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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underground_school_and_Kinder_Aktion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underground_school_and_Kinder_Aktion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Underground school and Kinder Aktion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underground_school_and_Kinder_Aktion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smuggling_babies_out_of_the_ghetto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smuggling_babies_out_of_the_ghetto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Smuggling babies out of the ghetto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smuggling_babies_out_of_the_ghetto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orchestra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orchestra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Orchestra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orchestra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_days" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_days"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Final days</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_days-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_prisoners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_prisoners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notable prisoners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_prisoners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueto_de_Kaunas" title="Gueto de Kaunas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gueto de Kaunas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%AA%D9%88_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88" title="گتو کونو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گتو کونو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghetto_de_Kovno" title="Ghetto de Kovno – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ghetto de Kovno" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghetto_di_Kovno" title="Ghetto di Kovno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ghetto di Kovno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%98%D7%95_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%94" title="גטו קובנה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גטו קובנה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kau%C5%86as_geto" title="Kauņas geto – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kauņas geto" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauno_getas" title="Kauno getas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kauno getas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getto_van_Kovno" title="Getto van Kovno – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Getto van Kovno" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B" title="कोभ्नो गेट्टो – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="कोभ्नो गेट्टो" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B4%E3%83%8E%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B2%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%BC" title="コヴノ・ゲットー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コヴノ・ゲットー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getto_w_Kownie" title="Getto w Kownie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Getto w Kownie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueto_de_Kovno" title="Gueto de Kovno – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gueto de Kovno" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Каунасское гетто – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Каунасское гетто" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaunas_getto" title="Kaunas getto – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kaunas getto" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Каунаське гето – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Каунаське гето" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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.geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kovno_Ghetto&params=54_54_57_N_23_53_18_E_region:LT_type:landmark_source:dewiki"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">54°54′57″N</span> <span class="longitude">23°53′18″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">54.91583°N 23.88833°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">54.91583; 23.88833</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Jewish ghetto in Kaunas, German-occupied Lithuania during World War II</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22">"Kovno Ghetto"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Kovno+Ghetto%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:24em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #f4e9c5;">Kovno Ghetto</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg/220px-Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg/330px-Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg/440px-Kauno_getas_2007-06-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Monument of the Kaunas Ghetto</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Lithuania during World War II">German-occupied Lithuania</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">Summer 1941 to autumn 1943</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Incident type</th><td class="infobox-data">Imprisonment, mass shootings, forced labor, starvation, mass deportations to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> and conversion into a labour camp</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><span data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Organizations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">RSHA</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Camp</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data">29,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Survivors</th><td class="infobox-data">3,000</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG/220px-WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG/330px-WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG/440px-WW2-Holocaust-ROstland_big_legend.PNG 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Ghettos <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Reichskommissariat Ostland</a> (marked with red-gold stars)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Kovno Ghetto</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> to hold the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas (Kovno)</a> during <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. At its peak, the ghetto held 29,000 people, most of whom were later sent to <a href="/wiki/Concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camps">concentration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>, or were shot at the <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a>. About 500 Jews escaped from work details and directly from the ghetto, and joined <a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet partisan">Soviet partisan</a> forces in the distant forests of southeast Lithuania and Belarus. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Establishment">Establishment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nazis established a civilian administration under <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">SA</a> <a href="/wiki/Brigadefuhrer" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadefuhrer">Brigadefuhrer</a> Hans Cramer to replace military rule in place from the invasion of Lithuania on June 22, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Provisional_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Provisional Government">Lithuanian Provisional Government</a> was officially disbanded by the Nazis after only a few weeks, but not before approval for the establishment of a ghetto under the supervision of Lithuanian military commandant of Kaunas Jurgis Bobelis, extensive laws enacted against Jews and the provision of <a href="/wiki/Tautinio_Darbo_Apsaugos_Batalionas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautinio Darbo Apsaugos Batalionas">auxiliary police</a> to assist the Nazis in the genocide. Between July and August 15, 1941, the Germans concentrated Jews who survived the <a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">initial pogroms</a>, some 29,000 people, in a ghetto established in <a href="/wiki/Vilijampol%C4%97" title="Vilijampolė">Vilijampolė</a> (Slabodka).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an area of small primitive houses and no running water which had been cleared of its mainly Jewish population in pogroms by Lithuanian activists beginning on June 24. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg/220px-Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg/330px-Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg/440px-Massacre_Kovno_Garage_27_JUNE_1941b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Civilians and German soldiers looking at the massacre of 68 <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> in the Lietukis garage of <a href="/wiki/Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas</a> on June 25 or 27, 1941, during the <a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas pogrom</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, the ghetto had two parts, called the "small" and "large" ghetto, separated by Paneriai Street and connected by a small wooden bridge over the street.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each ghetto was enclosed by <a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">barbed wire</a> and closely guarded from August 15, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both were overcrowded, with each person allocated less than ten square feet of living space. The Germans and Lithuanians destroyed the small ghetto on October 4, 1941, and killed almost all of its inhabitants at the Ninth Fort.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the Germans continually reduced the ghetto's size, forcing Jews to relocate several times.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that same month, on October 29, 1941, the Germans staged what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Kaunas_massacre_of_October_29,_1941" title="Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941">Great Action</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They selected around 10,000 Jews, including 5,000 children, assessed as "unfit" to work at the Ninth Fort.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 29, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> units shot most of these individuals at the Ninth Fort.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The death toll on that one day was 9,200 Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tanchum_Aharonsteim,_Deputy_Chief_of_Kaunas_Ghetto_Jewish_Police_and_Commander_of_the_Public_Order_Service,_subordinate_to_Gestapo,_with_a_baton_in_Kaunas_Ghetto_in_September_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tanchum_Aharonsteim%2C_Deputy_Chief_of_Kaunas_Ghetto_Jewish_Police_and_Commander_of_the_Public_Order_Service%2C_subordinate_to_Gestapo%2C_with_a_baton_in_Kaunas_Ghetto_in_September_1944.jpg/140px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tanchum_Aharonsteim%2C_Deputy_Chief_of_Kaunas_Ghetto_Jewish_Police_and_Commander_of_the_Public_Order_Service%2C_subordinate_to_Gestapo%2C_with_a_baton_in_Kaunas_Ghetto_in_September_1944.jpg/210px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tanchum_Aharonsteim%2C_Deputy_Chief_of_Kaunas_Ghetto_Jewish_Police_and_Commander_of_the_Public_Order_Service%2C_subordinate_to_Gestapo%2C_with_a_baton_in_Kaunas_Ghetto_in_September_1944.jpg/280px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Tanchum Aharonsteim, Deputy Chief of Kaunas Ghetto Jewish Police and Commander of the Public Order Service, subordinate to <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Baton_(law_enforcement)" title="Baton (law enforcement)">baton</a> in the Kovno Ghetto in 1944</figcaption></figure> <p>There was a Jewish Police operating in the Kovno Ghetto with assigned tasks to ensure public order and fulfill German demands, while the policemen were privileged residents, compared to others suffering in the ghetto, and were beating prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ghetto in Kovno provided forced labor for the German military. Jews were employed primarily as forced laborers at various sites outside the ghetto, especially in the construction of a military airbase in <a href="/wiki/Aleksotas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksotas">Aleksotas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jewish council (<i>Aeltestenrat</i>; "Council of Elders"), headed by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Elkhanan_Elkes" class="mw-redirect" title="Elkhanan Elkes">Elkhanan Elkes</a>, and his deputy, <a href="/wiki/Leib_Garfunkel" class="mw-redirect" title="Leib Garfunkel">Leib Garfunkel</a>, also created workshops inside the ghetto for those women, children, and elderly who could not participate in the labor brigades.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, these workshops employed almost 6,500 people.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The council hoped the Germans would not kill Jews who were producing for the army.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Underground_school_and_Kinder_Aktion">Underground school and Kinder Aktion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Underground school and Kinder Aktion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an act of defiance an underground school was conducted in the Kovno Ghetto when such education was banned in 1942. A remarkable photo of one of the classes of that school features in the US Holocaust publication, "The Hidden History of the Kovno Ghetto". Identification of the teacher visible in that photo is given in a website that deals with the hidden school.