 0 = other answers).</p> <p>The YC-PEM has a medium–high internal consistency (α = 0.67–0.96) and a high retest reliability (ICC = 0.59–0.94; Khetani et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Khetani, M. A., Graham, J. E., Davies, P. L., Law, M. C., & Simeonsson, R. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the young children’s participation and environment measure. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(2), 307–316. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.031
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e576">2015</a>). In the current sample, an acceptable internal consistency was found for home activities (frequency: α = 0.65, involvement: α = 0.83) and for community activities (frequency: α = 0.72, involvement: α = 0.80). For the purpose of this study, we calculated the average frequency and level of involvement for each setting (home and community) separately. For desire for change, the average score of the dichotomous variables was used in each setting. To integrate the supportive and inhibitory environmental factors along with the availability of supporting resources, we converted these elements into dichotomous variables (1 = “Usually/ Sometimes helps/yes,” 0 = all other responses). Subsequently, we calculated the percentage of parents who rated each factor/resource as 1.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar4">The Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory—Version 4 (PedsQL; Varni et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Varni, J. W., Seid, M., & Kurtin, P. S. (2001). PedsQL™ 4.0: Reliability and validity of the pediatric quality of life inventory™ version 4.0 generic core scales in healthy and patient populations. Medical Care, 39(8), 800–812. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-200108000-00006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e585">2001</a>)</h3> <p>The PedsQL is a parent-report measure of QoL among children aged 2–18. It consists of 23 items rating the frequency of experiencing difficulty in performing an action, on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (“never”) to 4 (“almost always”). The items are then reversed, summed and transformed to a 0–100 subscale to create a total score and four domains of QoL: physical, emotional, social, and preschool-related; higher scores indicate higher QoL. Additionally, a psychosocial QoL-related summary score is calculated using the last three subscales; the total score is calculated based on the four subscales. The PedsQL has high internal consistency (α = 0.86–0.92). The PedsQL 4.0 Hebrew version, used in the current study, was linguistically validated. In the current sample, the internal consistency was acceptable (α = 0.74).</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar5">Family Routines Inventory (FRI; Boyce et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Boyce, W. T., Jensen, E. W., James, S. A., & Peacock, J. L. (1983). The family routines inventory: Theoretical origins. Social Science Medicine, 17(4), 193–200. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(83)90116-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e598">1983</a>)</h3> <p>The FRI is a parent-report measure of family routines, among families having at least one child younger than 16. Parents were asked to rate the frequency of 34 activities related to family routines, such as household chores, shared meals, and family leisure activities. The ratings were done on two different scales: for daily activities, parents rated the frequency from 0 to 4 (0 = “not relevant,” 1 = “almost never,” 2 = “1–2 times a week,” 3 = “3–5 times a week,” and 4 = “every day”); for rarer activities, parents used a scale from 0 to 4 (0 = “not relevant,” 1 = “less than once a month,” 2 = “once a month,” 3 = “2–3 times a month,” and 4 = “every week”). In this study, 7 items (Numbers 5, 11, 12, 21, 29, 32, and 33) were excluded when over 20% of the parents rated them as “not relevant”, including items that were not applicable to preschhol children (e.g., “The children do their homework at a regular time”, “parents volunteer at school” and “parents share a common hobby”). Finally, a total FRI score was calculated based on the remaining 27 items, which ranged from 0 to 108. A higher score indicated a higher frequency of performing family routines. The original version of the FRI has an acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.66) and medium (r = 0.74–0.79) test–retest reliability over one month, as well as evidence of construct validity (Jensen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Jensen, E. W., James, S. A., Boyce, W. T., & Hartnett, S. A. (1983). The family routines inventory: Development and validation. Social Science & Medicine, 17(4), 201–211. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(83)90117-X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e604">1983</a>). Additionally, it has been found to be specifically suitable for the population in the same country as our sample (Davis et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Davis, L., Hakhamov, A., & Schwartz, S. (2006). A comparison of family routines in the [Concealed], religious-national, and secular populations (Master’s thesis). The [Concealed] University." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e607">2006</a>). In the current sample, the internal consistency was found to be accaptable (α = 0.65).</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6">Procedure</h3><p>Ethical approval was given by the Helsinki Committee for research of the Israeli Health Services (No. MHS-0070–21) and the Hebrew University Institutional Review Board (No. 12102021). Contact was made with parents of children with suspected/diagnosed ADHD, who were identified through referrals to the ADHD Center in child development clinics in the central region of Israel, or through specialized ADHD groups on social media. It was clarified to the parents that participation in the study was not mandatory and that they could withdraw at any point. After providing informed consent to participate in the study, one parent for each child completed the demographic questionnaire, ADHD Rating Scale, YC-PEM, FRI, and PedsQoL.