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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_libraries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_libraries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Digital libraries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_libraries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Original_artworks,_manuscripts_and_archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_artworks,_manuscripts_and_archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Original artworks, manuscripts and archives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_artworks,_manuscripts_and_archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_domain_films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_domain_films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Public domain films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_domain_films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relevant_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevant_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relevant laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relevant_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lawsuits_alleging_improper_claims_of_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lawsuits_alleging_improper_claims_of_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Lawsuits alleging improper claims of copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lawsuits_alleging_improper_claims_of_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notable_use_and_recognition_of_improper_copyright_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notable_use_and_recognition_of_improper_copyright_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other notable use and recognition of improper copyright claims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notable_use_and_recognition_of_improper_copyright_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Copyfraud</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schutzrechtsber%C3%BChmung" title="Schutzrechtsberühmung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schutzrechtsberühmung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%ED%94%BC%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EB%93%9C" title="카피프로드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카피프로드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Copyfraud" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%88%E6%9D%83%E6%AC%BA%E8%AF%88" title="版权欺诈 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="版权欺诈" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q683251" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">False copyright claims to public-domain content</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug,_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg/220px-British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg/330px-British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg/440px-British_Museum_2nd_century_bronze_jug%2C_with_copyfraud_notice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4224" data-file-height="5672" /></a><figcaption> Second-century bronze jug held by the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, with false copyright claim, while on loan to <a href="/wiki/Tullie_House_Museum_and_Art_Gallery" title="Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery">Tullie House Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>copyfraud</b> is a false <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> claim by an individual or institution with respect to content that is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. Such claims are unlawful, at least under US and Australian copyright law, because material that is not copyrighted is free for all to use, modify and reproduce. Copyfraud also includes overreaching claims by publishers, museums and others, as where a legitimate copyright owner knowingly, or with <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_(legal_construct)#Constructive_knowledge" title="Knowledge (legal construct)">constructive knowledge</a>, claims rights beyond what the law allows.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>copyfraud</i> was coined by Jason Mazzone, a Professor of Law at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BGmuseums_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGmuseums-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because copyfraud carries little or no oversight by authorities and few legal consequences, it exists on a massive scale, with millions of works in the public domain falsely labelled as copyrighted. Payments are therefore unnecessarily made by businesses and individuals for licensing fees. Mazzone states that copyfraud stifles valid reproduction of free material, discourages innovation and undermines <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1028">: 1028 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other legal scholars have suggested public and private remedies, and a few cases have been brought involving copyfraud. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mazzone describes copyfraud as: </p> <ul><li>Claiming copyright ownership of <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> material.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1038">: 1038 </span></sup></li> <li>Imposition by a copyright owner of restrictions beyond what the law allows.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1047">: 1047 </span></sup></li> <li>Claiming copyright ownership on the basis of ownership of copies or archives.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1052">: 1052 </span></sup></li> <li>Attaching <a href="/wiki/Copyright_notice" title="Copyright notice">copyright notices</a> to a public domain work converted to a different medium.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1044–45">: 1044–45 </span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_issues">Legal issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Legal issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="False_claims_of_copyright">False claims of copyright</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: False claims of copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Copyfraud stifles creativity and imposes financial costs upon consumers. False copyright claims lead individuals to pay unnecessarily for licenses and to forgo entirely projects that make legitimate uses of public domain materials. Copyfraud is a land grab. It represents private control over the public domain. Copyfraud upsets the balance that the law has struck between private rights and the interests of the public in creative works. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Jason Mazzone<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>According to copyright experts Jason Mazzone and Stephen Fishman, a massive amount of works in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> are reprinted and sold by large publishers that state or imply they own copyrights in those works.