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margin: .1em .5em;"><b>[<span class="plainlinks plainlinksneverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_language&action=edit&section=0"><font size="2">edit intro</font></a></span>]</b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <table class="infobox"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" class="caption" style="width:auto;">Portuguese </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"><span lang="pt" title="português" class="description pt">português</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Spoken in </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> in China, and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_e_Principe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="São Tomé e Principe (page does not exist)">São Tomé e Principe</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Total speakers </th> <td>220 million </td></tr> <tr> <th>Language family </th> <td style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Italic_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Italic languages (page does not exist)">Italic</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">  </span><a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">   </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Italo-Western_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Italo-Western languages (page does not exist)">Italo-Western</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">    </span>Western<br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">     </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Gallo-Iberian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallo-Iberian languages (page does not exist)">Gallo-Iberian</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">      </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Ibero-Romance_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibero-Romance languages (page does not exist)">Ibero-Romance</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">       </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=West_Iberian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Iberian languages (page does not exist)">West-Iberian</a><br /><span style="white-space:nowrap;">        </span><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese-Galician_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese-Galician languages (page does not exist)">Portuguese-Galician</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Language codes </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=ISO_639-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISO 639-1 (page does not exist)">ISO 639-1</a> </th> <td>pt </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=ISO_639-2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISO 639-2 (page does not exist)">ISO 639-2</a> </th> <td>por </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=ISO_639-3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISO 639-3 (page does not exist)">ISO 639-3</a> </th> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=por">por</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><small><b>Note</b>: This page may contain <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> symbols in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>. See <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=IPA_chart_for_English&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IPA chart for English (page does not exist)">IPA chart for English</a> for an <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>-<span class="Unicode"></span>based pronunciation key.</small> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Portuguese</b> (in its own language: <i>português</i> [purtuˈɣeʃ]) is a <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance language</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European family</a>, originating in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and the official language also of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>. It is co-official with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> in the Chinese S.A.R. of <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tetum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetum (page does not exist)">Tetum</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>. </p><p>Portuguese and <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a> form a language continuum (a <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Diasystem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diasystem (page does not exist)">diasystem</a>) called <b><a href="/wiki/Galician-Portuguese_language" title="Galician-Portuguese language">Galician-Portuguese</a></b>, often considered as a sole language, which originated in <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Galicia_(Spain)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galicia (Spain) (page does not exist)">Galicia</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Gallaecia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallaecia (page does not exist)">Gallaecia</a>). </p><p>Portuguese is <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of languages by number of native speakers (page does not exist)">ranked</a> sixth among the world's languages in number of native speakers (over 200 million), and first in South America (186 million, over 51% of the population). It is also a major <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> in Africa. It spread worldwide in the 15th and 16th century as Portugal set up a vast <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_Empire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese Empire (page does not exist)">colonial and commercial empire</a> (1415–1999), spanning from Brazil in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Americas">Americas</a> to <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> in China. In that colonial period, many <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_Creole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese Creole (page does not exist)">Portuguese creoles</a> appeared around the world, especially in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. </p><p>Portuguese is often nicknamed <i>The language of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Lu%C3%ADs_de_Cam%C3%B5es&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luís de Camões (page does not exist)">Camões</a></i>, after the author of the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=National_epic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National epic (page does not exist)">national epic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=The_Lusiadas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Lusiadas (page does not exist)">The Lusiadas</a></i>; <i>The last flower of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Latium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Latium (page does not exist)">Latium</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Olavo_Bilac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Olavo Bilac (page does not exist)">Olavo Bilac</a>); and <i>The sweet language</i> by <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Cervantes</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Geographic_distribution"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Geographic distribution</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Dialects"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Dialects</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Classification_and_related_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Classification and related languages</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Latin_and_other_Romance_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Latin and other Romance languages</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Galician_and_the_Fala"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Galician and the Fala</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Derived_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Derived languages</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Influence_on_other_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on other languages</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Vocabulary"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Vocabulary</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Writing_system"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Writing system</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Brazilian_vs._European_spelling"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Brazilian vs. European spelling</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Phonology"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Phonology</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Vowels"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Vowels</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Consonants"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Consonants</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Stress"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Stress</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Prosody"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Prosody</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Grammar"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Grammar</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Present_perfect"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Present perfect</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Future_subjunctive"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Future subjunctive</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Personal_infinitive"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Personal infinitive</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Examples"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Examples</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Attribution"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Attribution</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Geographic_distribution_of_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geographic distribution of Portuguese (page does not exist)">Geographic distribution of Portuguese</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>Portuguese is the official <a href="/wiki/Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Language">language</a> in <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> as first language, and the most widely used language in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>. It is also one of the official languages of <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a> (with <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tetum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetum (page does not exist)">Tetum</a>) and of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">S.A.R. of Macau</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>). It is widely spoken, but not official, in <a href="/wiki/Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> (in the latter country there were 112,520 native Portuguese speakers according to the 2002 census). <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_Creole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese Creole (page does not exist)">Portuguese Creoles</a> are the mother tongue of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> and part of <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>'s population. In Cape Verde most also speak standard Portuguese and have a native level language usage. </p><p>Large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities exist in many cities around the world, including <a href="/wiki/Montreal,_Quebec" title="Montreal, Quebec">Montreal, Quebec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toronto,_Ontario" title="Toronto, Ontario">Toronto, Ontario</a> in Canada; <a href="/wiki/Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris">Paris</a> in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>; <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Asunci%C3%B3n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asunción (page does not exist)">Asunción</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Bedford,_Massachusetts" title="New Bedford, Massachusetts">New Bedford</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Cape_Cod,_Massachussetts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cape Cod, Massachussetts (page does not exist)">Cape Cod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fall_River,_Massachusetts" title="Fall River, Massachusetts">Fall River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honolulu,_Hawaii" title="Honolulu, Hawaii">Honolulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston,_Texas" title="Houston, Texas">Houston</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Newark,_New_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Newark, New Jersey (page does not exist)">Newark</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York,_New_York" title="New York, New York">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orlando,_Florida" title="Orlando, Florida">Orlando</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Miami,_Florida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Miami, Florida (page does not exist)">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacramento,_California" title="Sacramento, California">Sacramento</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>; <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Buenos_Aires&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buenos Aires (page does not exist)">Buenos Aires</a> in <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Other countries where speakers can be found include in <a href="/wiki/Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and some communities in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>. Portuguese is spoken by about 187 million people in South America, 17 million in Africa, 12 million in Europe, 2 million in North America and 610,000 in Asia. </p><p>The <b>CPLP</b> or <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Community of Portuguese Language Countries (page does not exist)">Community of Portuguese Language Countries</a> is an international organization consisting of the eight independent countries which have Portuguese as an official language. Portuguese is also an official language of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Mercosul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mercosul (page does not exist)">Mercosul</a> and the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=African_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="African Union (page does not exist)">African Union</a> (one of the working languages) and one of the official languages of other organizations. The Portuguese language is gaining popularity in Africa, Asia, and South America as a second language for study. </p><p>Portuguese is with Spanish the fastest growing western language, and, following estimates by UNESCO it is the language with the higher potentiality of growth as an international communication language in Africa (south) and South America. The Portuguese speaking African countries are expected to have a combined population of 83 million by 2050. After Brazil signed into the economic market of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Mercosul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mercosul (page does not exist)">Mercosul</a> with other South America nations, such as Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, there has been an increase in curiosity towards study of Portuguese language in those South American countries. The demographic weight of Brazil in the continent will continue to strengthen the presence of Portuguese language in the region. </p><p><br /> The language is also starting to gain popularity in Asia, mostly due to East Timor's boost in the number of speakers in the last five years, and Macau is becoming the Chinese center for learning Portuguese, where in early 21st century, the language use was in decline, today it is growing as it became a language for opportunity due to increased Chinese diplomatic and financial ties with the Portuguese speaking countries. </p><p>In March of 2006, the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Museum_of_the_Portuguese_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Museum of the Portuguese Language (page does not exist)">Museum of the Portuguese Language</a>, an interactive museum about the Portuguese language, was founded in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, Brazil, the city with the largest number of Portuguese speakers in the world. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Dialects">Dialects</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_dialects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese dialects (page does not exist)">Portuguese dialects</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>Portuguese is a <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a>. It has two main groups of dialects, those of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and those of the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Old_World&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Old World (page does not exist)">Old World</a>. For historical reasons, the dialects of Africa and Asia are generally closer to those of Portugal than the Brazilian dialects, although in some aspects of their phonology, especially the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, they resemble Brazilian Portuguese more than European Portuguese. They have not been studied as exhaustively as European and Brazilian Portuguese. In various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_creole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese creole (page does not exist)">Portuguese creoles</a> are spoken, but they are independent languages which should not be confused with Portuguese itself. </p><p>Within the two major varieties of Portuguese, most differences between dialects concern pronunciation and vocabulary. Below are some examples: </p><p>words for <i>bus</i> </p> <dl><dd>Angola & Mozambique: <i>machimbombo</i></dd> <dd>Brazil: <i>ônibus</i></dd> <dd>Portugal: <i>autocarro</i></dd></dl> <p>words for <i>slum quarter</i> </p> <dl><dd>Angola: <i>musseque</i></dd> <dd>Brazil: <i>favela</i></dd> <dd>Portugal: <i>bairro de lata</i> or <i>ilha</i></dd></dl> <p>slang terms for <i>to go away</i> </p> <dl><dd>Angola: <i>bazar</i> - from Kimbundu <i>kubaza</i> - to break, leave with rush</dd> <dd>Brazil: <i>vazar</i> - from Portuguese "to leak"</dd> <dd>Portugal: <i>bazar</i> - from Kimbundu <i>kubaza</i> - to break, leave with rush</dd></dl> <p>Between <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Brazilian_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazilian Portuguese (page does not exist)">Brazilian Portuguese</a>, particularly in its most informal varieties, and European Portuguese, there can be considerable differences in grammar, as well. The most prominent ones concern the placement of clitic pronouns, and the use of subject pronouns as objects in the third person. Non-standard inflections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Classification_and_related_languages">Classification and related languages</span></h2> <p>Portuguese belongs to the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=West_Iberian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Iberian languages (page does not exist)">West Iberian</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a>, and it has special ties with the following members of this group, for various reasons: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a> and the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Fala_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fala language (page does not exist)">Fala</a>, its closest relatives. See below.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, the major language closest to Portuguese. See also <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Differences_between_Spanish_and_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Differences between Spanish and Portuguese (page does not exist)">Differences between Spanish and Portuguese</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirandese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirandese language">Mirandese</a>, another West Iberian language spoken in Portugal.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Judeo-Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo-Portuguese (page does not exist)">Judeo-Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Judeo-Spanish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo-Spanish (page does not exist)">Judeo-Spanish</a>, languages spoken by <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Sephardic_Jew&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sephardic Jew (page does not exist)">Sephardic Jews</a>, which remained close to Portuguese and Spanish.</li></ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Latin_and_other_Romance_languages">Latin and other Romance languages</span></h3> <p>A distinctive feature of Portuguese is that it preserved the stressed vowels of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vulgar Latin (page does not exist)">Vulgar Latin</a>, which other Romance languages diphthongized; cf. Fr. <i>pierre</i>, Sp. <i>piedra</i>, Port. <i>pedra</i>, from Lat. <i>petra</i>; or Sp. <i>fuego</i>, It. <i>fuoco</i>, Port. <i>fogo</i>, from Lat. <i>focum</i>. Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Intervocalic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intervocalic (page does not exist)">intervocalic</a> <i>l</i> and <i>n</i>, sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of an <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Epenthetic_vowel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epenthetic vowel (page does not exist)">epenthetic vowel</a> between them: cf. Lat. <i>salire</i>, <i>tenere</i>, <i>catena</i>, Sp. <i>salir</i>, <i>tener</i>, <i>cadena</i>, Port. <i>sair</i>, <i>ter</i>, <i>cadeia</i>. </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elided</a> consonant was <i>n</i>, it often <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Nasalization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nasalization (page does not exist)">nasalized</a> the preceding vowel: cf. Lat. <i>manum</i>, <i>rana</i>, <i>bonum</i>, Port. <i>mão</i>, <i>rãa</i> (now <i>rã</i>), <i>bõo</i> (now <i>bom</i>). This process was the source of most of the nasal diphthongs which are typical of Portuguese. In particular, the Latin endings <i>-ane-</i>, <i>-anu-</i> and <i>-one-</i> became <i>-ão</i> in most cases: cf. Lat. <i>canem</i>, <i>germanum</i>, <i>rationem</i> with Modern Port. <i>cão</i>, <i>irmão</i>, <i>razão</i>, and their plurals <i>cães</i>, <i>irmãos</i>, <i>razões</i>. </p><p>See <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_vocabulary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese vocabulary (page does not exist)">Portuguese Vocabulary: From Latin to Portuguese</a></i>, for other sound changes. </p><p>In spite of the obvious lexical and grammatical similarities between Portuguese and other Romance languages outside the West Iberian branch, it is not <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Mutually_intelligible&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mutually intelligible (page does not exist)">mutually intelligible</a> with them to any practical extent. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study of basic grammar and vocabulary, before being able to understand even the simplest sentences in those languages (and vice-versa): </p> <dl><dd><i>Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar.</i> (Portuguese)</dd> <dd><i>Ela fecha sempre a fiestra antes de cear.</i> (<a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>)</dd> <dd><i>Ella cierra siempre la ventana antes de cenar.</i> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</dd> <dd><i>Ella tanca sempre la finestra abans de sopar.</i> (<a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>)</dd> <dd><i>Lei chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenare.</i> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>)</dd> <dd><i>Ea închide întodeauna fereastra înainte de a cina.</i> (<a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>)</dd> <dd><i>Elle ferme toujours la fenêtre avant de dîner.</i> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</dd> <dd>She always shuts the window before dining.</dd></dl> <p>Note that some of the lexical divergence above actually comes from different Romance languages using the same root word with different semantic values. Portuguese for example has the word <i>fresta</i>, which is a cognate of French <i>fenêtre</i> or Italian <i>finestra</i> and so on, but now means "slit" as opposed to "window." Likewise, Portuguese also has the word <i>cear</i>, a cognate of Italian <i>cenare</i> and Spanish <i>cenar</i>, but uses it in the sense of "to have a late supper", while the most frequent word meaning "to dine" is actually <i>jantar</i> (related to archaic Sp. <i>yantar</i>) due to semantic changes in the 19th Century. </p><p>Galician has both <i>fiestra</i> (from medieval <i>fẽestra</i> which is the ultimate origin of standard Portuguese <i>fresta</i>), and the less frequently used <i>xanela</i>. Like the northern dialects of Portuguese, it still uses <i>cear</i> with its original meaning of "dining". </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Galician_and_the_Fala">Galician and the Fala</span></h3> <p>The closest language to Portuguese is Galician, spoken in the autonomous community of Galicia (northwestern Spain). The two were at one time a single language, known today as <a href="/wiki/Galician-Portuguese" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician-Portuguese">Galician-Portuguese</a>, but since the political separation of Portugal from Galicia they have diverged somewhat, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. Nevertheless, the core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are still noticeably closer to Portuguese than to Spanish. In particular, it uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect (see the section on the grammar of Portuguese, below). Mutual intelligibility is good between Galicians and northern Portuguese, but poorer between Galicians and speakers from central Portugal. </p><p>The linguistic status of Galician with respect to Portuguese is controversial. Some authors, such as Lindley Cintra, consider that they are still dialects of a common language, in spite of superficial differences in phonology and vocabulary. Other authors argue that they have become separate languages due to major differences in phonetics and vocabulary usage, and, to a lesser extent, morphology and syntax. The official position of the Galician Language Institute is that Galician and Portuguese should be considered independent languages. The standard orthography takes advantage of the divergent features of the phonology of Galician to