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Data Analysis</h3><p>Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Version 27 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Armonk, NY, USA), with a significance level of 0.05. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographic characteristics, the study variables such as frequency and involvement in specific activities, and the environmental factors. The Kolmogorov Smirnoff test was used to ensure that all the variables did not violate the normality assumption. Paired sample t tests were used to examine differences in participation patterns (frequency and involvement) and the desire for change across settings (home and community). Correlations of the YC-PEM, PedsQL, and FRI were examined using Pearson correlation.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec8-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec8">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec8-content"><p>As seen in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#Tab1">1</a>, the sample included 70 dyads of parents and their children aged 4 to 6 years (<i>M</i> = 5.11, <i>SD</i> = 0.69), most of them males. The families included a mean of 2.51 children (<i>SD</i> = 1.03). Most of the children had received at least one kind of professional support (e.g., occupational and/or speech therapy) in the year before participating in the study, and did not receive ADHD pharmacological treatment. Most of the parents (mothers age: <i>M</i> = 37.46, <i>SD</i> = 6.01; fathers age: <i>M</i> = 40, <i>SD</i> = 6.42) reported average family income or above, and the mother’s and father's education as professional or academic level.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Demographic characteristics of study sample (N = 70)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Due to the variation in recruitment settings, we first examined potential differences between participants who were recruited from the child developmental centers (n = 42) and those who were recruited from social media (n = 28). The results indicated there were no significant (<i>p</i> > 0.05) differences in any of the study variables; thus, all participants were considered a homogeneous group for further statistical analysis. Similarly, two groups were identified according to ADHD diagnosis status: participants with a formal diagnosis (n = 38) and participants with suspected ADHD (n = 32). The results indicated no significant differences between those groups in any of the study variables. Additionally, as the diagnosis status (i.e., diagnosis of ADHD or suspected ADHD) may be related to the child's age or symptoms severity, the groups were also compared with respect to these factors. No significant (<i>p</i> > 0.05) group differences were found in age (ADHD: <i>M</i> = 5.18, <i>SD</i> = 0.65; suspected ADHD: <i>M</i> = 5.03, <i>SD</i> = 0.74) or symptoms severity (ADHD: <i>M</i> = 35.58, <i>SD</i> = 8.63, suspected ADHD: <i>M</i> = 32.28, <i>SD</i> = 7.07). Accordingly, we combined the results for the two recruitment settings and ADHD diagnosis statuses.</p><p>As seen in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#Fig1">1</a>, the activities with the highest frequency of participation in the home setting were personal-care management activities (e.g., getting dressed and brushing teeth; <i>M</i> = 6.91, <i>SD</i> = 0.28), getting clean (e.g., taking a bath; <i>M</i> = 6.87, <i>SD</i> = 0.57), and mealtime activities (<i>M</i> = 6.77, SD = 0.62). In the interactive and organized play domain, a high frequency was reported in activities involving screen time (<i>M</i> = 6.7, <i>SD</i> = 0.96); indoor play and games (<i>M</i> = 6.39, <i>SD</i> = 1.01); and activities with arts, crafts, stories, and music (<i>M</i> = 6.35, <i>SD</i> = 0.88). The majority of children did not engage in taking care of others (siblings and pets), and they rarely participated in housecleaning (laundry or dishes).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="667"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Participation Patterns at Home</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The activities with the highest involvement at home setting were screen time (<i>M</i> = 4.73, <i>SD</i> = 0.66); indoor play and games (<i>M</i> = 4.26, <i>SD</i> = 0.85); and arts, crafts, stories, and music activities (<i>M</i> = 4.24, <i>SD</i> = 0.9). By contrast, the lowest involvement was reported in taking care of others (<i>M</i> = 2.71, <i>SD</i> = 1.68), meal preparation (<i>M</i> = 3.02, <i>SD</i> = 1.31), and doing laundry and dishes (<i>M</i> = 2.64, <i>SD</i> = 1.42). Unsurprisingly, parents reported the highest desire for change in these home activities: cleaning (<i>M</i> = 0.8, <i>SD</i> = 0.4), screen time (<i>M</i> = 0.69, <i>SD</i> = 0.46), and meal preparation (<i>M</i> = 0.65, <i>SD</i> = 0.48).</p><p>As seen in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#Fig2">2</a>, the community setting activities with the highest frequency of participation were unstructured physical activities, such as playgrounds (<i>M</i> = 5.52, <i>SD</i> = 1.25), and shopping and errands (<i>M</i> = 4.83, <i>SD</i> = 1.41). The activities with the lowest frequency were religious/spiritual activities (<i>M</i> = 1.83, <i>SD</i> = 2.21), overnight trips (<i>M</i> = 1.74, <i>SD</i> = 1.24), and community events (<i>M</i> = 2.66, <i>SD</i> = 1.57). The highest level of involvement reported in the community were unstructured physical activities (<i>M</i> = 4.54, <i>SD</i> = 0.89), community events (<i>M</i> = 4.24, <i>SD</i> = 1.08), and overnight trips (<i>M</i> = 4.23, <i>SD</i> = 1.1). The lowest level of involvement was reported regarding religious/spiritual activities (<i>M</i> = 3.16, <i>SD</i> = 1.65) and classes/lessons, such as music and arts (<i>M</i> = 3.39, <i>SD</i> = 1.49). The highest parental desire for change was reported in organized physical activities (<i>M</i> = 0.48, <i>SD</i> = 0.5), classes/lessons (<i>M</i> = 0.46, <i>SD</i> = 0.5), and community attractions (<i>M</i> = 0.42, <i>SD</i> = 0.49).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10882-024-09995-z/MediaObjects/10882_2024_9995_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="547"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Participation Patterns in The Community</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>As seen in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#Tab2">2</a>, the scores in frequency of participation and the desire for change were found to be significantly higher in the home, compared to the community setting, with medium effect sizes. No effect for environment was found on involvement in activities.