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While selling copies of public domain works is legal, claiming or implying ownership of a copyright in those works can amount to fraud.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mazzone notes that although the US government protects copyrights, it offers little protection to works in the public domain.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> Consequently, false claims of copyright over public domain works (copyfraud) is common.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> The profits earned by publishers falsely claiming copyrights have been immense.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 506(c) of United States Code (USC) Title 17 prohibits three distinct acts: (1) placing a false notice of copyright on an article; (2) publicly distributing articles which bear a false copyright notice; and (3) importing for public distribution articles which bear a false copyright notice. The prosecution must prove that the act alleged was committed "with fraudulent intent". Violations of sections 506(c) and 506(d) are each punishable by a fine of up to $2,500. No private right of action exists under either of these provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-code_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-code-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No company has ever been prosecuted for violating this law.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mazzone argues that copyfraud is usually successful because there are few and weak laws criminalizing false statements about copyrights, lax enforcement of such laws, few people who are competent to give <a href="/wiki/Legal_advice" title="Legal advice">legal advice</a> on the copyright status of material and few people willing to risk a lawsuit to resist the fraudulent licensing fees that resellers demand.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restricting_use_with_licenses">Restricting use with licenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Restricting use with licenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/220px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/330px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/440px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066" /></a><figcaption>"Migrant mother", by Dorothea Lange</figcaption></figure> <p>Companies that sell public domain material under false claims of copyright often require the buyer to agree to a contract commonly referred to as a license.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many such licenses for material bought online require a buyer to click a button to "accept" their terms before they can access the material.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Book publishers, both hard copy and e-books, sometimes include a license-like statement in compilations of public domain material purporting to restrict how the buyer can use the printed material. For instance, Dover Publications, which publishes collections of public domain clip art, often includes statements purporting to limit how the illustrations can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fishman states that while the seller cannot sue successfully for copyright infringement under federal law, they can sue for <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_contract" title="Breach of contract">breach of contract</a> under the license.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public domain photos by <a href="/wiki/Walker_Evans" title="Walker Evans">Walker Evans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>, available for unrestricted downloads from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, are also available from <a href="/wiki/Getty_Images" title="Getty Images">Getty Images</a> after agreeing to their terms and paying license fees of up to $5,000 for a six-month term.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When photographer <a href="/wiki/Carol_M._Highsmith" title="Carol M. Highsmith">Carol M. Highsmith</a> sued Getty Images for asserting they owned copyrights to photos she donated to the public domain, Getty admitted that her images were in the public domain, but said it nonetheless had a right to charge a fee for distributing the material, since "Distributing and providing access to public domain content is different from asserting ownership of it".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fishman believes that because US federal law <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preempts</a> state law when it conflicts with federal law, that such copyright-like licenses should be unenforceable.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the first two cases dealing with violations of such licenses decided that the licenses were enforceable, despite the fact that the material used was in the public domain:<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see <i><a href="/wiki/ProCD,_Inc._v._Zeidenberg" title="ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg">ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg</a></i> (1996) and <i>Matthew Bender v. Jurisline</i> (2000).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_material">Types of material</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types of material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printed_works">Printed works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Printed works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>From the U.S. Constitution to old newspapers, from the paintings of old masters to the national anthem, the public domain has been copyrighted ... Copyfraud is the most outrageous type of overreaching in intellectual property law because it involves claims to a copyright where none at all exist. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Jason Mazzone<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup></cite></p> </div> <p><b>Collections</b>: A collection of public domain material, whether scanned and digitized,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or reprinted, only protects the arrangement of the material, but not the individual works collected.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, publishers of many public domain collections will nonetheless place a copyright notice covering the entire publication.