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 27–28, 1944, some 1,600 children aged 12 or less, alongside many of their parents who attempted to intervene, and elderly people aged 55 or more, approximately 2,500 in total, were rounded up and murdered in the Kinder Aktion ("children action"). Forty Jewish ghetto policemen who refused under torture to disclose hiding locations were also murdered by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Kittel" title="Bruno Kittel">Bruno Kittel</a>. During this time, police cars roamed the ghetto streets and music was blared over loudspeakers to mute the terrified screams of families. Reports of similar actions at other towns had reached the ghetto prior to the round-up, and some parents managed to smuggle their children to non-Jewish foster homes outside the ghetto. However, the vast majority of ghetto children were murdered. Very few Jewish children survived by the time Kovno was liberated by the Soviet forces on August 1, 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Smuggling_babies_out_of_the_ghetto">Smuggling babies out of the ghetto</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Smuggling babies out of the ghetto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1942 births were not permitted in the ghetto and pregnant women faced death. However a number of babies of ages from about 9 months to 15 months were smuggled out of the Kovno Ghetto to willing Lithuanian foster mothers.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orchestra">Orchestra</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Orchestra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The orchestra operated in the ghetto between November 1, 1942, and September 15, 1943. Its leader and musical conductor was the famous pre-war Lithuanian musician <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Hofmekler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Hofmekler (page does not exist)">Michael Hofmekler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Percy_Haid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Percy Haid (page does not exist)">Percy Haid</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> born Jew, was the house composer. The orchestra performed about 83 concerts, most of them were held in the building of the former <a href="/wiki/Yeshivas_Knesses_Yisrael_(Slabodka)" title="Yeshivas Knesses Yisrael (Slabodka)">Slobodka Yeshiva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_days">Final days</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Final days"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the autumn of 1943, the <a href="/wiki/SS" class="mw-redirect" title="SS">SS</a> assumed control of the ghetto and converted it into the <a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen concentration camp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_G%C3%B6cke" title="Wilhelm Göcke">Wilhelm Göcke</a> served as the camp's commandant. The Jewish council's role was drastically curtailed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazis dispersed more than 3,500 Jews to subcamps where strict discipline governed all aspects of daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 26, 1943, the SS deported more than 2,700 people from the main camp.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SS sent those deemed fit to work to <a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara concentration camp</a> in <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, and deported children and elderly people to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 8, 1944, the Germans evacuated the camp, deporting most of the remaining Jews to the <a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camp</a> in Germany or to the <a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof camp</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Danzig" class="mw-redirect" title="Danzig">Danzig</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> coast. Three weeks before the Soviet army arrived in Kaunas, the Germans razed the ghetto to the ground with grenades and dynamite. As many as 2,000 people burned to death or were shot while trying to escape the burning ghetto. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Kaunas_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaunas Offensive">occupied Kaunas</a> on August 1, 1944. Of Kaunas' few Jewish survivors, 500 had survived in forests or in a single bunker which had escaped detection during the final liquidation; the Germans evacuated an additional 2,500 to concentration camps in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resistance">Resistance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the years of hardship and horror, the Jewish community in Kovno documented its story in secret archives, diaries, drawings and photographs. Many of these artifacts lay buried in the ground when the ghetto was destroyed. Discovered after the war, these few written remnants of a once thriving community provide evidence of the Jewish community's defiance, oppression, resistance, and death. <a href="/wiki/George_Kadish" title="George Kadish">George Kadish</a> (Hirsh Kadushin), for example, secretly photographed the trials of daily life within the ghetto with a hidden camera through the buttonhole of his overcoat. </p><p>The Kovno ghetto had several Jewish resistance groups. The resistance acquired arms, developed secret training areas in the ghetto, and established contact with <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet partisans</a> in the forests around Kovno. </p><p>In 1943, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=General_Jewish_Fighting_Organization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="General Jewish Fighting Organization (page does not exist)">General Jewish Fighting Organization</a> (Yidishe Algemeyne Kamfs Organizatsye) was established, uniting the major resistance groups in the ghetto. Under this organization's direction, some 300 ghetto fighters escaped from the Kovno ghetto to join <a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisan groups</a>. About 70 died in action. </p><p>The Jewish council in Kovno actively supported the ghetto underground. Moreover, a number of the ghetto's Jewish police participated in resistance activities. The Germans executed 34 members of the Jewish police for refusing to reveal specially constructed hiding places used by Jews in the ghetto. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_prisoners">Notable prisoners</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notable prisoners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AHARON_BARAK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/AHARON_BARAK.jpg/140px-AHARON_BARAK.