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Differences between home and community activities</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The description of supports and barriers affecting participation in the different settings was evaluated by calculating the percentage of participant consensus (see Supplement <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#MOESM1">1</a> for the full results). In the home setting, “information,” “supplies,” “money,” and “time” were reported as the most supportive factors (over 50% of the children); while the most common inhibitors were “cognitive demands” (27%), followed by “services in the home” (15%), and “physical and social demands” (11%). In the community setting, “transportation,” “money,” “time,” “information,” and “supplies” were reported as the most supportive factors (over 50%), while the most common inhibitors were “cognitive demands” (31%), “sensory qualities” (18%), “social demands” (14%), and “relationships with peers” (14%).</p><p>On average, the physical QoL (<i>M</i> = 73.44, <i>SD</i> = 14.44) was rated higher than the psychosocial QoL (<i>M</i> = 67.16, <i>SD</i> = 9.93). As seen in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#Tab3">3</a>, the results indicated significant weak-moderate correlations linking involvement, parents' desire for change in home activities, and QoL. However, frequency of participation at home did not correlate with QoL. Additionally, no significant correlations were found between the participation patterns in the community and QoL.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Pearson correlations between participation patterns (YC-PEM) and QoL (PedsQL)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The family routines that were reported with the highest frequency were morning-related activities performed by children (<i>M</i> = 3.89, <i>SD</i> = 0.36) and parents (<i>M</i> = 3.87, <i>SD</i> = 0.33), evening-related routines, such as consistent bedtime rituals like reading a bedtime story (<i>M</i> = 3.78, <i>SD</i> = 0.59), having a set bedtime (<i>M</i> = 3.54, <i>SD</i> = 0.79), and a designated time when parents interacted with their children (<i>M</i> = 3.06, <i>SD</i> = 0.98). By contrast, the routines with the lower frequency reports were “quiet time” in the evening (<i>M</i> = 1.86, <i>SD</i> = 1.06), having breakfast together (<i>M</i> = 2.05, <i>SD</i> = 1.06), and children taking responsibility for household tasks (<i>M</i> = 2.12, <i>SD</i> = 1.1). See Supplement <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#MOESM2">2</a> for the full results.</p><p>The results of the correlation analysis indicated significant weak-moderate correlations between family routine and the participation patterns in home activities (frequency: <i>r</i> = 0.21, <i>p</i> = 0.042; involvement: <i>r</i> = 0.22, <i>p</i> = 0.037; parents' desire for change: <i>r</i> = -0.34, <i>p</i> = 0.002).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec9-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec9">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec9-content"><p>The current research aimed to expand and deepen the existing knowledge regarding participation patterns of preschoolers with suspected/diagnosed ADHD, and the factors influencing their participation: environmental factors, family routines, and QoL. The study included 70 parents of preschool children aged 4 to 6 years, with either a diagnosis or suspected ADHD who were recruited from child development clinics and social media. While children were predominantly boys, most of their parents were married and had a professional or academic educational background. The results first pointed no significant differences in participation patterns based on recruitment source or ADHD diagnosis status, indicating a homogeneous sample. The findings highlighted the children’s high participation frequency in personal care and indoor play activities at home, yet low involvement in household responsibilities and care for others. This pattern, coupled with parents' high desire for change in these areas. Significant correlations were found between home participation and family routines, and between home participation and QoL. This study is novel, since previous studies in this area mainly addressed school-age children, and examined life domains (e.g., learning, play, and self-care) rather than specific participation patterns across settings (Dunn et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Dunn, L., Coster, W. J., Cohn, E. S., & Orsmond, G. I. (2009). Factors associated with participation of children with and without ADHD in household tasks. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 29(3), 274–294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942630903008327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1840">2009</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1843">2021</a>). In addition, in line with current theoretical perspectives (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Imms, C., Adair, B., Keen, D., Ullenhag, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Granlund, M. (2016). ‘Participation’: A systematic review of language, definitions, and constructs used in intervention research with children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58(1), 29–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12932
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1846">2016</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Imms, C., Granlund, M., Wilson, P. H., Steenbergen, B., Rosenbaum, P. L., & Gordon, A. M. (2017). Participation, both a means and an end: A conceptual analysis of processes and outcomes in childhood disability. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 59(1), 16–25. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13237