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>US government publications</b>: Most of the text, illustrations and photos published by the US government are in the public domain and free from copyright. Some exceptions might include a publication that includes copyrighted material, such as non-government photos. But many publishers include a copyright notice on reproduced government documents, such as one on the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Report">Warren Report</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowing that the penalty for making a false copyright claim on a copied government publication is small, some publishers simply ignore the laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_libraries">Digital libraries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Digital libraries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg/220px-Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg/330px-Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg/440px-Camille_Pissarro_009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1325" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Camille Pissarro</a>'s <i>The Boulevard Montmartre at Night</i> (1898)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Art and photography</b>: Publishers have often placed copyright notices and restrictions on their reproductions of public domain artwork and photos. However, there is no copyright for reproduction, whether by photograph or even a painted reproduction, since there is no original creativity. One famous court case which explained that was <i><a href="/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library_v._Corel_Corp." title="Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.">Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.</a></i> in 1999: The "skill, labor or judgment merely in the process of copying cannot confer originality".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the clear ruling of a US federal court, however, Mazzone notes that the <a href="/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgeman Art Library">Bridgeman Art Library</a> has been "undeterred by its loss in court and continues to assert copyright in reproductions" of countless public domain works by famous artists of previous centuries, such as <a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Camille Pissarro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15">: 15 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mazzone also uses the example of Corbis, founded by Bill Gates, which was merged with <a href="/wiki/Getty_Images" title="Getty Images">Getty Images</a>, a similar stock photo company. Getty has over 200 million items for sale, most of which have been scanned and digitized to be sold and distributed online. Its vast collection includes many images of two-dimensional public domain works. Other digital libraries, including <a href="/wiki/ARTstor" class="mw-redirect" title="ARTstor">ARTstor</a> and Art Resource, have claimed copyright over images they supply and imposed restrictions on how the images can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_artworks,_manuscripts_and_archives"><span id="Original_artworks.2C_manuscripts_and_archives"></span>Original artworks, manuscripts and archives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Original artworks, manuscripts and archives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Besides online digital libraries, a number of libraries, archives and museums which hold original manuscripts, photos and fine art, have claimed to have copyright over copies they make of those items because they possess the original. However, many of those items were created before the 20th century and have become part of the public domain. One example that Mazzone gives is that of the <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>, which has a large archive of early American documents. Its terms and conditions for obtaining a copy of any of those documents requires agreeing to their license, along with payment.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another repository, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Historical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State Historical Association">New York State Historical Association</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fenimore_Art_Museum" title="Fenimore Art Museum">Fenimore Art Museum</a> in New York, similarly requires that a user of its archive first agree to their terms before visiting or reproducing anything from its collection of nineteenth and early 20th century photographs, most of which have long become part of the public domain.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VanGogh-starry_night.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/VanGogh-starry_night.jpg/220px-VanGogh-starry_night.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/VanGogh-starry_night.jpg/330px-VanGogh-starry_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/VanGogh-starry_night.jpg/440px-VanGogh-starry_night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1879" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Reproductions of public domain works by artists such as <a href="/wiki/Van_Gogh" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Gogh">Van Gogh</a> are often printed by museums with a questionable copyright notice.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1042">: 1042 </span></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>According to Mazzone, archives and museums typically assert ownership of copyrights where none exist, and wrongly require users to agree to their license and terms and conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup> Former president of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_American_Archivists" title="Society of American Archivists">Society of American Archivists</a>, Peter Hirtle, has written that "many repositories would like to maintain a kind of quasi-copyright-like control over the further use of materials in their holding, comparable to the monopoly granted to a copyright owner."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mazzone, for one, finds the trend of false claims of copyright by public, taxpayer-supported institutions, especially troubling: "We should be able to expect in return that public domain works be left in the public domain." He credits the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> among the shrinking list of archives that properly states whether a work is copyrighted.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</a>, for example, includes in its vast collection of artworks many from the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup> Although they have become part of the public domain, the museum claims they own the copyrights to them and therefore requires a visitor to agree to its terms before obtaining a copy of any works, i.e.: "The Images are not simple reproductions of the works depicted and are protected by copyright ... The MFA regularly makes images available for reproduction and publication in, for example, research papers and textbooks".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United Kingdom, it remains common for museums and repositories to claim rights over images of material in their collections and to charge reproduction fees. In November 2017, 27 prominent art historians, museum curators and critics wrote to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i> newspaper, to urge that "fees charged by the UK's national museums to reproduce images of historic paintings, prints and drawings are unjustified, and should be abolished". They commented that "[m]useums claim they create a new copyright when making a faithful reproduction of a 2D artwork by photography or scanning, but it is doubtful that the law supports this". They argued that the fees inhibit the dissemination of knowledge, the very purpose of public museums and galleries, and so "pose a serious threat to art history". Therefore, they advised the UK's national museums "to follow the example of a growing number of international museums (such as the Netherlands' <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum" title="Rijksmuseum">Rijksmuseum</a>) and provide open access to images of publicly owned, out-of-copyright paintings, prints and drawings so that they are free for the public to reproduce".