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/AHARON_BARAK.jpg/210px-AHARON_BARAK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/AHARON_BARAK.jpg/280px-AHARON_BARAK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Barak" title="Aharon Barak">Aharon Barak</a>, survivor of the Kovno Ghetto and later President of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel" title="Supreme Court of Israel">Supreme Court of Israel</a> (1995–2006)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Barak" title="Aharon Barak">Aharon Barak</a>, who was smuggled out of the ghetto by a Lithuanian farmer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Birger" title="Zev Birger">Zev Birger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leyb_Gorfinkel" title="Leyb Gorfinkel">Leyb Gorfinkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama_Ginkas" title="Kama Ginkas">Kama Ginkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kadish" title="George Kadish">George Kadish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kagan,_Baron_Kagan" title="Joseph Kagan, Baron Kagan">Joseph Kagan, Baron Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judith_Meisel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judith Meisel (page does not exist)">Judith Meisel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_Gordon_(Holocaust_survivor)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry Gordon (Holocaust survivor) (page does not exist)">Harry Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Duber_Kahana_Shapiro" title="Avraham Duber Kahana Shapiro">Avraham Duber Kahana Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Oshry" title="Ephraim Oshry">Ephraim Oshry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Rich" title="Abe Rich">Abe Rich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Shachnow" title="Sidney Shachnow">Sidney Shachnow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandras_%C5%A0tromas" title="Aleksandras Štromas">Aleksandras Štromas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Ginaite" title="Sara Ginaite">Sara Ginaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elchonon_Wasserman" title="Elchonon Wasserman">Elchonon Wasserman</a> (arrested there while on a trip)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas pogrom</a> (June 25–29, 1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_massacre_of_October_29,_1941" title="Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941">Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="List of Nazi concentration camps">List of Nazi concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_von_Renteln" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrian von Renteln">Adrian von Renteln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Ehrlinger" title="Erich Ehrlinger">Erich Ehrlinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Kittel" title="Bruno Kittel">Bruno Kittel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Neugebauer" title="Rudolf Neugebauer">Rudolf Neugebauer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum,_Washington,_DC2021" class="citation web cs1">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC (2021-08-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/kovno">"Kovno"</a>. <i>encyclopedia.ushmm.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=Kovno&rft.date=2021-08-13&rft.au=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum%2C+Washington%2C+DC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fkovno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin" class="citation web cs1">Levin, Dov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/academic/how-the-jewish-police-in-the-kovno-ghetto-saw-itself.html">"How the Jewish Police in the Kovno Ghetto Saw Itself"</a>. <i>Yadvashem.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yadvashem.org&rft.atitle=How+the+Jewish+Police+in+the+Kovno+Ghetto+Saw+Itself&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Dov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Farticles%2Facademic%2Fhow-the-jewish-police-in-the-kovno-ghetto-saw-itself.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/15225131">"Tankhum Aronshtam"</a>. <i>Yadvashem.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yadvashem.org&rft.atitle=Tankhum+Aronshtam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.yadvashem.org%2Fen%2Fnames%2F15225131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gedenkorte-europa.eu/de_de/ghetto-kaunas.html">"Kaunas Ghetto"</a>. <i>Gedenkorte-europa.eu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gedenkorte-europa.eu&rft.atitle=Kaunas+Ghetto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gedenkorte-europa.eu%2Fde_de%2Fghetto-kaunas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jewishhistoryaustralia.net_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistoryaustralia.net/Kovno/">"The Underground School in the Kovno Ghetto"</a>. Jewishhistoryaustralia.net. 1944-03-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Underground+School+in+the+Kovno+Ghetto&rft.pub=Jewishhistoryaustralia.net&rft.date=1944-03-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishhistoryaustralia.net%2FKovno%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchalkowsky2014" class="citation book cs1">Schalkowsky, Samuel (2014-04-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ebUTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2"><i>The Clandestine History of the Kovno Jewish Ghetto Police: By Anonymous Members of the Kovno Jewish Ghetto Police</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01297-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01297-5"><bdi>978-0-253-01297-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Clandestine+History+of+the+Kovno+Jewish+Ghetto+Police%3A+By+Anonymous+Members+of+the+Kovno+Jewish+Ghetto+Police&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-14&rft.isbn=978-0-253-01297-5&rft.aulast=Schalkowsky&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DebUTAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://holocaustmusic.ort.org/places/ghettos/kovno/">"Kovno"</a>. <i>holocaustmusic.ort.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=holocaustmusic.ort.org&rft.atitle=Kovno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fholocaustmusic.ort.org%2Fplaces%2Fghettos%2Fkovno%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/music/kovno-ghetto-and-lithuania.asp">"Kovno Ghetto and Lithuania | Music of the Holocaust"</a>. <i>www.yadvashem.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.yadvashem.org&rft.atitle=Kovno+Ghetto+and+Lithuania+%7C+Music+of+the+Holocaust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Fyv%2Fen%2Fexhibitions%2Fmusic%2Fkovno-ghetto-and-lithuania.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKovno+Ghetto" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>This article incorporates text from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a>, and has been released under the <a href="/wiki/GFDL" class="mw-redirect" title="GFDL">GFDL</a>.