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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log masuk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Laman untuk penyunting log keluar <a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Pengenalan" aria-label="Ketahui lebih lanjut tentang menyunting"><span>Ketahui lebih lanjut</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khas:Sumbangan_saya" title="Senarai suntingan yang dibuat daripada alamat IP ini [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Sumbangan</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khas:Perbincangan_saya" title="Perbincangan mengenai penyuntingan daripada alamat IP anda [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Perbincangan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Tapak"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Kandungan" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Kandungan</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">alih ke bar sisi</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">sorokkan</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Permulaan</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Sejarah_bidang_genetik" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sejarah_bidang_genetik"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Sejarah bidang genetik</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sejarah_bidang_genetik-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prinsip-prinsip_asas_genetik_Mendelian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prinsip-prinsip_asas_genetik_Mendelian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Prinsip-prinsip asas genetik Mendelian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prinsip-prinsip_asas_genetik_Mendelian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pengecualian_daripada_hukum_Mendel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pengecualian_daripada_hukum_Mendel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pengecualian daripada hukum Mendel</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pengecualian_daripada_hukum_Mendel-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Togol subbahagian Pengecualian daripada hukum Mendel</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pengecualian_daripada_hukum_Mendel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kesan_Poligen/Aditif" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kesan_Poligen/Aditif"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Kesan Poligen/Aditif</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kesan_Poligen/Aditif-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kodominan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kodominan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Kodominan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kodominan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pengekspresan_perantaraan/dominan_tidak_lengkap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pengekspresan_perantaraan/dominan_tidak_lengkap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Pengekspresan perantaraan/dominan tidak lengkap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pengekspresan_perantaraan/dominan_tidak_lengkap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penetrans_tidak_lengkap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penetrans_tidak_lengkap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Penetrans tidak lengkap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penetrans_tidak_lengkap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pleiotropi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleiotropi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Pleiotropi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleiotropi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mekanisme_pewarisan_dari_sudut_molekul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mekanisme_pewarisan_dari_sudut_molekul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mekanisme pewarisan dari sudut molekul</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mekanisme_pewarisan_dari_sudut_molekul-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Togol subbahagian Mekanisme pewarisan dari sudut molekul</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mekanisme_pewarisan_dari_sudut_molekul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kromosom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kromosom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Kromosom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kromosom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pewarisan_prokariotik" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pewarisan_prokariotik"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Pewarisan prokariotik</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pewarisan_prokariotik-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transformasi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformasi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Transformasi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transformasi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transduksi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transduksi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Transduksi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transduksi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Konjugasi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Konjugasi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Konjugasi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Konjugasi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pengekspresan_dan_pengawalaturan_gen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pengekspresan_dan_pengawalaturan_gen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Pengekspresan dan pengawalaturan gen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pengekspresan_dan_pengawalaturan_gen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rujukan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rujukan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Rujukan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rujukan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lihat_juga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lihat_juga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Lihat juga</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lihat_juga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pautan_luar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pautan_luar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Pautan luar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pautan_luar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Kandungan" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Togol isi kandungan" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Togol isi kandungan</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetik</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Pergi ke rencana dalam bahasa lain. Tersedia dalam 131 bahasa" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-131" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">131 