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2022 study by Andrea Wallace found "a fundamental misunderstanding of what the public domain is, includes and should include" among UK galleries, libraries, archives and museums.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A November 2023 <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_(England_and_Wales)" title="Court of Appeal (England and Wales)">Appeal Court</a> judgement (<i>THJ v. Sheridan</i>, 2023) by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arnold_(judge)" title="Richard Arnold (judge)">Lord Justice Arnold</a> clarified that, in the UK, no new copyright is created in making a photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional public domain artwork.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_domain_films">Public domain films</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Public domain films"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The owners of the actual physical copies of public domain footage often impose restrictions on its use along with charging licensing fees. The result is that documentary filmmakers have in many cases found it nearly impossible to either make a film or else have dropped projects entirely. In one example, filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Quinn" title="Gordon Quinn">Gordon Quinn</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kartemquin_Films" title="Kartemquin Films">Kartemquin Films</a> in Chicago learned that the public domain federal government footage he wanted to use in a film was considered copyrighted by a director who then wanted payment to use it.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup> Similarly, Stanford professor Jan Krawitz needed to incorporate a public domain clip into an instructional film, but the archive that had the film made no distinction between copyrighted works and public domain works, thereby requiring her to pay a substantial fee.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Matt_Dunne" title="Matt Dunne">Matt Dunne</a>, who wrote about this problem in a popular filmmaking trade journal, filmmakers are now "abandoning projects because of cost or self-censoring materials ... the sense in the <a href="/wiki/Independent_filmmaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent filmmaker">independent filmmaker</a> community is that the problem [of clearance authorization] has reached a crisis point.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, <i>MovieMaker</i> magazine, another trade journal, suggests that producers should "never assume that any film clip is in the public domain".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mazzone describes this new "licensing culture" as becoming an entrenched norm built on fear of using any prior work without permission.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 19">: 19 </span></sup> These clearance fees are typically a major portion of a film's budget, which leads more producers to simply cut any footage out of a film rather than deal with obtaining permissions. The industry motto, according to entertainment attorney Fernando Ramirez, is "When in doubt, cut it out."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>As a practical matter it is usually too expensive and difficult to file a lawsuit to establish that a copyright claim is spurious. In effect, the federal government encourages spurious copyright claims. The potential economic rewards for making such claims are great, while the possibility of getting caught and paying a price is small. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Stephen Fishman<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Mazzone places blame on both violators and the government: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Copyright law itself creates strong incentives for copyfraud. The Copyright Act provides for no civil penalty for falsely claiming ownership of public domain materials. There is also no remedy under the Act for individuals who wrongly refrain from legal copying or who make payment for permission to copy something they are in fact entitled to use for free. While falsely claiming copyright is technically a criminal offense under the Act, prosecutions are extremely rare. These circumstances have produced fraud on an untold scale, with millions of works in the public domain deemed copyrighted, and countless dollars paid out every year in licensing fees to make copies that could be made for free. Copyfraud stifles valid forms of reproduction and undermines free speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He also adds that "copyfraud upsets the constitutional balance and undermines First Amendment values", chilling free expression and stifling creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1029–30">: 1029–30 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relevant_laws">Relevant laws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Relevant laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wealth_of_Nations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg/220px-Wealth_of_Nations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg/330px-Wealth_of_Nations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Modern editions of public domain books hundreds of years old, such as <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Wealth_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a></i> (1776), are often sold under a claim of copyright by the new publisher.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the US Copyright Act, only two sections deal with improper assertions of copyright on public domain materials: Section 506(c) criminalizes fraudulent uses of copyright notices, and Section 506(e) punishes knowingly making a false representation of a material fact in the application for copyright registration.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1036">: 1036 </span></sup> Section 512(f) additionally punishes using the <a href="/wiki/Online_Copyright_Infringement_Liability_Limitation_Act" title="Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act">safe harbor</a> provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> to remove material the issuer knows is not infringing. </p><p>But the US Copyright Act does not expressly provide for any civil actions to remedy illegal copyright claims over public domain materials, nor does the Act prescribe relief for individuals who have been damaged: either by refraining from copying or by paying for a license to use public domain material.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1030">: 1030 </span></sup> Professor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a> has argued that the US government should "make the penalties for copyfraud (false claim of copyright) at least as severe as the penalties for infringement; that is, take the wrongful decrease in the circulation of ideas at least as seriously as the wrongful increase in the circulation of ideas."