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1849">2017</a>; WHO, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="World Health Organization. (2007). International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: Children & Youth Version: ICF-CY. World Health Organization." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1852">2007</a>), our study relates to the relationship of children's participation with QoL outcomes and family routines.</p><p>The results indicated a higher frequency of participation and parents' desire for change in participation at home, compared to the community. These results are congruent with previous studies conducted among children aged 6–14 with ADHD (Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1858">2021</a>) and children under 6 with various disabilities (Di Marino et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Di Marino, E., Tremblay, S., Khetani, M., & Anaby, D. (2018). The effect of child, family and environmental factors on the participation of young children with disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 11(1), 36–42. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2021.1955053
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1861">2018</a>). One possible explanation for these results is that the community setting may present greater barriers for participation, compared to the home setting (Di Marino et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Di Marino, E., Tremblay, S., Khetani, M., & Anaby, D. (2018). The effect of child, family and environmental factors on the participation of young children with disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 11(1), 36–42. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2021.1955053
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1864">2018</a>), including financial constraints and limits in mobility, access to information, and services. In contrast, families may provide a safe and accommodating environment for their child at home, which can lead to higher attendance in activities at home (Izadi-Najafabadi et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Izadi-Najafabadi, S., Ryan, N., Ghafooripoor, G., Gill, K., & Zwicker, J. G. (2019). Participation of children with developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 84, 75–84. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1867">2019</a>). Another explanation is that parents are more exposed to their child's participation at home, potentially resulting in a greater desire for participation changes in this setting. These results emphasize the importance of understanding parents' perspectives regarding their desire for change in their children's participation, in order to set appropriate intervention goals, in collaboration with professionals, in order to improve the child participation in daily activities.</p><p>The level of involvement at home was found to be lower compared to the community on the average, although the difference was not significant. These findings align with previous studies among older children with ADHD or developmental coordination disorder, who demonstrated similar levels of involvement across these settings (Izadi-Najafabadi et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Izadi-Najafabadi, S., Ryan, N., Ghafooripoor, G., Gill, K., & Zwicker, J. G. (2019). Participation of children with developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 84, 75–84. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1873">2019</a>; Ranger et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Ranger, M. C., Bossé, S., & Martini, R. (2021). Occupational patterns of families living with a health condition: A scoping review. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 28(7), 498–519. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2020.1766107
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1876">2021</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1879">2021</a>). The young age of the children in the current study, who may have needed to rely on adult support and assistance in activities at home, may explain the lower involvement in that setting (Izadi-Najafabadi et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Izadi-Najafabadi, S., Ryan, N., Ghafooripoor, G., Gill, K., & Zwicker, J. G. (2019). Participation of children with developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 84, 75–84. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1882">2019</a>). Another explanation might be related to the subjective nature of the involvement aspect of participation, which is more difficult to capture and rate than the objective aspect of frequency (Imms et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Imms, C., Granlund, M., Wilson, P. H., Steenbergen, B., Rosenbaum, P. L., & Gordon, A. M. (2017). Participation, both a means and an end: A conceptual analysis of processes and outcomes in childhood disability. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 59(1), 16–25. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13237
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1885">2017</a>).</p><p>Regarding the home setting, the results indicated that the preschool children with ADHD engaged in self-care activities (e.g., self-cleaning and mealtime) at the highest frequency of all the domains. This result is reasonable, as these activities are age-appropriate for the children and are a natural part of daily routines, unlike other activities more episodic for young children, such as taking care of others and doing laundry.</p><p>Screen-time activity was rated with the highest involvement in general, and highest of all leisure activities. This finding supports previous studies of typical and atypical children (Di Marino et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Di Marino, E., Tremblay, S., Khetani, M., & Anaby, D. (2018). The effect of child, family and environmental factors on the participation of young children with disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 11(1), 36–42. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2021.1955053
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1895">2018</a>; Law et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Law, M., Anaby, D., Teplicky, R., Khetani, M. A., Coster, W., & Bedell, G. (2013). Participation in the home environment among children and youth with and without disabilities. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(2), 58–66. 