bahasa</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Jerman Switzerland" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Jerman Switzerland" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%89%A3%E1%88%85%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%AD" title="ሥነ ባህርይ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ባህርይ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="علم الوراثة – Arab" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الوراثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arab" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenetica" title="Chenetica – Aragon" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chenetica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética – Asturia" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xenética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Azerbaijan" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژنتیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Indonesia" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বংশাণুবিজ্ঞান – Benggali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বংশাণুবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Benggali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Bi-tho%C3%A2n-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Ûi-thoân-ha̍k – Cina Min Nan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ûi-thoân-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Cina Min Nan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетыка – Belarus" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Генетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генэтыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Генэтыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Madura" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madura" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Bosnia" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Bulgaria" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A8tica" title="Genètica – Catalonia" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalonia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambamabari" title="Ruambamabari – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambamabari" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneteg" title="Geneteg – Wales" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Geneteg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Wales" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Denmark" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Denmark" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Jerman" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Jerman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneetika" title="Geneetika – Estonia" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geneetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γενετική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενετική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Inggeris" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Inggeris" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Sepanyol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Sepanyol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetiko" title="Genetiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genetiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژنتیک – Parsi" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Parsi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Génétique – Perancis" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Perancis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erflikheidslear" title="Erflikheidslear – Frisian Barat" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Erflikheidslear" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Frisian Barat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ineola%C3%ADocht" title="Géineolaíocht – Ireland" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Géineolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Ireland" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gintinneachd" title="Gintinneachd – Scots Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gintinneachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scots Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética – Galicia" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galicia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A9th%C4%A9_(genetics)" title="Maũthĩ (genetics) – Kikuya" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Maũthĩ (genetics)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%95%99" title="유전학 – Korea" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Գենետիկա – Armenia" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենետիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="आनुवंशिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आनुवंशिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Croatia" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetiko" title="Genetiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Genetiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Генетикæ – Ossete" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Генетикæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossete" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erf%C3%B0afr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Erfðafræði – Iceland" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Erfðafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Iceland" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Itali" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Itali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גנטיקה – Ibrani" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גנטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Ibrani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Jawa" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Jawa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ತಳಿವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತಳಿವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გენეტიკა – Georgia" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენეტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Kazakhstan" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakhstan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Kirghiz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kirghiz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetikia" title="Jenetikia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jenetikia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastopa" title="Nastopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Nastopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetik" title="Jenetik – Kreol Haiti" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jenetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Kreol Haiti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9n%C3%A9tik" title="Jénétik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Jénétik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genet%C3%AEk" title="Genetîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Genetîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ພັນທຸສາດ – Laos" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພັນທຸສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Laos" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2en%C4%93tika" title="Ģenētika – Latvia" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģenētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneetik" title="Geneetik – Luxembourg" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geneetik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourg" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Lithuania" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenetica" title="Jenetica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jenetica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ginske" title="ginske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ginske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomabuzaale" title="Essomabuzaale – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomabuzaale" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Hungary" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungary" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Macedonia" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജനിതകശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജനിതകശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გენეტიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გენეტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Генетик – Mongolia" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Генетик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%87%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="မျိုးရိုးဗီဇပညာ – Burma" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မျိုးရိုးဗီဇပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burma" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Belanda" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Belanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E4%BC%9D%E5%AD%A6" title="遺伝学 – Jepun" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="遺伝学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Jepun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetikk" title="Genetikk – Bokmal Norway" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Genetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Bokmal Norway" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetikk" title="Genetikk – Nynorsk Norway" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Genetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nynorsk Norway" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetike" title="Genetike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Genetike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetica" title="Genetica – Occitania" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Genetica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Генетике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Генетике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeneetiik" title="Jeneetiik – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jeneetiik" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Uzbekistan" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbekistan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="جینیٹکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جینیٹکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جنتیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جنتیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinetix" title="Jinetix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jinetix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="ពន្ធុវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ពន្ធុវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetyka" title="Genetyka – Poland" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Genetyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Poland" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica" title="Genética – Portugis" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic%C4%83" title="Genetică – Romania" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinitika" title="Hinitika – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hinitika" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Rusia" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Rusia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Sakha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjenetika" title="Gjenetika – Albania" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjenetika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ප්‍රවේණි විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රවේණි විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genetics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جينيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جينيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – Slovenia" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جێنەتیک – Kurdi Tengah" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جێنەتیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Kurdi Tengah" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Serbia" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika – SerboCroatia" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genetika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="SerboCroatia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9tika" title="Génétika – Sunda" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Génétika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sunda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinn%C3%B6llisyystiede" title="Perinnöllisyystiede – Finland" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Perinnöllisyystiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finland" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Sweden" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Sweden" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henetika" title="Henetika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Henetika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மரபியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மரபியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="జన్యుశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జన్యుశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="พันธุศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พันธุศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="rencana pilihan"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_truy%E1%BB%81n_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Di truyền học – Vietnam" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Di truyền học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Офаринишшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Офаринишшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%B0%E1%8E%B6%E1%8F%92_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᎤᎾᏓᏰᎶᏒ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᎾᏓᏰᎶᏒ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik" title="Genetik – Turki" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Genetik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Генетика – Ukraine" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Генетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukraine" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جینیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جینیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henetika" title="Henetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Henetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学 – Cina Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="遗传学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Cina Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="גענעטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גענעטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3i%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9%CC%81%C3%A0b%C3%ADnim%E1%BB%8D%CC%81" title="Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́ – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="遺傳學 – Kantonis" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="遺傳學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kantonis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%AAnetik" title="Cênetik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cênetik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学 – Cina" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="遗传学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Cina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7162#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Sunting pautan antara bahasa" class="wbc-editpage">Sunting pautan</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Ruang nama"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Genetik" 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class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khas:Pautan_ke_sini/Genetik" title="Senarai semua laman wiki yang mengandungi pautan ke laman ini [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Pautan ke laman ini</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khas:Perubahan_berkaitan/Genetik" rel="nofollow" title="Perubahan terkini bagi laman yang dipaut dari laman ini [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Perubahan berkaitan</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:UploadWizard?uselang=ms" title="Muat naik fail [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Muat naik fail</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khas:Laman_khas" title="Senarai semua laman khas [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Laman khas</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&oldid=4905787" title="Pautan kekal ke semakan laman ini"><span>Pautan kekal</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khas:Buku&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Genetik"><span>Cipta buku</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khas:DownloadAsPdf&page=Genetik&action=show-download-screen"><span>Muat turun sebagai PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&printable=yes" title="Versi boleh cetak bagi laman ini [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Versi boleh cetak</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Dalam projek lain </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Genetics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7162" title="Pautan ke item repositori data yang bersambung [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Butir Wikidata</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Alatan laman"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Penampilan"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Penampilan</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">alih ke bar sisi</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">sorokkan</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas.</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="ms" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6349617">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:1px solid #90db90;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Sebahagian daripada siri</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90db90; padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #fefefe; font-size:175%; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Biokimia" title="Biokimia">Biokimia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Myoglobin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/220px-Myoglobin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/330px-Myoglobin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/440px-Myoglobin.png 2x" data-file-width="1159" data-file-height="1173" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Perihal utama</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomolekul" title="Biomolekul">Biomolekul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolisme" title="Metabolisme">Metabolisme</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indeks_rencana_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indeks rencana biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Indeks</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Garis_kasar_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Garis kasar biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Garis kasar</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sejarah</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sejarah_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sejarah biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Sejarah biokimia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cabang utama</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioinformatik (laman tidak wujud)">Bioinformatik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_molekul" title="Biologi molekul">Biologi molekul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_sel" title="Biologi sel">Biologi sel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologi_struktur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologi struktur (laman tidak wujud)">Biologi struktur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enzimologi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enzimologi (laman tidak wujud)">Enzimologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitokimia" title="Fitokimia">Fitokimia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imunologi" title="Imunologi">Imunologi</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Garis_kasar_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Garis kasar biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Cabang biokimia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Senarai_ahli_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Senarai ahli biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Senarai ahli biokimia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Glosari</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #90db90"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glosari_biologi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glosari biologi (laman tidak wujud)">Glosari biologi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glosari_biokimia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glosari biokimia (laman tidak wujud)">Glosari biokimia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r5375175">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-lihat"><a href="/wiki/Templat:Biochemistry_sidebar" title="Templat:Biochemistry sidebar"><abbr title="Lihat templat ini">l</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-bincang"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Perbincangan_templat:Biochemistry_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Perbincangan templat:Biochemistry sidebar (laman tidak wujud)"><abbr title="Bincang templat ini">b</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-sunting"><a class="external text" href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Templat:Biochemistry_sidebar&action=edit"><abbr title="Sunting templat ini">s</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Sky_spectral_karyotype.