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We evaluate the spatial congruence of ecosystems providing globally high levels of nature’s contributions to people, biodiversity, and areas with high development potential across several sectors. We find that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of the current levels of ten of nature’s contributions to people and meet minimum representation targets for 26,709 terrestrial vertebrate species. This finding supports recent commitments by national governments under the Global Biodiversity Framework to conserve at least 30% of global lands and waters, and proposals to conserve half of the Earth. More than one-third of areas required for conserving nature’s contributions to people and species are also highly suitable for agriculture, renewable energy, oil and gas, mining, or urban expansion. This indicates potential conflicts among conservation, climate and development goals. This study shows that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of ten of nature’s contributions to people and could meet representation targets for 26,709 species of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. 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This study shows that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of ten of nature’s contributions to people and could meet representation targets for 26,709 species of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. 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We evaluate the spatial congruence of ecosystems providing globally high levels of nature’s contributions to people, biodiversity, and areas with high development potential across several sectors. We find that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of the current levels of ten of nature’s contributions to people and meet minimum representation targets for 26,709 terrestrial vertebrate species. This finding supports recent commitments by national governments under the Global Biodiversity Framework to conserve at least 30% of global lands and waters, and proposals to conserve half of the Earth. More than one-third of areas required for conserving nature’s contributions to people and species are also highly suitable for agriculture, renewable energy, oil and gas, mining, or urban expansion. This indicates potential conflicts among conservation, climate and development goals. This study shows that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of ten of nature’s contributions to people and could meet representation targets for 26,709 species of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. 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data-article-title="">Mapping the planet’s critical areas for biodiversity and nature’s contributions to people</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Rachel_A_-Neugarten-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Rachel_A_-Neugarten-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-search="Neugarten, Rachel A." data-corresp-id="c1">Rachel A. Neugarten<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0647-0516"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-0647-0516</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a>,<a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Rebecca-Chaplin_Kramer-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Rebecca-Chaplin_Kramer-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-search="Chaplin-Kramer, Rebecca">Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a>,<a href="#Aff5">5</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Richard_P_-Sharp-Aff4-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Richard_P_-Sharp-Aff4-Aff6" data-author-search="Sharp, Richard P.">Richard P. Sharp</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a>,<a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Richard-Schuster-Aff7-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Richard-Schuster-Aff7-Aff8" data-author-search="Schuster, Richard">Richard Schuster</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3191-7869"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-3191-7869</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a>,<a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Matthew-Strimas_Mackey-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Matthew-Strimas_Mackey-Aff3" data-author-search="Strimas-Mackey, Matthew">Matthew Strimas-Mackey</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8929-7776"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8929-7776</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Patrick_R_-Roehrdanz-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Patrick_R_-Roehrdanz-Aff2" data-author-search="Roehrdanz, Patrick R.">Patrick R. Roehrdanz</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4047-5011"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-4047-5011</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Mark-Mulligan-Aff9" data-author-popup="auth-Mark-Mulligan-Aff9" data-author-search="Mulligan, Mark">Mark Mulligan</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Arnout-Soesbergen-Aff9-Aff10" data-author-popup="auth-Arnout-Soesbergen-Aff9-Aff10" data-author-search="van Soesbergen, Arnout">Arnout van Soesbergen</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3263-4011"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-3263-4011</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a>,<a href="#Aff10">10</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-David-Hole-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-David-Hole-Aff2" data-author-search="Hole, David">David Hole</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9117-2956"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-9117-2956</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Christina_M_-Kennedy-Aff11" data-author-popup="auth-Christina_M_-Kennedy-Aff11" data-author-search="Kennedy, Christina M.">Christina M. Kennedy</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8902-8728"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8902-8728</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff11">11</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-James_R_-Oakleaf-Aff12" data-author-popup="auth-James_R_-Oakleaf-Aff12" data-author-search="Oakleaf, James R.">James R. Oakleaf</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff12">12</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Justin_A_-Johnson-Aff13-Aff14" data-author-popup="auth-Justin_A_-Johnson-Aff13-Aff14" data-author-search="Johnson, Justin