</i></li> <li>Gar, Joseph. Umkum fun der Yidisher Kovne. Munich, 1948.</li> <li>Goldberg, Jacob. Bletlech fun Kovner Eltestnrat // Fun letztn Churbn, No. 7, Munich, 1948.</li> <li>Grinhoyz, Shmuel. Dos kultur-lebn in kovner geto // Lite (M. Sudarsky et al., eds.), vol. 1. – New York 1951.</li> <li>Lurie, Esther. A living witness: Kovno ghetto – scenes and types: 30 drawings and water-colours with accompanying text. – Tel Aviv, 1958.</li> <li>Garfunkel, Leib. Kovna ha-Yehudit be-Hurbanah. – Jerusalem, 1959.</li> <li>Lazerson-Rostovski, Tamar. Yomanah shel Tamarah: Ḳovnah 1942–1946. – Tel Aviv, 1975.</li> <li>Goldstein-Golden, Lazar. From Ghetto Kovno to Dachau. – New York, 1985.</li> <li>Frome, Frieda. Some dare to dream: Frieda Frome's escape from Lithuania – Ames, 1988.</li> <li>Mishell, William W. Kaddish for Kovno: life and death in a Lithuanian ghetto 1941–1945. – Chicago, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Tory" title="Avraham Tory">Tory, Avraham</a>. Surviving the Holocaust: the Kovno Ghetto diary. – Cambridge, 1990.</li> <li>Kowno // Enzyklopädie des Holocaust. Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden, Band II. – Berlin, 1993, p. 804–807.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Oshry" title="Ephraim Oshry">Oshry, Ephraim</a>. The annihilation of Lithuanian Jewry – New York, 1995.</li> <li>Levin, Dov. Fighting back: Lithuanian Jewry's armed resistance to the Nazis, 1941–1945. – New York, 1997, p. 116–125, 157–160.</li> <li>Elkes, Joel. Values, belief and survival: Dr Elkhanan Elkes and the Kovno Ghetto. – London, 1997.</li> <li>Hidden history of the Kovno Ghetto. – Boston, 1997.</li> <li>Littman, Sol. War criminal on trial: Rauca of Kaunas. – Toronto, 1998.</li> <li>Ginsburg, Waldemar. And Kovno wept. – Laxton, 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Birger" title="Zev Birger">Birger, Zev</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qVziNElUBb8C&q=No+Time+for+Patience%3A+My+Road+from+Kaunas+to+Jerusalem">No time for patience</a>: my road from Kaunas to Jerusalem: a memoir of a Holocaust survivor. – New York, 1999.</li> <li>Beiles, Yudel. Judke. – Vilnius, 2002.</li> <li>Ganor, Solly. Light one candle: a survivor's tale from Lithuania to Jerusalem. – New York, 2003.</li> <li>Segalson, Arie. Ba-Lev ha-Ofel. Kiliona shel Kovno ha-yehudit – mabat mi-bifhim. – Jerusalem, 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Ginaite" title="Sara Ginaite">Ginaite-Rubinson, Sara</a>. Resistance and survival: the Jewish community in Kaunas, 1941–1944. – Oakville, 2005.</li> <li>The Yad Vashem encyclopedia of the ghettos during the Holocaust. Vol. 1: A-M. – Jerusalem, 2009, p. 290–299.</li> <li>Smuggled in potato sacks: fifty stories of the hidden children of the Kaunas Ghetto. – London, 2011.</li> <li>Dieckmann, Christoph. Deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Litauen, 1941–1944, 2 t. – Göttingen, 2011, p. 930–958, 1055–1105.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ebUTAwAAQBAJ&dq=how+the+jewish+police+in+the+kovno+ghetto+saw+itself&pg=PA376">The clandestine history of the Kovno Jewish ghetto police</a> / by anonymous members of the Kovno Jewish ghetto police. – Bloomington, 2014.</li> <li>Rapoport, Safira A Pedigreed Jew: Between There and Here Kovno and Israel, Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2010.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovno_Ghetto&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/exhibition/kovno/">The exhibition “Hidden history of the Kovno ghetto” at the US Holocaust memorial museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://holocaustmusic.ort.org/places/ghettos/kovno/">About music in Kovno ghetto at the site “Holocaust Music”</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutstein.net/kaunas/kaunas-ghetto.htm">About Kovno ghetto at the site gutstein.net</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ghettos/kovno.html">About Kovno ghetto at the site “Holocaust Research Project”</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ghettos/kovnogallery/index.html">Photographs of Kovno ghetto at the site “Holocaust Research Project”</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn504723">Interview with Avraham Tory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishgen.org/Communities/community.php?usbgn=-2615427">Kaunas, Lithuania</a> at <a href="/wiki/JewishGen" title="JewishGen">JewishGen</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE4130070">Digitized issues of <i>Nitsots</i>, an illicit newspaper published in Kovno</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo Baeck Institute, New York">Leo Baeck Institute, New York</a></li></ul> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" 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href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">Related articles by country</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators and <br />collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algimantas_Dailid%C4%97" title="Algimantas Dailidė">Algimantas Dailidė</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Ehrlinger" title="Erich Ehrlinger">Erich Ehrlinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Hamann" title="Joachim Hamann">Joachim Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_J%C3%A4ger" title="Karl Jäger">Karl Jäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Kittel" title="Bruno Kittel">Bruno Kittel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algirdas_Klimaitis" title="Algirdas Klimaitis">Algirdas Klimaitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandras_Lileikis" title="Aleksandras Lileikis">Aleksandras Lileikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Murer" title="Franz Murer">Franz Murer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Noreika" title="Jonas Noreika">Jonas Noreika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pasker" title="Mike Pasker">Mike Pasker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rauca" title="Helmut Rauca">Helmut Rauca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_von_Renteln" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrian von Renteln">Adrian von Renteln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Joachim_Seck" title="Rudolf Joachim Seck">Rudolf Joachim Seck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Franz Walter Stahlecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Weiss_(Nazi_official)" title="Martin Weiss (Nazi official)">Martin Weiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Victims and<br />resistance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Yellin" title="Chaim Yellin">Chaim Yellin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogen" title="Alexander Bogen">Alexander Bogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Glazman" title="Josef