emphasize its differences from Portuguese, insisting on a phonetic spelling, and rejecting for example Portuguese graphic conventions like the graphemes <i>nh</i>, <i>lh</i>, <i>j</i> in favour of <i>ñ</i>, <i>ll</i>, <i>x</i>. </p><p>The Fala language is another descendant of Galician-Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of Valverdi du Fresnu, As Ellas and Sa Martín de Trebellu (autonomous community of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Extremadura&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Extremadura (page does not exist)">Extremadura</a>, near the border with Portugal). </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Derived_languages">Derived languages</span></h3> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_creole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese creole (page does not exist)">Portuguese creole</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> with varying amounts of Portuguese influence. As these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole language">creole languages</a>, which remained in use in many parts of Asia and Africa until the 18th century. </p><p>Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, by over 3 million people worldwide, especially people of partial <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese people (page does not exist)">Portuguese</a> ancestry. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</span></h3> <p>Many languages have <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Loanword&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loanword (page does not exist)">borrowed words</a> from Portuguese, such as <a href="/wiki/Bahasa_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahasa Indonesia">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Malay_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malay language (page does not exist)">Malay</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Konkani_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Konkani language (page does not exist)">Konkani</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tetum_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetum language (page does not exist)">Tetum</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tsonga_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsonga language (page does not exist)">Xitsonga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Lanc-Patu%C3%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanc-Patuá (page does not exist)">Lanc-Patuá</a> (spoken in northern Brazil - now extinct) and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Sranang_Tongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sranang Tongo (page does not exist)">Sranang Tongo</a> (spoken in Suriname). See also: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_English_words_of_Portuguese_origin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of English words of Portuguese origin (page does not exist)">List of English words of Portuguese origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Loan_words_in_Indonesian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loan words in Indonesian (page does not exist)">Loan words in Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Japanese_words_from_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japanese words from Portuguese (page does not exist)">Japanese words from Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Sinhala_words_of_Portuguese_origin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sinhala words of Portuguese origin (page does not exist)">Sinhala words of Portuguese origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Loan_words_in_Sri_Lankan_Tamil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil (page does not exist)">Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil</a></li></ul> <p>Portuguese had a strong influence on the language spoken around <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Sikka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sikka (page does not exist)">Sikka</a> in <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Flores&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flores (page does not exist)">Flores Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. In nearby <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Larantuka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Larantuka (page does not exist)">Larantuka</a>, Portuguese is used for prayers in the <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tuan_Ma_ritual&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuan Ma ritual (page does not exist)">Tuan Ma ritual</a></i>. It influenced also the <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Old_Tupi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Old Tupi (page does not exist)">língua brasílica</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tupi-Guarani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tupi-Guarani (page does not exist)">Tupi-Guarani language</a> which was the most widely spoken in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> until the 18th century. </p><p>The Japanese-Portuguese dictionary <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Nippo_Jisho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nippo Jisho (page does not exist)">Nippo Jisho</a></i> (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> missionary activity in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the <i>Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum</i> (Annamite-Portuguese-Latin dictionary) of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Alexandre_de_Rhodes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexandre de Rhodes (page does not exist)">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> (1651) introduced <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vietnamese alphabet (page does not exist)">Qu?c ng?</a></i>, the modern orthography of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Romanization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Romanization (page does not exist)">Romanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_common_Chinese_surnames&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of common Chinese surnames (page does not exist)">Chinese surnames</a>. One example is the spelling of Mei. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=History_of_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of Portuguese (page does not exist)">History of Portuguese</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p><br /> Arriving in the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC, the Romans brought with them the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language">Latin language</a>, from which all Romance languages descend. In the 2nd century BC, southern Lusitania was already Romanized. <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Strabo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strabo (page does not exist)">Strabo</a>, a 1st century <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Geographer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geographer (page does not exist)">geographer</a>, remarks in his <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Geographia_(Strabo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geographia (Strabo) (page does not exist)">Geographia</a></i> "encyclopedia": "they have adopted the Roman customs, and they no longer remember their own language." The language was spread by arriving Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous civilizations. </p> <table align="right" border="0" style="margin: 10px;"> <tbody><tr> <th align="left"><i>Medieval<br />Portuguese poetry</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td><small>Das que vejo</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>non desejo</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>outra senhor se vós non,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>e desejo</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>tan sobejo,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>mataria um leon,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>senhor do meu coraçon:</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>fin roseta,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>bela sobre toda fror,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>fin roseta,</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>non me meta</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>en tal coita voss'amor!</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>João de Lobeira</i><br />(1270?–1330?) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Between 409 A.D. and 711, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Germanic peoples (<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Migration_Period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Migration Period (page does not exist)">Migration Period</a>). The newcomers, mainly <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Suevi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suevi (page does not exist)">Suevi</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Visigoths&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visigoths (page does not exist)">Visigoths</a>, quickly adopted late Roman culture and the Vulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula. After the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Moorish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moorish (page does not exist)">Moorish</a> invasion of 711, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> became the administrative language in the conquered regions, but most of the population continued to speak a form of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarabic">Mozarabic</a>. The influence exerted by Arabic on the Romance dialects spoken in the Christian kingdoms of the north was small, affecting mainly their lexicon. </p><p>The earliest surviving records of a distinctively Portuguese language are administrative documents of the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=9th_century&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="9th century (page does not exist)">9th century</a>, still interspersed with many Latin phrases. Today this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese (between the 9th and the 12th century). Portugal was formally recognized as an independent nation by the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Leon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Leon (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Leon</a> in 1143, with <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Alfonso_I_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfonso I of Portugal (page does not exist)">Afonso Henriques</a> as king. In the first period of Old Portuguese - <a href="/wiki/Galician-Portuguese" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician-Portuguese">Portuguese-Galician Period</a> (from the 12th to the 14th century) - the language gradually came into general use. Previously it had been the language of preference for <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Lyric_poetry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lyric poetry (page does not exist)">lyric poetry</a> in Christian Iberia, much like <a href="/wiki/Occitan" class="mw-redirect" title="Occitan">Occitan</a> was the language of the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Proven%C3%A7al_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Provençal literature (page does not exist)">poetry of the troubadors</a>. In 1290, king <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Denis_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Denis of Portugal (page does not exist)">Denis</a> created the first Portuguese University in Lisbon (the <i>Estudo Geral</i>) and decreed that Portuguese, then simply called the "Vulgar language" should be known as the Portuguese language and used officially. </p><p>In the second period of Old Portuguese, from the 14th to the 16th century, with the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Age_of_discovery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Age of discovery (page does not exist)">Portuguese discoveries</a>, the language was taken to many regions of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Americas">Americas</a> (nowadays, the great majority of Portuguese speakers live in Brazil, in South America). By the 16th century it had become a <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> in Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local officials and Europeans of all nationalities. Its spread was helped by mixed marriages between Portuguese and local people, and by its association with <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Missionary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Missionary (page does not exist)">missionary</a> efforts, which led to its being named <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Crist%C3%A3o&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cristão (page does not exist)">cristão</a></i> ("Christian") in many parts of Asia. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. </p><p>The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the <i>Cancioneiro Geral de Garcia de Resende</i>, in 1516. The early times of Modern Portuguese, which spans from the 16th century to present day, were characterized by an increase in the number of erudite words borrowed from Classical Latin and Classical Greek during the Renaissance, which greatly enriched the lexicon. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_vocabulary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese vocabulary (page does not exist)">Portuguese vocabulary</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>Almost 90% of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived from Latin. Nevertheless, thanks to the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Moor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moor (page does not exist)">Moorish</a> occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> during the Middle Ages, and to the participation of Portugal in the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Age of Discovery (page does not exist)">Age of Discovery</a>, it has adopted loanwords from all over the world. </p><p>Very few Portuguese words can be traced to the pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal, which included the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Phoenicians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenicians (page does not exist)">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Carthaginians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carthaginians (page does not exist)">Carthaginians</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Iberians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iberians (page does not exist)">Iberians</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Lusitanians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lusitanians (page does not exist)">Lusitanians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Celts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celts (page does not exist)">Celts</a>. Some notable examples are <i>abóbora</i> "pumpkin" and <i>bezerro</i> "year-old calf", from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Iberian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iberian languages (page does not exist)">Iberian languages</a>; <i>cerveja</i> "beer", from <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>; <i>saco</i> "bag", from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Phoenician_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician language (page does not exist)">Phoenician</a>; and <i>cachorro</i> "dog, puppy", from <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>. </p><p>In the 5th century the Iberian Peninsula (the former Roman region of Hispania) was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Suevi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suevi (page does not exist)">Suevi</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Visigoths&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visigoths (page does not exist)">Visigoths</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Alans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alans (page does not exist)">Alans</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Germanic_peoples&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Germanic peoples (page does not exist)">Germanic</a> tribes who had been displaced from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Central_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Europe (page does not exist)">Central Europe</a> by the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Huns&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huns (page does not exist)">Huns</a>. As they adopted the Roman civilization and language, however, these people contributed only a few words to the lexicon, mostly related to warfare — such as <i>espora</i> "spur", <i>estaca</i> "stake", and <i>guerra</i> "war", from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Gothic_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gothic language (page does not exist)">Gothic</a> <i>*spaúra</i>, <i>*stakka</i>, and <i>*wirro</i>, respectively. </p><p>Between the 9th and the 15th centuries Portuguese acquired about 1000 words from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> by influence of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Andalus (page does not exist)">Moorish Iberia</a>. They are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article <i>a</i>(<i>l</i>)<i>-</i>, and include many common words such as <i>aldeia</i> "village" from <i>التجارية</i> <i>aldaya</i>, <i>alface</i> "lettuce" from <i>الخس</i> <i>alkhass</i>, <i>armazém</i> "warehouse" from <i>المخزن</i> <i>almahazan</i>, and <i>azeite</i> "olive oil" from <i>زيت</i> <i>azzait</i>. From Arabic came also the grammatically peculiar word <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Insha%27Allah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Insha'Allah (page does not exist)"><i>oxalá</i></a> "God willing". The name of the Portuguese town of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=F%C3%A1tima,_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fátima, Portugal (page does not exist)">Fátima</a>, where the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared, is originally the name of one of the daughters of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. </p><p>Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asian</a> languages. For instance, <i>catana</i> "cutlass" from Japanese <i>katana</i>; <i>corja</i> "rabble" from Malay <i>kórchchu</i>; and <i>chá</i> "tea" from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Tea#The_word_tea" title="Tea"><i>chá</i></a></i>. </p><p>From South America came <i>batata</i> "<a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a>", from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Taino_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taino language (page does not exist)">Taino</a>; <i>ananás</i> and <i>abacaxi</i>, from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tupi-Guarani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tupi-Guarani (page does not exist)">Tupi-Guarani</a> <i>naná</i> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tupi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tupi language (page does not exist)">Tupi</a> <i>ibá cati</i>, respectively (two species of <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a>), and <i>tucano</i> "<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Toucan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toucan (page does not exist)">toucan</a>" from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Guarani_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guarani language (page does not exist)">Guarani</a> <i>tucan</i>. </p><p>From the 16th to the 19th century, the role of Portugal as intermediary in the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Atlantic_slave_trade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlantic slave trade (page does not exist)">Atlantic slave trade</a>, with the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese got several words of African and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_Brazil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indigenous peoples of Brazil (page does not exist)">Amerind</a> origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. From <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Kimbundu_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kimbundu language (page does not exist)">Kimbundu</a>, for example, came <i>kifumate</i> → <i>cafuné</i> "head caress", <i>kusula</i> → <i>caçula</i> "youngest child", <i>marimbondo</i> "wasp", and <i>kubungula</i> → <i>bungular</i> "to dance like a wizard". </p><p>Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages. For example, <i>melena</i> "hair lock", <i>fiambre</i> "ham", and <i>castelhano</i> "Castilian", from Spanish; <i>colchete</i> "crochet", <i>paletó</i> "jacket", <i>batom</i> "lipstick", and <i>filé</i> or <i>filete</i> "steak", from French <i>crochet</i>, <i>paletot</i>, <i>bâton</i>, <i>filet</i>; <i>macarrão</i> "pasta", <i>piloto</i> "pilot", <i>carroça</i> "carriage", and <i>barraca</i> "barrack", from Italian <i>maccherone</i>, <i>pilotto</i>, <i>carrozza</i>, <i>barracca</i>; and <i>bife</i> "steak", <i>futebol</i>, <i>revólver</i>, <i>estoque</i>, <i>folclore</i>, from English <i>beef</i>, <i>football</i>, <i>revolver</i>, <i>stock</i>, <i>folklore</i>. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Writing_system">Writing system</span></h2> <table class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" align="right"> <caption><big><b>Written varieties</b></big> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th bgcolor="#DDDDDD">Portugal & Africa </th> <th bgcolor="#DDDDDD">Brazil </th> <th bgcolor="#DDDDDD">translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>an<b>ó</b>nimo </td> <td>an<b>ô</b>nimo </td> <td>anonymous </td></tr> <tr> <td>fa<b>c</b>to </td> <td>fato </td> <td>fact </td></tr> <tr> <td>id<b>e</b>ia </td> <td>id<b>é</b>ia </td> <td>idea </td></tr> <tr> <td>dire<b>c</b>ção </td> <td>direção </td> <td>direction </td></tr> <tr> <td>ó<b>p</b>timo </td> <td>ótimo </td> <td>very good </td></tr> <tr> <td>freq<b>u</b>ente </td> <td>freq<b>ü</b>ente </td> <td>frequent </td></tr> <tr> <td>v<b>o</b>o </td> <td>v<b>ô</b>o </td> <td>flight </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_orthography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese orthography (page does not exist)">Portuguese orthography</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>Portuguese is written with the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, and makes use of the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Circumflex_accent" title="Circumflex accent">circumflex accent</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a>, the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Tilde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tilde (page does not exist)">tilde</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedilla</a>, to denote <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vowel#Height" title="Vowel">vowel height</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Nasalization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nasalization (page does not exist)">nasalization</a>, and other sound changes. <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Accent_mark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Accent mark (page does not exist)">Accented letters</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Digraph_(orthography)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Digraph (orthography) (page does not exist)">digraphs</a> are not counted as separate characters. <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Brazilian_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazilian Portuguese (page does not exist)">Brazilian Portuguese</a> also used the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Diaeresis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diaeresis (page does not exist)">diaeresis mark</a> until January 2009, when <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=The_Portuguese_Language_Orthographic_Agreement_of_1990&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 (page does not exist)">The Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990</a> was officially adopted there. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Brazilian_vs._European_spelling">Brazilian vs. European spelling</span></h3> <p>There are some differences between the orthographies of Brazil and other Portuguese language countries. One of the most pervasive is the use of acute accents in the European/African orthography in many words such as <i>sinónimo</i>, where the Brazilian orthography has a circumflex accent, <i>sinônimo</i>. Another important difference is that Brazilian spelling often lacks <i>c</i> or <i>t</i> before <i>c</i>, <i>ç</i>, or <i>t</i>, where the European orthography has them; for example, cf. Brazilian <i>fato</i> with European <i>facto</i>, "fact", or Brazilian <i>objeto</i> with European <i>objecto</i>, "object". Some of these spelling differences reflect differences in the pronunciation of the words, but others are merely graphic. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Phonology">Phonology</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_phonology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese phonology (page does not exist)">Portuguese phonology</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p><br /> There is a maximum of 9 oral vowels and 19 consonants, though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes (Brazilian Portuguese has only 7 oral vowel phonemes). There are also five nasal vowels, which some linguists regard as allophones of the oral vowels, ten oral <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>, and five nasal diphthongs. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vowels">Vowels</span></h3> <p>To the seven vowels of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vulgar Latin (page does not exist)">Vulgar Latin</a>, European Portuguese has added two <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Mid-centralized_vowel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mid-centralized vowel (page does not exist)">near central vowels</a>, one of which tends to be <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elided</a> in <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Relaxed_pronunciation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relaxed pronunciation (page does not exist)">rapid speech</a>, like the <i>e caduc</i> of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. The high vowels <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/e o/</span> and the low vowels <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ɛ ɔ/</span> are four distinct phonemes, and they alternate in various forms of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Apophony&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Apophony (page does not exist)">apophony</a>. Like <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, Portuguese uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables: isolated vowels tend to be <a href="/wiki/Vowel#Height" title="Vowel">raised</a>, and in some cases centralized, when unstressed. Nasal diphthongs occur mostly at the end of words. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consonants">Consonants</span></h3> <table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode"> <caption>Consonant phonemes of Portuguese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Bilabial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bilabial (page does not exist)">Bilabial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Labiodental&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Labiodental (page does not exist)">Labio</a>-<br /><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Labiodental&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Labiodental (page does not exist)">dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Dental_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dental consonant (page does not exist)">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Alveolar_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alveolar consonant (page does not exist)">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Postalveolar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Postalveolar (page does not exist)">Post</a>-<br /><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Postalveolar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Postalveolar (page does not exist)">alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Palatal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palatal (page does not exist)">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Velar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Velar (page does not exist)">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Uvular&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uvular (page does not exist)">Uvular</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Plosive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plosive (page does not exist)">Plosives</a> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">p</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">b</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">t</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">d</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">k</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">g</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Nasal_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nasal consonant (page does not exist)">Nasals</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">m</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">n</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ɲ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Fricative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fricative (page does not exist)">Fricatives</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">f</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">v</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">s</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">z</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ʃ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ʒ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ʁ</span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Flap_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flap consonant (page does not exist)">Flaps</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ɾ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Lateral_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lateral consonant (page does not exist)">Laterals</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">l</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ʎ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The consonant inventory of Portuguese is fairly conservative. The medieval affricates <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ts/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/dz/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/tʃ/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/dʒ/</span> merged with the fricatives <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/s/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/z/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʃ/</span>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʒ/</span>, respectively, but not with each other, and there were no other significant changes to the consonant phonemes since then. However, some remarkable dialectal variants and <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> have appeared, among which: </p> <ul><li>In many regions of Brazil, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/t/</span> and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/d/</span> have the affricate allophones <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[tʃ]</span> and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[dʒ]</span>, respectively, before <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/i/</span>. (<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Quebec_French&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quebec French (page does not exist)">Quebec French</a> has a similar phenomenon, with alveolar affricates instead of postalveolars.)</li></ul> <ul><li>At the end of a syllable, the phoneme <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/l/</span> has the velarized allophone <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[ɫ]</span> in European Portuguese, like in the <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> of English. Brazilian Portuguese has the allophone <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[w]</span> instead (<i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=L-vocalization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-vocalization (page does not exist)">L-vocalization</a></i>).</li></ul> <ul><li>In many parts of Brazil and Angola, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ɲ/</span> is pronounced as a nasal glide <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">[j̃]</span> that nasalizes the preceding vowel, so that for instance 'ninho' <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/'niɲu/</span> is pronounced <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">['nĩj̃u]</span>.</li></ul> <ul><li>There is considerable dialectal variation in the value of the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Rhotic_consonant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhotic consonant (page does not exist)">rhotic</a> phonemes <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ɾ/</span> and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʁ/</span>. See <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Guttural_R&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guttural R (page does not exist)">Guttural R in Portuguese</a></i> for details.</li></ul> <ul><li>In most of Brazil, the alveolar sibilants <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/s/</span> and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/z/</span> occur in complementary distribution at the end of syllables, depending on whether the consonant that follows is voiceless or voiced, as in English. But in most of Portugal and parts of Brazil sibilants at the end of syllables are postalveolar, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʃ/</span> before voiceless consonants, and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʒ/</span> before voiced consonants. (In <a href="/wiki/Ladino_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladino language">Judeo-Spanish</a>, <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/s/</span> is often replaced with <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʃ/</span> at the end of syllables, too.)