 https://doi.org/10.4276/030802213X13603244419112
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1898">2013</a>). It is not surprising, considering that young children today spend more time watching screens than in the past (Chen & Adler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Chen, W., & Adler, J. L. (2019). Assessment of screen exposure in young children, 1997–2014. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(4), 391–393. 
 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5546
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1901">2019</a>). Specifically, children with disabilities tend to participate more in sedentary activities, compared to more active activities, such as household chores (Law et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Law, M., Anaby, D., Teplicky, R., Khetani, M. A., Coster, W., & Bedell, G. (2013). Participation in the home environment among children and youth with and without disabilities. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(2), 58–66. 
 https://doi.org/10.4276/030802213X13603244419112
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1904">2013</a>). Another explanation is that children with ADHD tend to spend more time with computer games, because they provide rapidly changing stimuli and immediate feedback and rewards (Weiss et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Weiss, M. D., Baer, S., Allan, B. A., Saran, K., & Schibuk, H. (2011). The screens culture: Impact on ADHD. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3(4), 327–334. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-011-0065-z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1907">2011</a>). Accordingly, parents in the current study reflected they would like their child to participate less frequently in watching screens, in line with the negative effects associated with extensive screen time (APP Council on Communications & Media, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="APP Council on Communications and Media. (2016). Media and young mind. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162591. 
 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2591
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1911">2016</a>).</p><p>Within the community setting, the results indicated that the preschool children with ADHD engaged in free physical activities, shopping, and errands at a higher frequency, compared to other activities. One possible explanation is that in free physical activities, children can move independently, and free play provides opportunities for creativity and interaction with others (Golubovic et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Golubovic, S., Dordevic, M., Ilic, S., & Nikolasevic, Z. (2022). Engagement of preschool-aged children in daily routines. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), 14741. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1917">2022</a>). Additionally, shopping and errands are common parts of family routines and daily schedules, in which children this young usually accompany their parents. Parents frequently reported a high desire for change regarding low-involvement activities such as music and art, and in organized physical activities. This was not surprising, as these activities require children to follow and remember adults' instructions, and adhere to rules, which can be difficult for young children with ADHD symptoms such as impulsivity (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1920">2013</a>; Golubovic et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Golubovic, S., Dordevic, M., Ilic, S., & Nikolasevic, Z. (2022). Engagement of preschool-aged children in daily routines. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), 14741. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1923">2022</a>).</p><p>In terms of supportive environmental factors, parents reported various resources, such as “information,” “supplies,” “money,” and “time” as the most supportive factors in their child’s participation, both at home and in the community. These findings are in line with Law et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Law, M., Anaby, D., Teplicky, R., Khetani, M. A., Coster, W., & Bedell, G. (2013). Participation in the home environment among children and youth with and without disabilities. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(2), 58–66. 