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sky_spectral_karyotype.png/220px-Sky_spectral_karyotype.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sky_spectral_karyotype.png/330px-Sky_spectral_karyotype.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Sky_spectral_karyotype.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>Kariotip perempuan normal. Perhatikan penyusunan 23 pasangan kromoson mengikut saiz, daripada yang terbesar hingga yang terkecil diikuti oleh kromosom seks (di sini sepasang kromosom X bagi wanita).</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Genetik</b> merupakan bidang sains yang mengkaji fenomena pewarisan dan variasi dalam kesemua makhluk hidup, samada manusia mahupun <a href="/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria">bakteria</a>. Istilah "genetik" pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh pakar genetik British William Bateson. Beliau juga bertanggungjawab dalam memperkembangkan penemuan kajian <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>. Dalam organisma hidup, maklumat genetik disimpan dalam <a href="/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom">kromosom</a> yang dibentuk daripada molekul <a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a> dan sejenis protein yang dikenali sebagai histon. Maklumat genetik perlu berinteraksi bersama faktor luaran yang lain seperti permakanan dan persekitaran untuk menentukan faktor fizikal dan perlakuan organisma secara keseluruhan. </p><p>Kini bidang genetik boleh dibahagikan kepada dua peringkat: <b>genetik klasik</b> dan <b>genetik molekul</b>. Sebahagian besar genetik klasik merupakan sumbangan uji kaji Gregor Mendel dan penemuan gen-gen terangkai. Genetik molekul terbit daripada penemuan kod genetik dan perkembangan teknik pengklonan. Walaupun genetik molekul lebih berguna dari segi aplikasinya dalam perubatan dan forensik, genetik klasik masih digunapakai. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sejarah_bidang_genetik">Sejarah bidang genetik</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Sunting bahagian: Sejarah bidang genetik" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=1" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Sejarah bidang genetik"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> pernah mengemukakan teori evolusinya yang mencadangkan bahawa sesuatu ciri yang diperolehi semasa jangka hayat sesuatu organima boleh diwarisi oleh generasi yang berikutnya, tetapi teori ini lenyap selepas penerbitan <i>The Origins of the Species</i> oleh <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>. Antara tokoh terawal dalam bidang ini ialah seorang paderi Augustian, Gregor Mendel. Sumbangan terbesar beliau adalah kajiannya dengan pokok kacang pis yang membuktikan kewujudan unit-unit diskrit, atau <a href="/wiki/Gen" title="Gen">gen</a>, yang membawa maklumat genetik<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Penemuan <a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a> sebagai unsur genetik dibuktikan oleh Alfred Hershey dan Martha Chase pada tahun 1952. <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Watson (laman tidak wujud)">James Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Wilson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Wilson (laman tidak wujud)">Maurice Wilson</a> berjaya menerangkan struktur DNA yang berbentuk gegelung dwi-heliks pada tahun 1953<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Penemuan penting ini dikurniakan <a href="/wiki/Hadiah_Nobel" title="Hadiah Nobel">Hadiah Nobel</a> tahun 1962 dalam Perubatan. <a href="/wiki/Projek_Genom_Manusia" title="Projek Genom Manusia">Projek Genom Manusia</a> pada tahun 2000 yang dipelopori oleh Craig Venter menunjukkan hasil yang menakjubkan; 3.1 billion unit nukleotid dalam tubuh badan manusia, hanya <b> 1% (kira-kira 30,000 gen) </b> ditranskripsikan kepada bentuk protein. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prinsip-prinsip_asas_genetik_Mendelian">Prinsip-prinsip asas genetik Mendelian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Sunting bahagian: Prinsip-prinsip asas genetik Mendelian" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=2" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Prinsip-prinsip asas genetik Mendelian"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Melalui pembiak-bakaan dalam pokok kacang pis (<i>Pisum sativum</i>), Mendel medapati bahawa progeni memiliki rupa kedua-dua induk bunga jantan dan betina tanpa menghasilkan rupa perantaraan. Sebahagian besar eksperimen Mendel melibatkan pokok-pokok berbaka tulen kerana ia memudahkan pengukuran ciri-ciri yang "mutlak" seperti warna, bentuk, dan kedudukan anak pokok. Hasil eksperimennya banyak menggunakan analisis statistik dan prinsip kebarangkalian yang melibatkan saiz sampel yang besar, yang mengukuhkan lagi hasil penemuannya. Mendel mengatakan bahawa: </p><p>1. Pewarisan sesuatu ciri atau rupa ditentukan oleh “unit“ atau “faktor“ yang diwarisi oleh progeni, dan unit ini tidak berubah. </p><p>2. Individu mewarisi satu jenis unit dari setiap induk untuk sesuatu ciri tertentu. </p><p>3. Sesuatu ciri atau rupa tidak semestinya hadir pada inidividu tetapi boleh diwarisi oleh generasi yang berikutnya. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pengecualian_daripada_hukum_Mendel">Pengecualian daripada hukum Mendel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Sunting bahagian: Pengecualian daripada hukum Mendel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=3" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pengecualian daripada hukum Mendel"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kesan_Poligen/Aditif"><span id="Kesan_Poligen.2FAditif"></span>Kesan Poligen/Aditif</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Sunting bahagian: Kesan Poligen/Aditif" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=4" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Kesan Poligen/Aditif"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sesetengah ciri individu ditentukan oleh kesan gabungan beberapa gen. Ini dikenali sebagai ciri <b>poligenik</b> atau <b>selanjar</b>. Salah satu ciri poligenik ialah <b>warna kulit</b> dimana warna kulit seseorang adalah hasil dan interaksi beberapa gen yang mengkodkan warna kulit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kodominan">Kodominan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Sunting bahagian: Kodominan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=5" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Kodominan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/220px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/330px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/440px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption>Bunga azalea merah jambu dan putih; contoh pewarisan kodominan</figcaption></figure> <p>Bagi sesetengah ciri, dua alel boleh disifatkan sebagai kodominan. Ini bermakna kedua-dua alel diekspreskan dalam individu heterozigus, contohnya, orang yang memiliki darah jenis AB dalam <b>sistem darah ABO</b>. Bila darah dianalisis, inidividu berdarah AB mempunyai sifat kedua-dua darah A dan B. Fenotipnya bukan perantaraan darah A dan darah B. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pengekspresan_perantaraan/dominan_tidak_lengkap"><span id="Pengekspresan_perantaraan.2Fdominan_tidak_lengkap"></span>Pengekspresan perantaraan/dominan tidak lengkap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Sunting bahagian: Pengekspresan perantaraan/dominan tidak lengkap" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=6" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pengekspresan perantaraan/dominan tidak lengkap"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fenotip campuran boleh hadir apabila terdapat alel separa lengkap menghasilkan <b>ciri perantaraan</b> dalam individu <b>heterozigus</b>. Bunga primrose heterozigus yang berwarna merah jambu merupakan hasil induk bunga merah dan putih. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penetrans_tidak_lengkap">Penetrans tidak lengkap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Sunting bahagian: Penetrans tidak lengkap" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=7" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Penetrans tidak lengkap"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gen yang tidak penetran sepenuhnya tidak diekspreskan tanpa kehadiran faktor luaran tertentu. Contohnya, seseorang individu yang sihat boleh memiliki gen yang bertanggungjawab untuk <b>penyakit diabetes jenis 2</b> jika permakanannya dijaga. Gen yang menyebabkan sklerosis berganda (multiple sclerosis) tidak aktif tanpa jangkitan virus Epstein-Barr. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pleiotropi">Pleiotropi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Sunting bahagian: Pleiotropi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=8" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pleiotropi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Satu gen boleh menyebabkan lebih daripada satu jenis penyakit. Ini dinamakan fenomena pleiotropi. Penyakit anemia sel sabit melibatkan pewarisan satu jenis gen yang boleh mencetuskan pelbagai masalah kepada jantung, hati, buah pinggang, dan mata disebabkan pembentukan sel darah merah yang abnormal. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mekanisme_pewarisan_dari_sudut_molekul">Mekanisme pewarisan dari sudut molekul</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Sunting bahagian: Mekanisme pewarisan dari sudut molekul" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=9" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Mekanisme pewarisan dari sudut molekul"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kromosom">Kromosom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Sunting bahagian: Kromosom" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=10" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Kromosom"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Polyten_chromosome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Polyten_chromosome.jpg/220px-Polyten_chromosome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="413" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Polyten_chromosome.jpg/330px-Polyten_chromosome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Polyten_chromosome.jpg/440px-Polyten_chromosome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1075" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>Kromosom politen merupakan jenis kromosom yang mempunyai salinan DNA berganda kerana tidak mengalami pembahagian sel</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r5614044">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Rencana utama: <a href="/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom">Kromosom</a></div> <p>Maklumat genetik terletak dalam <b>kromosom</b> yang terdiri daripada <b>organisasi DNA dan protein histon</b>. Sel-sel hidup yang menghasilkan generasi sel-sel anak memindahkan maklumat genetiknya melalui kromosom dengan bilangan yang sama, kecuali sel gamet. Bentuk dan saiz kromosom adalah berlainan mengikut organisma tertentu. Bakteria mempunyai satu kromosom yang berbentuk gelungan yang panjang manakala organisma eukariot seperti manusia secara lazimnya mempunyai kromosom berbentuk linear yang wujud berpasangan yang serupa, kecuali kromosom seks X dan Y. </p><p>Perkataan 'kromosom' adalah gabungan dua perkataan <a href="/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani" title="Bahasa Yunani">bahasa Yunani</a> yang bererti '<b>jasad'</b> (<i>soma</i>) '<b>berwarna'</b> (<i>chroma</i>). Kromosom biasanya diwarnakan dengan <b>pewarna Giemsa</b> supaya boleh dilihat dengan jelas di bawah <a href="/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop">mikroskop</a>. Kromosom boleh diperhatikan sebagai bebenang kromatin yang berjalur. Jaluran ini boleh dibahagikan kepada <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eukromatin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eukromatin (laman tidak wujud)">eukromatin</a> dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heterokromatin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heterokromatin (laman tidak wujud)">heterokromatin</a>. Heterokromatin adalah kawasan yang padat, "berlipat", dan aktif dalam transkripsi gen. Eukromatin pula merangkumi kawasan yang terlibat dalam pengawalaturan gen. Strukturnya yang kurang padat membenarkan pengikatan RNA polymerase untuk memulakan transkripsi gen. </p><p>Bagi organisma diploid, kromosom autosomal (kromosom yang bermitosis) di turunkan kepada sel-sel progeni secara berpasangan. Kromosom seks X dan Y diwarisi oleh progeni melalui gabungan dua sel gamet yang haploid. Kesilapan semasa pembahagian sel, samada <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> ataupun <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, boleh menyebabkan pelbagai sindrom kongenital seperti <a href="/wiki/Sindrom_Turner" title="Sindrom Turner">sindrom Turner</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Sindrom_Klinefelter" title="Sindrom Klinefelter">sindrom Klinefelter</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Sindrom_Down" title="Sindrom Down">sindrom Down</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pewarisan_prokariotik">Pewarisan prokariotik</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Sunting bahagian: Pewarisan prokariotik" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=11" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pewarisan prokariotik"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bakteria dan virus tidak terlibat dalam <a href="/wiki/Pembiakan_seks" title="Pembiakan seks">pembiakan seks</a> untuk menghasilkan progeni baru. Namun, mekanisme yang lebih ringkas dijalankan bagi memanjangkan zuriat sesuatu strain bakteria dan virus. Terdapat tiga cara organisma prokariot "membiak": </p> <li> Transformasi </li> <li> Transduksi </li> <li> Konjugasi </li> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transformasi">Transformasi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Sunting bahagian: Transformasi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=12" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Transformasi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Transduction_(genetics)en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg/220px-Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg/330px-Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg/440px-Transduction_%28genetics%29en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1258" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Transduksi. 