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, Ronan Deazley and Robert Sullivan argue that terms which require users to pay a licence fee for what should be fair dealing as permitted by copyright law could be in breach of section 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Fraud_Act_2006" title="Fraud Act 2006">Fraud Act 2006</a>, and constitute the offence of fraud by false representation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, section 202 of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Copyright_Act_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Copyright Act 1968">Australian Copyright Act 1968</a>, imposes penalties for "groundless threats of legal proceedings" and provides a cause of action for any false claims of copyright infringement. This includes false claims of copyright ownership of public domain material, or claims to impose copyright restrictions beyond those permitted by the law. </p><p>American legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Heald" title="Paul J. Heald">Paul J. Heald</a> wrote that payment demands for spurious copyright infringement might be resisted in civil lawsuits under a number of commerce-law theories: (1) Breach of warranty of title; (2) unjust enrichment; (3) fraud; and (4) false advertising.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heald cited a case in which the first of these theories was used successfully in a copyright context: <i>Tams-Witmark Music Library v. New Opera Company</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a>, in a 2014 <i><a href="/wiki/Boing_Boing" title="Boing Boing">Boing Boing</a></i> article, noted the "widespread practice of putting restrictions on scanned copies of public domain books online" and the many "powerful entities who lobby online services for a shoot now/ask questions later approach to copyright takedowns, while the victims of the fraud have no powerful voice advocating for them."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Tanya Asim Cooper wrote that <a href="/wiki/Branded_Entertainment_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Branded Entertainment Network">Corbis</a>'s claims to copyright in its digital reproductions of public domain art images are "spurious ... abuses ... restricting access to art that belongs to the public by requiring payment of unnecessary fees and stifling the proliferation of new, creative expression, of 'Progress' that the Constitution guarantees.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charles Eicher pointed out the prevalence of copyfraud with respect to Google Books, Creative Commons' efforts to "license" public domain works, and other areas. He explained one of the methods: After you scan a public domain book, "reformat it as a PDF, mark it with a copyright date, register it as a new book with an ISBN, then submit it to Amazon.com for sale [or] as an ebook on Kindle. Once the book is listed for sale ... submit it to Google Books for inclusion in its index. Google earns a small kickback on every sale referred to Amazon or other booksellers."<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg/220px-Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg/330px-Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg/440px-Springsteen_and_De_Niro_with_Barack_Obama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>This image from <a href="/wiki/The_White_House" class="mw-redirect" title="The White House">The White House</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Flickr" title="Flickr">Flickr</a> account is free of copyright because it is a US federal government work.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, it bears a false claim that the "photograph may not be manipulated in any way".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lawsuits_alleging_improper_claims_of_copyright">Lawsuits alleging improper claims of copyright</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lawsuits alleging improper claims of copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In 1984, <a href="/wiki/Universal_City_Studios,_Inc._v._Nintendo_Co.,_Ltd." title="Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.">Universal Studios sued Nintendo</a> to stop Nintendo from profiting on its <a href="/wiki/Donkey_Kong_(arcade_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey Kong (arcade game)">Donkey Kong arcade game</a>, claiming that Donkey Kong was too similar to Universal's <a href="/wiki/King_Kong" title="King Kong">King Kong</a>. Nintendo's lawyers showed that Universal had successfully argued in 1975 legal proceedings against <a href="/wiki/RKO_General" title="RKO General">RKO General</a> that King Kong was in the public domain. Nintendo also won the appeal, a counterclaim and a further appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2006, Michael Crook filed false <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> (DMCA) claims against websites, claiming copyright on screenshots of his appearance on the <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> show <i><a href="/wiki/Hannity_%26_Colmes" title="Hannity & Colmes">Hannity & Colmes</a></i>. In a March 2007 settlement, Crook agreed to withdraw the claims, "take a copyright law course and apologize for interfering with the free speech rights of his targets".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> estate was accused of copyfraud by <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Klinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie Klinger">Leslie Klinger</a> in a lawsuit in Illinois for demanding that Klinger pay a license fee for the use in his book of the character <a href="/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> and other characters and elements in Conan Doyle's works published before 1923. The US Supreme Court agreed with Klinger, ruling that these characters and elements are in the American public domain.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2013, Good Morning to You Productions, a documentary film company, sued <a href="/wiki/Warner/Chappell_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Warner/Chappell Music">Warner/Chappell Music</a> for falsely <a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday_to_You#2013_lawsuit" title="Happy Birthday to You">claiming copyright</a> to the song "<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday_to_You" title="Happy Birthday to You">Happy Birthday to You</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2015, the court granted <a href="/wiki/Summary_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Summary judgement">summary judgement</a> ruling that Warner/Chappell's copyright claim was invalid and that the song is in the public domain, except for Warner/Chappell's specific piano arrangements of the song.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015, <i><a href="/wiki/Lenz_v._Universal_Music_Corp." title="Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.">Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.