 https://doi.org/10.4276/030802213X13603244419112
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1929">2013</a>) and Bedell et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Bedell, G., Coster, W., Law, M., Liljenquist, K., Kao, Y. C., Teplicky, R., Anaby, D., & Khetani, M. A. (2013). Community participation supports and barriers of school-age children with and without disabilities. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 94(2), 315–323. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2012.09.024
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1932">2013</a>) who studies children with various disabilities. These supportive factors may also be explained by the fact that most parents in this study reported a relatively average or above family income, and a higher level of education. Conversely, parents reported cognitive and social demands as the most inhibiting environmental factors in the home and community settings. This may stem from the typical difficulties experienced by children with ADHD, which include cognitive difficulties such as working memory, monitoring, and sustained attention difficulties (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1935">2013</a>; Barkley, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Barkley, R. A. (2015). Executive functioning and self-regulation viewed as an extended phenotype: Implications of the theory for ADHD and its treatment. In Barkley, R. A (ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 405–434). Guilford. " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1938">2015</a>); and social skills deficits, such as difficulty in cooperation with peers and in following social rules (Ros & Graziano, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Ros, R., & Graziano, P. A. (2018). Social functioning in children with or at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 213–235. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1266644
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1941">2018</a>).</p><p>Finally, sensory qualities were also reported as highly limiting factors for community participation, congruent with the literature on school age children and adolescents with ADHD (Kaya Kara et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Kaya Kara, O., Kose, B., Cetin, S. Y., Sahin, S., & Kara, K. (2024). Community participation, supports and barriers of adolescents with and without ADHD. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 44(3), 380–397. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2023.2253899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1947">2024</a>; Shabat et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shabat, T., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Anaby, D., & Golos, A. (2021). Participation profile of children and youth aged 6–14, with and without ADHD, and the impact of environmental factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 537. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020537
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1950">2021</a>). This aligns with the high prevalence of sensory processing difficulties (e.g., sensory seeking and sensory sensitivity) among individuals with ADHD (Rani et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Rani, I., Agarwal, V., Arya, A., & Mahour, P. (2023). Sensory processing in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(2), 145–151. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547221129306
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1953">2023</a>). This may also be the result of parents being less able to accommodate community settings to their children’s special sensory needs, compared to the home setting which can moderate auditory distractions, touch, and lighting intensity, as reported by parents of children with various disabilities that have sensory processing difficulties (Silverman & Tyszka, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Silverman, F., & Tyszka, A. C. (2017). Supporting participation for children with sensory processing needs and their families: Community-based action research. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 71(4), 7104100010p1-7104100010p9. 
 https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2017.025544
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1956">2017</a>).</p><p>As mentioned above, it is possible that the environmental factors affecting children with ADHD are related to the characteristics of their disorder. Similarly, studies that explored this issue among children with other disorders found similar results. For example, Golos et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Golos, A., Vidislavski, S., & Anaby, D. (2023). Participation patterns of Israeli children with and without Autism, and the impact of environment. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 1–18.‏ 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2023.2230269
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1962">2023</a>) reported that for children aged 6–12 with autism spectrum disorder, social support (attitudes, relationships) was more prominent in supporting participation at home, while social demands hindered participation both at home and in the community settings.</p><p>Our results indicated that according to their parents, the highest QoL for preschoolers with ADHD was physical, while the psychosocial QOL (average of social, emotional, and school-related QoL) was the lowest; this was similar to previous studies among children of various ages with ADHD (Arachchige Dona et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Arachchige Dona, S. W., Badloe, N., Sciberras, E., Gold, L., Coghill, D., & Le, H. N. (2023). The impact of ADHD on children’s health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(6), 598–611. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231155438
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1968">2023</a>). Decreased psychosocial QoL may result from emotional dysregulation in children with ADHD (Barkley, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Barkley, R. A. (2015). Executive functioning and self-regulation viewed as an extended phenotype: Implications of the theory for ADHD and its treatment. In Barkley, R. A (ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 405–434). Guilford. " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1971">2015</a>), as well as difficulties in social skills that may impair their ability to engage in social activities with peers (Ros & Graziano, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Ros, R., & Graziano, P. A. (2018). Social functioning in children with or at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 213–235. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1266644
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1974">2018</a>). By contrast, motor difficulties are not a core symptom/deficit of ADHD and are usually not a characteristic of the disorder (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1977">2013</a>). Additionally, children in this study did not have any physical health problems, which might be related to the relatively high physical QoL reported. A review of studies on the QoL of children of all ages with ADHD suggests that parents tend to rate physical domains as having less impact on their children's QoL (Arachchige Dona et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Arachchige Dona, S. W., Badloe, N., Sciberras, E., Gold, L., Coghill, D., & Le, H. N. (2023). The impact of ADHD on children’s health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(6), 598–611. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231155438