Glazman">Josef Glazman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_M._Ipson" title="Jay M. Ipson">Jay M. Ipson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shmerke_Kaczerginski" title="Shmerke Kaczerginski">Shmerke Kaczerginski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zelig_Kalmanovich" title="Zelig Kalmanovich">Zelig Kalmanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitka_Kempner" title="Vitka Kempner">Vitka Kempner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rozka_Korczak" title="Rozka Korczak">Rozka Korczak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abba_Kovner" title="Abba Kovner">Abba Kovner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Oshry" title="Ephraim Oshry">Ephraim Oshry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sutzkever" title="Abraham Sutzkever">Abraham Sutzkever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elchonon_Wasserman" title="Elchonon Wasserman">Elchonon Wasserman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Wittenberg" title="Yitzhak Wittenberg">Yitzhak Wittenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakub_Wygodzki" title="Jakub Wygodzki">Jacob Wygodzki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Durmashkin" title="Wolf Durmashkin">Wolf Durmashkin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rescuers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazys_Binkis" title="Kazys Binkis">Kazys Binkis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Borkowska_(Sister_Bertranda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Borkowska (Sister Bertranda)">Anna Borkowska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petron%C4%97l%C4%97_Lastien%C4%97" title="Petronėlė Lastienė">Petronėlė Lastienė</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronislovas_Pauk%C5%A1tys" title="Bronislovas Paukštys">Bronislovas Paukštys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Plagge" title="Karl Plagge">Karl Plagge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antanas_Po%C5%A1ka" title="Antanas Poška">Antanas Poška</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ona_%C5%A0imait%C4%97" title="Ona Šimaitė">Ona Šimaitė</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Schmid" title="Anton Schmid">Anton Schmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiune_Sugihara" title="Chiune Sugihara">Chiune Sugihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Zwartendijk" title="Jan Zwartendijk">Jan Zwartendijk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Auxiliary_Police_Battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions">Lithuanian Auxiliary Police battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_TDA_Battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian TDA Battalions">TDA battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resistance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fareynikte_Partizaner_Organizatsye" title="Fareynikte Partizaner Organizatsye">Fareinigte Partizaner Organizacje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_Brigade" title="Paper Brigade">Paper Brigade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_Report" title="Jäger Report">Jäger Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas June 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_massacre_of_October_29,_1941" title="Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941">Kaunas 29 October 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort_massacres_of_November_1941" title="Ninth Fort massacres of November 1941">Ninth Fort November 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ven%C4%8Dion%C4%97liai_massacre" title="Švenčionėliai massacre">Švenčionėliai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HKP_562_forced_labor_camp" title="HKP 562 forced labor camp">HKP 562 forced labor camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kailis_forced_labor_camp" title="Kailis forced labor camp">Kailis forced labor camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen concentration camp</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kovno Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luki%C5%A1k%C4%97s_Prison" title="Lukiškės Prison">Lukiškės Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcinkonys_Ghetto" title="Marcinkonys Ghetto">Marcinkonys Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0iauliai_Ghetto" title="Šiauliai Ghetto">Šiauliai Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ven%C4%8Dionys_Ghetto" title="Švenčionys Ghetto">Švenčionys Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna Ghetto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Lithuania during World War II">Occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">History of the Jews in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Lithuanian_Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="List of Lithuanian Righteous Among the Nations">List of Lithuanian Righteous Among the Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Vilna_Ghetto" title="Songs of the Vilna Ghetto">Songs of the Vilna Ghetto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="15px_Jews_and_Judaism_in_Lithuania_15px" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Lithuania" title="Template:Jews and Judaism in Lithuania"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Lithuania" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism in Lithuania"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Lithuania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism in Lithuania"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="15px_Jews_and_Judaism_in_Lithuania_15px" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/15px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/23px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/30px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a></span>  <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Jews and Judaism in Lithuania</span></a>  <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/15px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/30px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaunas Ghetto">Kaunas Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paneriai_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Paneriai massacre">Paneriai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history_in_Lithuania_and_Belarus" title="Timeline of Jewish history in Lithuania and Belarus">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Gaon" title="Vilna Gaon">Vilna Gaon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_groups_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Jewish groups in Lithuania"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Groups</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%">Denominations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Orthodox_Judaism_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Orthodox