</a></i> affirmed a holding that copyright owners must consider <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> in good faith before issuing a takedown notice for content posted on the internet.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Boing_Boing" title="Boing Boing">Boing Boing</a></i> considers such uses of the DMCA to be "bogus complaints" a kind of copyfraud.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Improper claims of copyright with respect to works used under a <a href="/wiki/Free_license" title="Free license">free license</a>, such as one by German royalty collector <a href="/wiki/GEMA_(German_organization)" title="GEMA (German organization)">GEMA</a> in 2011, have been termed copyfraud.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2016, photographer <a href="/wiki/Carol_M._Highsmith" title="Carol M. Highsmith">Carol M. Highsmith</a> sued two stock photography organizations, <a href="/wiki/Getty_Images" title="Getty Images">Getty Images</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alamy" title="Alamy">Alamy</a>, for $1.35 billion over their attempts to assert copyright over, and charge fees for the use of, 18,755 of her images, which she releases royalty-free. Getty had sent her a bill for one of the images, which she used on her own website.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-techdirt_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-techdirt-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2016, the court dismissed the lawsuit with respect to the federal copyright claims, and the remaining issues were settled out of court.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2016, lawsuits were filed by the same legal team who brought the 2013 "Happy Birthday" lawsuit, alleging false claims of copyright with respect to the songs "<a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome#Copyright_status" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/This_Land_Is_Your_Land#Copyright_controversy" title="This Land Is Your Land">This Land Is Your Land</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/SCO_Group,_Inc._v._Novell,_Inc." title="SCO Group, Inc. v. Novell, Inc.">SCO Group, Inc. v. Novell, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Online_Policy_Group_v._Diebold,_Inc." title="Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc.">Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc.</a></i> (a <a href="/wiki/Misrepresentation" title="Misrepresentation">misrepresentation</a> case related to a <a href="/wiki/DMCA_takedown" class="mw-redirect" title="DMCA takedown">DMCA takedown</a>)</li> <li>In 2019, <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> filed a lawsuit against an individual whom they allege abused DMCA takedowns to extort money from other users of the website.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_notable_use_and_recognition_of_improper_copyright_claims">Other notable use and recognition of improper copyright claims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other notable use and recognition of improper copyright claims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In 2009, lawyers representing the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_and_Wikimedia_Foundation_copyright_dispute" title="National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute">National Portrait Gallery (NPG)</a> notified Derrick Coetzee, an editor/administrator of the free content multimedia repository <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a>, hosted by the <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation" title="Wikimedia Foundation">Wikimedia Foundation</a>, that 3,300 downloaded images of copyright-expired artworks it housed violated its copyrights.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015, the <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>, previously criticized for claiming propriety rights over its collections material in the public domain, updated its website to reflect a rights and reproductions policy that makes no claims to copyright. The AAS allows users to "freely download and use any of [the] images" on its online image database, and it does not require a user to cite the library as a source. Additionally, the AAS now allows unrestricted photography within its reading room.<sup id="cite_ref-Copyfraud-NYULR_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copyfraud-NYULR-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1053">: 1053 </span></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015, two people obtained a 3D scan of the <a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Nefertiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Bust of Nefertiti">bust of Nefertiti</a> displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Neues_Museum" title="Neues Museum">Neues Museum</a> in Berlin. They released the data on the internet, allowing the public to copy the bust. Their aim was to defy "a culture of 'hyperownership<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" and "the strict limitations that museums often place on sharing the informational data regarding their collection with the public. ... Even when their cases lack legal support, museums and governments can try to use copyright or contract law to restrict access to cultural materials, to claim that they own all of the data and images outright, or to use digital rights management technology to lock up their data altogether. The result is 'copyfraud<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-BGmuseums_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGmuseums-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015, a company called <a href="/wiki/Rumblefish_Inc." title="Rumblefish Inc.">Rumblefish</a> falsely claimed a copyright on a YouTube video of the public-domain song <i><a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful" title="America the Beautiful">America the Beautiful</a></i>, as performed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Band" title="United States Navy Band">United States Navy Band</a>, whose performances are all public domain. After its claim was disputed by the uploader, Adafruit Industries, Rumblefish retracted the claim. In 2019, the same video was again hit with a false copyright claim, this time by <a href="/wiki/The_Orchard_(company)" title="The Orchard (company)">The Orchard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/Sony_Music" title="Sony Music">Sony Music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Ashley_Madison" title="Ashley Madison">Ashley Madison</a> issued numerous DMCA notices to try to stop journalists and others from using public domain information. Sony did the same in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2017, Portugal passed amendments to its <a href="/wiki/Anti-circumvention" title="Anti-circumvention">anti-circumvention</a> laws making it illegal to impose <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> to restrict usage of works that were already in the public domain.