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1980">2023</a>).</p><p>The relationship found between QoL and participation patterns (involvement and desire for change) at home (and not in the community) is reasonable; the children in our study participated more frequently in activities at home than in the community. Additionally, although the items included in the QoL scale (Varni et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Varni, J. W., Seid, M., & Kurtin, P. S. (2001). PedsQL™ 4.0: Reliability and validity of the pediatric quality of life inventory™ version 4.0 generic core scales in healthy and patient populations. Medical Care, 39(8), 800–812. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-200108000-00006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1987">2001</a>) represent various children’s’ difficulties, it is reasonable to assume that parents are more exposed to these difficulties at home, particularly regarding specific items (e.g., tiredness, lifting heavy objects, showering independently and sleeping difficulties). Our result may therefore be the combination of parents’ reduced exposure to their child’s participation in the community (versus at home) and parents' tendency to rate their children's QoL lower than the children themselves report (Arachchige Dona et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Arachchige Dona, S. W., Badloe, N., Sciberras, E., Gold, L., Coghill, D., & Le, H. N. (2023). The impact of ADHD on children’s health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(6), 598–611. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231155438
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1990">2023</a>). Additionally, the YC-PEM (Khetani et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Khetani, M. A., Graham, J. E., Davies, P. L., Law, M. C., & Simeonsson, R. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the young children’s participation and environment measure. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(2), 307–316. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.031
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1993">2015</a>) encompasses community sociocultural activities, which are more strongly influenced by differences in family education and income level than home activities are (Guichard & Grande, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Guichard, S., & Grande, C. (2019). The role of environment in explaining frequency of participation of pre-school children in home and community activities. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 65(2), 108–115. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2017.1378160
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e1996">2019</a>). Therefore, it is plausible that community participation was more responsive to the relatively homogeneous composition of this study sample (highly educated, medium–high income families).</p><p>Concerning family routines, the results indicated that the children in our study participated in an organized morning routine and a set bedtime with high frequency, and that their sleep preparation routine included rituals, such as story reading and interaction with parents. The literature indicates that consistent waking time and bedtime is associated with better sleep, improved behavioral and emotional regulation in children, and lower parental stress (Mindell & Williamson, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mindell, J. A., & Williamson, A. A. (2018). Benefits of a bedtime routine in young children: Sleep, development and beyond. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 40, 93–108. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.10.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2002">2018</a>). It is also suggested that story-reading as part of the bedtime routine may promote parent–child bonding and enhance the child's emotional and behavioral functioning (Mindell & Williamson, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mindell, J. A., & Williamson, A. A. (2018). Benefits of a bedtime routine in young children: Sleep, development and beyond. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 40, 93–108. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.10.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2005">2018</a>). Therefore, the results might be related to the importance parents attribute to pre-sleep activities and organized morning routines, leading them to prioritize these activities in their daily routine.</p><p>Nevertheless, “quiet time” in the evening routine was reported with low frequency. This finding may arise from the characteristic hyperactivity and impulsivity of children with ADHD (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2011">2013</a>). The infrequent occurrence of family breakfasts may be linked to the organization difficulties of children with ADHD (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2014">2013</a>), or to the provision of breakfast in the preschool setting. Lastly, the reports of children's responsibility for household tasks occurring in low frequency are consistent with the correspondingly high parental desire for change in activities at home, which largely related to tidiness, organization, and meal preparation. This may be due to young children preferring to engage in tasks they can do independently, such as self-care (Dunn et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Dunn, L., Coster, W. J., Cohn, E. S., & Orsmond, G. I. (2009). Factors associated with participation of children with and without ADHD in household tasks. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 29(3), 274–294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942630903008327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2017">2009</a>), and simple household tasks, such as organizing toys (Dunn et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Dunn, L., Magalhaes, L. C., & Mancini, M. C. (2014). Internal structure of the children helping out: Responsibilities, expectations, and supports measure. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 68(3), 286–295. 
 https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2014.010454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2020">2014</a>), compared to complex household tasks. These results also align with previous research indicating that compared to their typically developing peers, children with ADHD struggle to independently complete complex tasks and satisfy parental expectations (Dunn et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Dunn, L., Coster, W. J., Cohn, E. S., & Orsmond, G. I. (2009). Factors associated with participation of children with and without ADHD in household tasks. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 29(3), 274–294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01942630903008327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2023">2009</a>; Spaulding et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Spaulding, S. L., Fruitman, K., Rapoport, E., Soled, D., & Adesman, A. (2021). Impact of ADHD on household chores. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(10), 1374–1383. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720903359
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2027">2021</a>), due to their ADHD characteristics (APA, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2030">2013</a>; Park et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Park, F., Rapoport, E., Soled, D., & Adesman, A. (2022). Impact of medication on performance of household chores by children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(1), 119–124. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720969980
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2033">2022</a>).</p><p>The significant relationships between frequency and involvement in activities at home and family routines are in line with Ranger et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Ranger, M. C., Bossé, S., & Martini, R. (2021). Occupational patterns of families living with a health condition: A scoping review. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 28(7), 498–519. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2020.1766107