Judaism in Lithuania">Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ashkenazi_Jewish_culture_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Ashkenazi Jewish culture in Lithuania">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hasidic_Judaism_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Hasidic Judaism in Lithuania">Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breslov" title="Breslov">Breslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chabad-Lubavitch_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Category:Chabad-Lubavitch (Hasidic dynasty)">Chabad-Lubavitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chernobyl_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Category:Chernobyl (Hasidic dynasty)">Chernobyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komarno_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Komarno (Hasidic dynasty)">Komarno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koson_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Koson (Hasidic dynasty)">Koson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ruzhin_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Category:Ruzhin (Hasidic dynasty)">Ruzhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seret_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Seret (Hasidic dynasty)">Seret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veretzky_(Rabbinical_dynasty)" title="Veretzky (Rabbinical dynasty)">Veretzky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vizhnitz_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Category:Vizhnitz (Hasidic dynasty)">Vizhnitz</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Synagogues_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Synagogues in Lithuania"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Synagogues</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_Synagogue" title="Kaunas Synagogue">Kaunas Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choral_Synagogue_(Vilnius)" title="Choral Synagogue (Vilnius)">Choral Synagogue (Vilnius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilnius_Kenesa" title="Vilnius Kenesa">Vilnius Kenesa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_synagogues_in_Lithuania" title="Category:Former synagogues in Lithuania"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Former</span></a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><i>Still standing</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_of_Alanta" title="Synagogue of Alanta">Alanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_of_%C4%8Ceki%C5%A1k%C4%97" title="Synagogue of Čekiškė">Čekiškė</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beit_Medrash_Hagadol_Synagogue" title="Beit Medrash Hagadol Synagogue">Beit Medrash Hagadol</a></i> (Jonava)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jonava_Synagogue_of_Merchants" title="Jonava Synagogue of Merchants">Merchants</a></i> (Jonava)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Synagogue_of_Joni%C5%A1kis" title="Red Synagogue of Joniškis">Red</a></i> (Joniškis)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Synagogue_of_Joni%C5%A1kis" title="White Synagogue of Joniškis">White</a></i> (Joniškis)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trakai_Kenesa" title="Trakai Kenesa">Trakai Kenesa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zamelis_Synagogue" title="Zamelis Synagogue">Zamelis</a></i> (Vilnius)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><i>Destroyed / demolished</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Synagogue_of_Jonava" title="Red Synagogue of Jonava">Red Synagogue of Jonava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_of_Vilna" title="Great Synagogue of Vilna">Great Synagogue of Vilna</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_yeshivas_in_Europe_(before_World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of yeshivas in Europe (before World War II)"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Yeshivas</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kelm_Talmud_Torah" title="Kelm Talmud Torah">Kelm Talmud Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivas_Knesses_Beis_Yitzchak" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivas Knesses Beis Yitzchak">Knesses Beis Yitzchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_Knesses_Yisrael_(Slabodka)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshiva Knesses Yisrael (Slabodka)">Knesses Yisrael (Slabodka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponevezh_Yeshiva" title="Ponevezh Yeshiva">Ponevezh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rameiles_Yeshiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameiles Yeshiva">Rameiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telshe_Yeshiva" title="Telshe Yeshiva">Telshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomchei_Tmimim" title="Tomchei Tmimim">Tomchei Tmimim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Lithuanian Jews"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">List of Lithuanian Jews</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_synagogues_in_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Wooden synagogues in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Wooden synagogues in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wooden_synagogues#Lithuania" title="List of wooden synagogues"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">List</span></a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust" title="Template talk:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgarian-occupied_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Bulgarian-occupied Greece">Bulgarian-occupied Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a> and colonies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Libya" title="The Holocaust in Libya">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yugoslavia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_German-occupied_Serbia" title="The Holocaust in German-occupied Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust" title="Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust">Evidence and documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Contemporary knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_children_during_the_Holocaust" title="Hidden children during the Holocaust">Hidden children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_Holocaust" title="Japan and the Holocaust">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_the_Holocaust" title="Philippines and the Holocaust">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_and_the_Holocaust" title="Portugal and the Holocaust">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_Holocaust" title="Spain and the Holocaust">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_the_Holocaust" title="Sweden and the