1) Virus melekapkan diri pada reseptor pada permukaan sel bakteria 2) Virus mengambil-alih sistem replikasi dan metabolisme perumah untuk pemprosesan komponen virus seperti DNA dan kapsul 3) Virus-virus baru dihasilkan 4) Sesetengah virus membawa DNA bakteria daripada serangan lama 5) Kemasukan DNA virus 6) DNA virus temperat bergabung dengan DNA perumah</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Transformasi</b> banyak dilakukan dalam makmal untuk menghasilkan bakteria yang mempunyai kandungan genetik yang khas. Walau bagaimanapun, transformasi boleh berlaku secara semulajadi melalui penerimaan maklumat genetik daripada organisma yang sudah mati. Dalam mekanisme transformasi, fragmen DNA bebas daripada sel terpecah memasuki sel bakteria penerima yang hidup. Sel penerima mestilah daripada <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> yang sama dan hadir dalam keadaan "kompeten". Sel yang kompeten bermakna sel berada dalam persekitaran dan memudahkan kemasukan unsur luar. Kemasukan DNA secara transformasi hanya boleh berlaku sebelum pembentukan dinding sel. DNA yang berjaya memasuki sel penerima boleh bergabung dengan kromosom perumah secara rekombinasi. Sel penerima kini dinamakan 'transforman' dan boleh mengekspres gen asing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transduksi">Transduksi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Sunting bahagian: Transduksi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=13" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Transduksi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> seperti <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bakteriofaj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bakteriofaj (laman tidak wujud)">bakteriofaj</a> atau <a href="/w/index.php?title=Faj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faj (laman tidak wujud)">faj</a> bereplikasi melalui <b>transduksi</b>. Bakteriofaj membiak dengan menyerang sel bakteria (sel perumah), mengambil alih sistem replikasi dan metabolisme perumah, dan akhirnya membunuh sel perumah melalui lisis dan pembebasan virus-virus yang baru. Sesetengah virus tidak menyebabkan kemusnahan sel perumah. Ia hanya memindahkan maklumat genetiknya kepada sel perumah menghasilkan kandugan genetik yang baru. Namun, atas keadaan yang kurang menyenangkan, DNA virus boleh mengaktifkan penghasilan virus-virus baru menggunakan "jentera" sel perumah e.g. RNA polymerase, ligase, dan menyerang bakteria lain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Konjugasi">Konjugasi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Sunting bahagian: Konjugasi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=14" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Konjugasi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Konjugasi</b> berbeza daripada transformasi dan tranduksi kerana ia melibatkan kehadiran dua sel bakteria dan ia juga melibatkan pemindahan maklumat genetik yang lebih banyak. Mekanisme konjugasi pertama kali diterangkan oleh <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> pada tahun 1946. Dalam ujikajinya, dua jenis sel, F<sup>+</sup> dan F<sup>-</sup>, masing-masing sel penderma dan sel penerima dicampurkan bersama dalam tabung uji. Sel F<sup>+</sup> yang mempunyai <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> F (<i>fertility</i>) boleh memindahkan bebenang DNA melalui sehelai pilus (<a href="/wiki/Bahasa_Latin" title="Bahasa Latin">bahasa Latin</a> untuk rambut) F, kepada sel penerima F<sup>-</sup>. Hasil daripada konjugasi dua sel bakteria ialah perubahan sel penerima kepada sel penderma. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pengekspresan_dan_pengawalaturan_gen">Pengekspresan dan pengawalaturan gen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Sunting bahagian: Pengekspresan dan pengawalaturan gen" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=15" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pengekspresan dan pengawalaturan gen"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Segala penghasilan protein yang terlibat dalam proses-proses penting dalam tubuh badan organisma seperti respirasi dan metabolisme bermula dari gen. Sel organisma perlu mengawal pengekspresan gen bagi mengelakkan masalah patologi yang boleh timbul seperti barah. Beberapa peringkat dalam pengekspresan gen boleh dikawal, daripada transkripsi gen kepada mRNA hinggalah ke peringkat pengubahsuaian pasca-translasi. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rujukan">Rujukan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Sunting bahagian: Rujukan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=16" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Rujukan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6173370">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffiths AJF, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, and Gelbart WM (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. W.H. Freeman and Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.199">Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Introduction</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, Jacquelyn G. (2002). Microbiology: principles and explorations. Edisi kelima. Chapter 1: Scope and History of Microbiology. Pg. 23. ISBN 0-471-38729</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lihat_juga">Lihat juga</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Sunting bahagian: Lihat juga" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=17" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Lihat juga"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <li><a href="/wiki/Gen" title="Gen">Gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teknologi_DNA_rekombinan" title="Teknologi DNA rekombinan">Teknologi DNA rekombinan</a></li> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pautan_luar">Pautan luar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Sunting bahagian: Pautan luar" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetik&action=edit&section=18" title="Sunting kod sumber bahagian: Pautan luar"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/DNA_history.html">http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/DNA_history.html</a></li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cabang_biologi" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r5375175"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-lihat"><a 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