</li></ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Stress">Stress</span></h3> <p>Primary <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> may fall on any of the three final syllables of a word, but mostly on the last two. There is a partial correlation between the position of the stress and the final vowel; for example, the final syllable is usually stressed when it contains a nasal phoneme, a diphthong, or a <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Close_vowel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Close vowel (page does not exist)">close vowel</a>. The orthography of Portuguese takes advantage of this correlation to minimize the number of diacritics. </p><p>Due to the phonetic changes that often affect unstressed vowels, pure lexical stress is less common in Portuguese than in related languages like Spanish, but there is still a significant number of examples of it: </p> <dl><dd><i>dúvida</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ˈduvidɐ/</span> "doubt" (noun) vs. <i>duvida</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/duˈvidɐ/</span> "he doubts"</dd> <dd><i>falaram</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/faˈlaɾɐ̃ũ/</span> "they spoke" vs. <i>falarão</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/falaˈɾɐ̃ũ/</span> "they will speak" (Brazilian pronunciation)</dd> <dd><i>ouve</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/'ovi/</span> "he hears" vs. <i>ouvi</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/o'vi/</span> "I heard" (Brazilian pronunciation)</dd> <dd><i>túnel</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/'tunɛl/</span> "tunnel" vs. <i>tonel</i> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/tu'nɛl/</span> "wine cask" (European pronunciation)</dd></dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Prosody">Prosody</span></h3> <p><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a> is not lexically significant in Portuguese, but phrase- and sentence-level tone are important. There are of six dynamic tone patterns that affect entire <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Phrase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phrase (page does not exist)">phrases</a>, which indicate the mood and intention of the speaker such as implication, emphasis, reservation, etc. As in most Romance languages, interrogation is expressed mainly by sharply raising the tone at the end of the sentence. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Grammar">Grammar</span></h2> <dl><dd><span class="noprint"><i>For more information, see: <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Portuguese_grammar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portuguese grammar (page does not exist)">Portuguese grammar</a></i>.</span></dd></dl> <p>The grammar of Portuguese has much in common with that of various other Romance languages, such as the existence of two <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Copula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copula (page does not exist)">copular verbs</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a>, and a large number of verb <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Grammatical_conjugation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grammatical conjugation (page does not exist)">conjugations</a>. It has also a few grammatical peculiarities not found in most other languages of this group, of which the most striking are the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, the synthetic pluperfect, and the present perfect. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Present_perfect">Present perfect</span></h3> <p>Many Romance languages possess a present perfect tense, but the Portuguese present perfect has a unique, <a href="/wiki/Iteration" class="mw-redirect" title="Iteration">iterative</a> sense, denoting an action or a series of actions which began in the past and are expected keep repeating in the future. For instance, the meaning of <i>Tenho tentado falar com ela</i> may be closer to "I have been trying to talk to her" than to "I have tried to talk to her", depending on the context. On the other hand, the correct translation of the question "Have you heard the latest news?" is not <i>*Tem ouvido a última notícia?</i>, but <i>Ouviu a última notícia?</i>, since no repetition is implied. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Future_subjunctive">Future subjunctive</span></h3> <p>The future <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Subjunctive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subjunctive (page does not exist)">subjunctive</a> tense, developed by medieval <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Ibero-Romance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibero-Romance (page does not exist)">Ibero-Romance</a>, is now old-fashioned in Spanish, but remains in vernacular use in Portuguese. It appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition which must be fulfilled in the future, so that the independent clause will occur. Other languages normally employ the present tense under the same circumstances: </p> <dl><dd><i>Se <u>for</u></i> <i>eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.</i> [future subjunctive]</dd> <dd>If <u>I am</u> elected president, I will change the law.</dd></dl> <dl><dd><i>Quando <u>voce for</u></i> <i>mais velho, vai entender.</i></dd> <dd>When <u>you are</u> older, you will understand.</dd></dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Personal_infinitive">Personal infinitive</span></h3> <p>It is possible for a verb in the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Infinitive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infinitive (page does not exist)">infinitive</a> to <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Agreement_(linguistics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agreement (linguistics) (page does not exist)">agree</a> with its subject in person and number, often showing who is supposed to perform a certain act; cf. <i>Está na hora de voltares</i> "It is time (for you) to return.", <i>Está na hora de voltarmos</i> "It is time (for us) to return." Perhaps for this reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Examples">Examples</span></h2> <dl><dt><i>Excerpt from «<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=The_Lusiad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Lusiad (page does not exist)">The Lusiads</a>» (I, 33)</i></dt></dl> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode"> <tbody><tr> <th bgcolor="#EEEEEE">Translation </th> <th bgcolor="#EEEEEE">Original </th> <th bgcolor="#EEEEEE"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> (<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=European_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European Portuguese (page does not exist)">EP</a> pronunciation) </th> <th bgcolor="#EEEEEE"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> (<a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Brazilian_Portuguese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazilian Portuguese (page does not exist)">BP</a> pronunciation) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Against him stood beautiful Venus </td> <td>Sustentava contra ele Vénus bela, </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">suʃtẽˈtavɐ ˈkõtɾɐ ˈelɨ ˈvɛnuʒ ˈbɛlɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">sustẽʲˈtava ˈkõtɾa ˈeli ˈvẽnus ˈbɛla</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Affectionate for the Lusitanian people, </td> <td>Afeiçoada à gente Lusitana, </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ɐfɐi̯su̯ˈaða ˈʒẽtɨ luziˈtɐnɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">afeisoˈada a ˈʒẽʲtʲi luziˈtɜ̃na</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>For all the qualities she saw in them </td> <td>Por quantas qualidades via nela </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">puɾ ˈku̯ɐ̃tɐʃ ku̯ɐliˈðaðɨʒ ˈviɐ ˈnɛlɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">pux ˈkwɜ̃tas kwaliˈdadʲis ˈvia ˈnɛla</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Of her beloved old Roman folk; </td> <td>Da antiga tão amada sua Romana; </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">dãˈtigɐ tɐ̃ũ ̯ ɐˈmaðɐ ˈsuɐ ʁuˈmɐnɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">da ˈɜ̃tʲiga tɜ̃w̃ aˈmada ˈsua xõˈmɜ̃na</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>In the strong hearts, in the great star, </td> <td>Nos fortes corações, na grande estrela, </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">nuʃ ˈfɔɾtɨʃ kuɾɐˈsõĩ ̯ʃ nɐ ˈgɾɐ̃dɨʃˈtɾelɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">nus ˈfɔxtʲis kɔɾaˈsõj̃s, na gɾɜ̃dʲi esˈtɾela</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>That they had shown in the lands of Tangiers, </td> <td>Que mostraram na terra Tingitana, </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">kɨ muʃˈtɾaɾɐ̃ũ ̯ nɐ ˈtɛʁɐ tĩʒiˈtɐnɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">ki mɔsˈtɾaɾɜ̃w̃ na ˈtɛxa tʲĩʲʒiˈtɜ̃na</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>And in their language, which when she imagines, </td> <td>E na língua, na qual quando imagina, </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">i nɐ ˈlĩgu̯ɐ nɐ ku̯aɫ ˈku̯ɐ̃du̯imɐˈʒinɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">i na ˈlĩgwa, na kwaw ˈkwɜ̃du imaˈʒĩna</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>With little strain she can believe is the Latin tongue. </td> <td>Com pouca corrupção crê que é a Latina. </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">kõ ˈpokɐ kuʁupˈsɐ̃ũ ̯ kɾe ki̯ɛ ɐ lɐˈtinɐ</span> </td> <td><span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">kõ ˈpowka koxupˈsɜ̃w̃ kɾe ki ɛ a laˈtʲĩna</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2> <p><sup>1</sup>First and Second with first language speakers, respectively. Only counting figures from countries in the table "<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language#Geographic_distribution" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese language countries and Territories</a>". 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