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2039">2021</a>), whose review found that engagement in more structured routines facilitates participation in daily activities (such as morning and evening routines). Family routines are significant for the development of habits that enable positive participation and interactions among family members (Coussens et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Coussens, M., Van Driessen, E., De Baets, S., Van Regenmortel, J., Desoete, A., Oostra, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Waelvelde, H. V., & Van de Velde, D. (2020b). Parents’ perspectives on participation of young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, and/or autism spectrum disorder: A systematic scoping review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 46(2), 232–243. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12735
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2042">2020b</a>). This relationship can be explained by the interplay of consistency, parental support, and adaptability within the family context. Family routines provide a predictable environment, which can help preschool children with ADHD anticipate and engage in daily activities (Steinhardt et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Steinhardt, F., Ullenhag, A., Jahnsen, R., & Dolva, A. S. (2019). Perceived facilitators and barriers forparticipation in leisure activities in children with disabilities: Perspectives of children, parents and professionals. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 28(2), 121–135. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2019.1703037
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2045">2019</a>). Additionally, parental presence and guidance support children in overcoming participation challenges and sustaining attention during activities (Muller & Kerbow, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Muller, C., & Kerbow, D. (2018). Parent involvement in the home, school, and community. In B. Schneider & J. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and schools (pp. 13–42). Routledge." href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2048">2018</a>). However, the strength of the correlation may be influence by how families adapt routines to meet the specific needs of children with ADHD (Corcoran et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Corcoran, J., Schildt, B., Hochbrueckner, R., & Abell, J. (2017). Parents of children with attention deficit//hyperactivity disorder: A meta-synthesis, part I. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34, 281–335. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-016-0465-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2051">2017</a>). These results are also consistent with the negative correlation between parents' desire for change in their child’s participation and family routines. As frequent family routines facilitate participation, and therefore result in enhanced participation, it is reasonable that parents reported a lesser desire for change when family routines were performed more frequently.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Limitations"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec10-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec10">Limitations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec10-content"><p>Some limitations in this study should be noted. First, the participants were recruited using a convenience sample, with most participants reporting average or above-average family income; and most of the parents were married. This sociodemographic background and its effect on the participants’ lifestyle should be considered when interpreting the results. In addition, co-occurring disorders prevalent among children with ADHD, such as developmental coordination disorder, were not screened in this study sample. Further research is necessary with larger representative samples, including information about comorbidity with other neurodevelopmental disorders, and comparison to a control group of typically developing preschool children, although a comparison has already been studied among children with and without ADHD, and it is not the focus of the current study. Furthermore, the sample included both children with ADHD and those with suspected ADHD (Nomura et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Nomura, K., Okada, K., Noujima, Y., Kojima, S., Mori, Y., Amano, M., Ogura, M., Hatagaki, C., Shibata, Y., Fukumoto, R., & Fukumoto, R. (2014). A clinical study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschool children—prevalence and differential diagnoses. Brain and Development, 36(9), 778–785. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2013.11.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10882-024-09995-z#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d137638411e2063">2014</a>), because physicians sometimes tend to postpone ADHD diagnoses until school age. Therefore, future studies should take this into account via follow-up studies on the children with suspected ADHD, using various measures for routines and participation, while also comparing children with varying levels of symptoms severity over time, to broaden the picture of this phenomenon. Finally, further research should include the validation of the adoption of the FRI for preschool children. Additionally, this study gathered data on children’s participation and QoL through parental reports. While parents’ reports are commonly used, particularly for younger children, their perspective may be inherently subjective. Therefore, further studies should include other perspectives from teachers and other caregivers, especially regarding children’s participation outside the home.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec11-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec11">Conclusions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec11-content"><p>This study aimed to described participation patterns, environmental factors, family routines, and QoL of preschool children with ADHD, and to examine the relationships of these variables. The results of this study indicated that the participation frequency and the desire for change differ according to the context where the activity takes place. Cognitive and social demands and emotional characteristics were the main environmental factors hindering participation. This information is valuable in professional support of parents of preschool children with ADHD, to assist in defining specific intervention goals, and to offer parental guidance in strategies to enhance their children’s participation. This study’s findings also confirmed the relationships linking patterns of participation at home, family routines, and QoL in this population, highlighting the need for family-centered intervention. The broad participation profile (attendance, involvement, and parents' desire for change), along with QoL and family routines, should be addressed when preschool children with ADHD are referred for evaluation and intervention due to participation difficulties, especially in the home setting. Future studies should examine the link between participation, family routines, and QoL in children with ADHD, considering comorbidities, symptom severity and factors, such as children’s motivation, preferences, and parental involvement.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Data Availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data Availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>In accordance with the ethics committee's guidelines and to protect participants' privacy, manuscript data will not be deposited.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">American Psychiatric Association. 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