Holocaust">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Catholics_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust">by Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">by Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Camps_and_ghettos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Camps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">ghettos</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><span class="smallcaps">be</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France"><span class="smallcaps">fr</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_concentration_camps" title="List of Italian concentration camps"><span class="smallcaps">it</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risiera_di_San_Sabba" title="Risiera di San Sabba">Risiera di San Sabba</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">nl</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamp_Schoorl" title="Kamp Schoorl">Schoorl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">sk</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust" title="Death marches during the Holocaust">Death marches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-<i>Totenkopfverbände</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kovno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto" title="Theresienstadt Ghetto">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews_in_Germany" title="Reich Association of Jews in Germany">Reich Association of Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Astred%C5%88a_%C5%BDidov" title="Ústredňa Židov">Ústredňa Židov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roundup_(police_action)" title="Roundup (police action)">Roundups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pogroms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">1941 pogroms in eastern Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_Lithuania" title="1941 pogroms in Lithuania">in Lithuania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Holocaust trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mass executions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maly_Trostenets" title="Maly Trostenets">Maly Trostenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielski_partisans" title="Bielski partisans">Bielski partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_and_Rescue_Committee" title="Aid and Rescue Committee">Aid and Rescue Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_twentieth_convoy" title="Attack on the twentieth convoy">Attack on the twentieth convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastner_train" title="Kastner train">Kastner train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chambon-sur-Lignon" title="Le Chambon-sur-Lignon">Le Chambon-sur-Lignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Danish underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Group_(resistance_organization)" title="Working Group (resistance organization)">Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Soviet urban residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_security_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi security warfare">Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">People with disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Polish leaders and intellectuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Responsibility" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel"><i>Schutzstaffel</i> (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Head_Office_Referat_IV_B4" title="Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4">Referat IV B4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Regiment_Centre" title="Police Regiment Centre">Police Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_Police_battalions" title="Order Police battalions">Order Police battalions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandsche_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandsche SS">Nederlandsche SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topf_and_Sons" title="Topf and Sons">Topf and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawnikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian Auxiliary Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Early_elementsAftermathRemembrance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Early elements</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Remembrance</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Hitler's prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emigration_from_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany">Jewish emigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kindertransport" title="Kindertransport">Kindertransport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisko_Plan" title="Nisko Plan">Nisko Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Forced euthanasia <span style="font-size:85%;">(Action T4)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_villages_and_towns_depopulated_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="List of villages and towns depopulated of Jews during the Holocaust">Depopulated shtetls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah" title="Sh'erit ha-Pletah">Sh'erit ha-Pletah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_survivors" title="List of Holocaust survivors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_1944%E2%80%9346" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–46">Postwar violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazis_and_Nazi_Collaborators_(Punishment)_Law" title="Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law">Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust restitution">Holocaust restitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_West_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany">Reparations Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">trivialization</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">History and memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_The_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of The Holocaust">Books and other resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Days">Days of remembrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_education" title="Holocaust education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_films" title="List of Holocaust films">Films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessons_of_the_Holocaust" title="Lessons of the Holocaust">Lessons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide and the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_humor" title="Holocaust humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yizkor_books" title="Yizkor books">Yizkor books</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Never_again" title="Never again">Never again</a>"</li></ul> 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