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Visual_China_Group" title="Visual China Group">Visual China Group</a>, China's largest provider of <a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">stock photography</a>, shut down its website after complaints that it had falsely claimed copyright over images such as the <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> image taken by the <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_national_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese national flag">Chinese national flag</a> and various corporate <a href="/wiki/Logo" title="Logo">logos</a>, such as that of <a href="/wiki/Baidu" title="Baidu">Baidu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomium#Worldwide_copyright_claims" title="Atomium">Atomium § Worldwide copyright claims</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library_v._Corel_Corp." title="Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.">Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_misuse" title="Copyright misuse">Copyright misuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_and_Wikimedia_Foundation_copyright_dispute" title="National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute">National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">Patent troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiss_Engelhorn_Museum#Wikimedia_lawsuit" title="Reiss Engelhorn Museum">Reiss Engelhorn Museum § Wikimedia lawsuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_of_the_brow" title="Sweat of the brow">Sweat of the brow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YouTube_copyright_issues" title="YouTube copyright issues">YouTube copyright issues</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alamy, another defendant in the Highsmith case, asserted, "Publishers and others rely on Alamy and its competitors as sources of historical, archival and culturally relevant material, and for the service of providing easy searching and access to a broad range of subjects. For example, one of the most published images, and one in the public domain, Dorothy Lange's Migrant Mother, is available on Alamy from a number of historical collections. In this regard Alamy is merely a modern entrant into a long industry tradition of preserving, cataloging and distributing important historical and archival images."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The US Copyright Office stated that "digitization ... does not result in a new work of authorship" to allow a copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ProQuest offers an online searchable database of newspapers from the nineteenth century on, with each displayed page showing a copyright notice.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzone_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Court is persuaded that its original conclusion that Bridgeman's transparencies are not copyrightable under British law was correct."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Portion of Bridgeman's Terms and Conditions: "Unless otherwise indicated, all of the content featured or displayed on the Site, including, but not limited to, text, graphics, data, photographic images, moving images, sound, illustrations, software and the selection and arrangement thereof ("Bridgeman Images Content"), is owned by Bridgeman Images, its licensors or its third-party image partners. All elements of the Site, including the Bridgeman Images Content, are protected by copyright, trademark, patent, trade secret and other intellectual property laws and treaties."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this case an opera company purchased the right to perform the opera <i><a href="/wiki/The_Merry_Widow" title="The Merry Widow">The Merry Widow</a></i> for $50,000 a year. After a little more than a year of performances, the company discovered that the work had passed into the public domain several years before due to a failure on the part of the copyright holder to renew the copyright. It ceased paying royalties, and after being sued by the owner of the abandoned copyright, counterclaimed for damages in the amount paid to the owner on a breach of warranty/failure of consideration theory. The trial court awarded the opera company $50,500 in damages, and the court of appeals affirmed the judgement, finding that <i>The Merry Widow</i> "passed, finally, completely and forever into the public domain and became freely available to the unrestricted use of anyone".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eicher suggests several remedies: "Government should act [by using its regulatory power] to secure its authority over copyrights. ... Private interests should be prohibited from exerting pseudo-regulatory powers. ... Anti-trust actions could break up the newly forming publishing cartel [of Google and Amazon] before it becomes entrenched. ... Google's orphan books settlement should be given further judicial review and invalidated. ... Google and Amazon should be prohibited from offering books with false copyrights, and the public should be empowered to flag copyfraud books and issue a take-down notice."<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mazzone-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazzone_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mazzone, Jason. <i>Copyfraud</i>, Stanford Law Books (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.illinois.edu/faculty/profile/jasonmazzone">"Jason Mazzone, Professor, Lynn H. Murray Faculty Scholar in Law"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151228190809/http://www.law.illinois.edu/faculty/profile/JasonMazzone">Archived</a> 2015-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of Illinois College of Law, accessed June 17, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BGmuseums-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BGmuseums_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BGmuseums_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Katyal, Sonia K. and Simone C. 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July 3, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 8,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Adafruit+Industries&rft.atitle=Rumblefish+claims+it+owns+%27America+the+Beautiful%27+by+United+States+Navy+Band%3F&rft.date=2015-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.adafruit.com%2F2015%2F07%2F03%2Frumblefish-claims-it-owns-america-the-beautiful-by-united-states-navy-band-rumblefish_inc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openforum.com/videos/entrepreneurial-innovators-series-richard-gottehrer-the-orchard">"Entrepreneurial Innovators Series: Richard Gottehrer, The Orchard"</a>. American Express OPEN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Entrepreneurial+Innovators+Series%3A+Richard+Gottehrer%2C+The+Orchard&rft.pub=American+Express+OPEN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenforum.com%2Fvideos%2Fentrepreneurial-innovators-series-richard-gottehrer-the-orchard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doctorow, Cory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://boingboing.net/2015/08/20/ashley-madison-commits-copyfra.html">"Ashley Madison commits copyfraud in desperate bid to suppress news of its titanic leak"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513142158/https://boingboing.net/2015/08/20/ashley-madison-commits-copyfra.html">Archived</a> 2016-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Boing Boing</i>, August 20, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2017/10/portugal-bans-use-drm-limit-access-public-domain-works">"Portugal Bans Use of DRM to Limit Access to Public Domain Works"</a>. <i>Electronic Frontier Foundation</i>. October 23, 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024100126/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2017/10/portugal-bans-use-drm-limit-access-public-domain-works">Archived</a> from the original on October 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation&rft.atitle=Portugal+Bans+Use+of+DRM+to+Limit+Access+to+Public+Domain+Works&rft.date=2017-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fdeeplinks%2F2017%2F10%2Fportugal-bans-use-drm-limit-access-public-domain-works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoh2019" class="citation news cs1">Goh, Brenda (April 12, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-internet-visualchina/furor-over-black-hole-photo-forces-chinas-largest-image-provider-to-shut-idUSKCN1RO06H">"Furor over 'black hole' photo forces China's largest image provider to shut"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Furor+over+%27black+hole%27+photo+forces+China%27s+largest+image+provider+to+shut&rft.date=2019-04-12&rft.aulast=Goh&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-china-internet-visualchina%2Ffuror-over-black-hole-photo-forces-chinas-largest-image-provider-to-shut-idUSKCN1RO06H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzone2011" class="citation book cs1">Mazzone, Jason (2011). <i>Copyfraud and Other Abuses of Intellectual Property Law</i>. Stanford Law Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804760065" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804760065"><bdi>978-0804760065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyfraud+and+Other+Abuses+of+Intellectual+Property+Law&rft.pub=Stanford+Law+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0804760065&rft.aulast=Mazzone&rft.aufirst=Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbbinghouse2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ebbinghouse, Carol (January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/221095606">"Copyfraud' and Public Domain Works"</a>. <i>Searcher: The Magazine for Database Professionals</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 40–62. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/221095606">221095606</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195213/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/infotoday/doc/221095606.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT:TG:PAGE&type=current&date=Jan%202008&author=Carol%20Ebbinghouse&pub=Searcher&edition=&startpage=40&desc=%27Copyfraud%27%20and%20Public%20Domain%20Works">Archived</a> from the original on March 28, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Searcher%3A+The+Magazine+for+Database+Professionals&rft.atitle=Copyfraud%27+and+Public+Domain+Works&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-62&rft.date=2008-01&rft.aulast=Ebbinghouse&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F221095606&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGévaudan2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gévaudan, Camille (December 3, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberation.fr/futurs/2015/12/03/quand-wikimedia-defend-le-domaine-public-contre-le-copyfraud_1417202">"Quand Wikimédia défend le domaine public contre le "copyfraud"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [How Wikimedia defends the public domain against "Copyfraud"]. <i>Liberation</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Liberation&rft.atitle=Quand+Wikim%C3%A9dia+d%C3%A9fend+le+domaine+public+contre+le+%22copyfraud%22&rft.date=2015-12-03&rft.aulast=G%C3%A9vaudan&rft.aufirst=Camille&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberation.fr%2Ffuturs%2F2015%2F12%2F03%2Fquand-wikimedia-defend-le-domaine-public-contre-le-copyfraud_1417202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanc2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Blanc, Sabine (April 1, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lagazettedescommunes.com/435215/le-copyfraud-entre-circulation-des-savoirs-et-contraintes">"Le copyfraud, entre circulation des savoirs et contraintes"</a>. <i>La Gazette</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=La+Gazette&rft.atitle=Le+copyfraud%2C+entre+circulation+des+savoirs+et+contraintes&rft.date=2016-04-01&rft.aulast=Blanc&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lagazettedescommunes.com%2F435215%2Fle-copyfraud-entre-circulation-des-savoirs-et-contraintes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gary, Nicolas (January 23, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.actualitte.com/article/monde-edition/open-access-panorama-copyfraud-la-republique-numerique-se-dessine/63134">"Open Access, Panorama, Copyfraud : République numérique, la loi se dessine"</a>. <i>ActuaLitté</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ActuaLitt%C3%A9&rft.atitle=Open+Access%2C+Panorama%2C+Copyfraud+%3A+R%C3%A9publique+num%C3%A9rique%2C+la+loi+se+dessine&rft.date=2016-01-23&rft.aulast=Gary&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.actualitte.com%2Farticle%2Fmonde-edition%2Fopen-access-panorama-copyfraud-la-republique-numerique-se-dessine%2F63134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cronin, Charles Patrick Desmond (March 8, 2016). "Possession is 99% of the Law: 3D Printing, Public Domain Cultural Artifacts & Copyright". <i>USC Law Legal Studies Paper No. 16-13</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2731935">10.2139/ssrn.2731935</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62370801">62370801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USC+Law+Legal+Studies+Paper+No.+16-13&rft.atitle=Possession+is+99%25+of+the+Law%3A+3D+Printing%2C+Public+Domain+Cultural+Artifacts+%26+Copyright&rft.date=2016-03-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2731935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62370801%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Charles+Patrick+Desmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyfraud" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyfraud&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Copyfraud" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Copyfraud">Copyfraud</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/copyfraud" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/copyfraud">copyfraud</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/blog/?tag=copyfraud">Copyfraud examples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">Techdirt</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190416185310/https://www.library.illinois.edu/scp/podcast/jason-mazzone-combats-copyfraud-on-hat/">Podcast interview of Jason Mazzone discussing copyfraud</a>.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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