A.">Justin A. Johnson</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff13">13</a>,<a href="#Aff14">14</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Joseph-Kiesecker-Aff12" data-author-popup="auth-Joseph-Kiesecker-Aff12" data-author-search="Kiesecker, Joseph">Joseph Kiesecker</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff12">12</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Stephen-Polasky-Aff13-Aff14" data-author-popup="auth-Stephen-Polasky-Aff13-Aff14" data-author-search="Polasky, Stephen">Stephen Polasky</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff13">13</a>,<a href="#Aff14">14</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jeffrey_O_-Hanson-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Jeffrey_O_-Hanson-Aff8" data-author-search="Hanson, Jeffrey O.">Jeffrey O. Hanson</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4716-6134"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-4716-6134</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 16 authors for this article" title="Show all 16 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Amanda_D_-Rodewald-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Amanda_D_-Rodewald-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-search="Rodewald, Amanda D.">Amanda D. Rodewald</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6719-6306"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-6719-6306</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/ncomms" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature Communications</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 15</b>, Article number: <span data-test="article-number">261</span> (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2024</span>) <a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">25k <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">14 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">264 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/agriculture" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Agriculture</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/biodiversity" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Biodiversity</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/conservation" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Conservation biology</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/ecosystem-services" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Ecosystem services</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/energy-and-society" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Energy and society</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Meeting global commitments to conservation, climate, and sustainable development requires consideration of synergies and tradeoffs among targets. We evaluate the spatial congruence of ecosystems providing globally high levels of nature’s contributions to people, biodiversity, and areas with high development potential across several sectors. We find that conserving approximately half of global land area through protection or sustainable management could provide 90% of the current levels of ten of nature’s contributions to people and meet minimum representation targets for 26,709 terrestrial vertebrate species. This finding supports recent commitments by national governments under the Global Biodiversity Framework to conserve at least 30% of global lands and waters, and proposals to conserve half of the Earth. More than one-third of areas required for conserving nature’s contributions to people and species are also highly suitable for agriculture, renewable energy, oil and gas, mining, or urban expansion. This indicates potential conflicts among conservation, climate and development goals.</p></div></div></section> <noscript> </noscript> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01934-5/MediaObjects/41559_2022_1934_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01934-5?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1038/s41559-022-01934-5">Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">28 November 2022</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41559-021-01528-7/MediaObjects/41559_2021_1528_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01528-7?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1038/s41559-021-01528-7">Areas of global importance for conserving terrestrial biodiversity, carbon and water </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">23 August 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2773-z/MediaObjects/41586_2020_2773_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2773-z?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1038/s41586-020-2773-z">Area-based conservation in the twenty-first century </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">07 October 2020</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732358871, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Rapid transformation of ecosystems combined with anthropogenic climate change are driving global declines in biodiversity and nature’s contributions to people (NCP)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Díaz, S. et al. Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 366, eaax3100 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e867">1</a></sup>. While habitat conversion for economic development has raised standards of living for many, the loss of NCP has negatively impacted millions of people<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Brauman, K. A. et al. Global trends in nature’s contributions to people. PNAS 117, 32799–32805 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e871">2</a></sup>. In an attempt to prevent further losses of biodiversity and NCP, nearly 200 nations have recently committed to effectively conserving and managing 30% of lands and waters by 2030 under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="UN CBD. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: Draft Decision Submitted by the President. https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e875">3</a></sup> and similar national targets (e.g., “America the Beautiful”<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="DOI. Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/report-conserving-and-restoring-america-the-beautiful-2021.pdf (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e879">4</a></sup>). Other proposals call for conserving 50% of global land area, or “Half-Earth”, to safeguard biodiversity and avert the most devastating effects of climate change<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Dinerstein, E. et al. A “Global Safety Net” to reverse biodiversity loss and stabilize Earth’s climate. Sci. Adv. 6, eabb2824 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e883">5</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Wilson, E. O. Half-Earth: Our Planet’s Fight for Life (W. W. Norton & Company, 2016)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e886">6</a></sup>. National governments have also initiated efforts to achieve targets related to the Paris Climate Agreement and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. There is a growing recognition that biodiversity, climate, and development goals are intertwined: addressing climate change is necessary to avoid further losses of biodiversity<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Díaz, S. et al. Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 366, eaax3100 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e891">1</a></sup>, nature-based solutions are essential for mitigating and adapting to climate change<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Griscom, B. W. et al. Natural climate solutions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 11645–11650 (2017)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e895">7</a></sup>, and conserving natural assets and addressing climate are both foundational for achieving sustainable development<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Hole, D. G. et al. Make nature’s role visible to achieve the SDGs. Glob. Sustain. 5, e8 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e899">8</a></sup>. At the same time, ensuring food, energy, and livelihood security would require carefully planned development of agriculture, energy, urban expansion, and other sectors<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Leclère, D. et al. Bending the curve of terrestrial biodiversity needs an integrated strategy. Nature 1–6 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2705-y (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e903">9</a></sup>. Unfortunately, this kind of coordinated planning is rare; where development is not designed to optimize NCP and biodiversity, conservation and development goals will conflict.</p><p>Building on recent work<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e910">10</a></sup>, we present maps of joint priorities for ten important NCP as well as terrestrial biodiversity. We include one NCP with global benefits, due to its importance for mitigating climate change: vulnerable terrestrial ecosystem carbon storage, defined as the proportion of total ecosystem carbon that could be lost in a typical disturbance event<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Noon, M. L. et al. Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nat. Sustain 5, 37–46 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e914">11</a></sup>. We also include nine NCP with local or regional benefits<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e918">10</a></sup>: coastal risk reduction, flood regulation, sediment retention (important for reducing erosion and improving water quality), nitrogen retention for water quality regulation, crop pollination, fodder production for livestock (including grazing), fuel wood production, timber production, and access to nature (important for recreation as well as physical and mental well-being). All NCP are realized, either as an end use or benefit (e.g., timber harvest or livestock fodder production), or, where possible given current data, weighted by number of beneficiaries (e.g., count of people downstream, or count of people with reduced risk from coastal storm surge). We define areas providing 90% of all ten NCP as critical natural assets<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e922">10</a></sup>.</p><p>As a measure of biodiversity, we use Area of Habitat (AOH) for each of 26,709 terrestrial vertebrate species<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e929">12</a></sup>. We conducted a global spatial optimization at a spatial resolution of 10 km to identify prioritized areas that simultaneously achieve target levels of all ten NCP and also achieve minimum species representation targets, independent of protection status. Species targets were consistent between all scenarios and were intended to represent both restricted-range and wide-ranging species. Following previous studies<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e933">12</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. Global conservation of species’ niches. Nature 580, 232–234 (2020)." href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e933_1">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Rodrigues, A. S. L. et al. Global gap analysis: priority regions for expanding the global protected-area network. BioScience 54, 1092–1100 (2004)." href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e933_2">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Schuster, R. et al. Optimizing the conservation of migratory species over their full annual cycle. Nat. Commun. 10, 1754 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e936">15</a></sup> we set representation targets that require 10–100% of each species’ AOH be conserved, based on the total AOH area (see “Methods”). We did not set area constraints for each country. To identify potential areas of conflict between conservation and development objectives, we overlaid the prioritized areas with estimates of development potential across major sectors, including commercial agriculture, renewable energy, mining, oil and gas, and urban expansion<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Oakleaf, J. R. et al. Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors. Sci. Data 6, 101 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e940">16</a></sup>. While past research has explored the sufficiency of the global protected area (PA) network for biodiversity<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. Global conservation of species’ niches. Nature 580, 232–234 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e944">13</a></sup>, the sufficiency of the PA network for jointly representing many NCP and species has not been explored. We therefore calculated the percentage of prioritized areas that fall within PAs and other effective area-based conservation measure (OECM) areas. We also ran a separate prioritization analysis to identify areas required to achieve targets beyond the current system of protected areas and OECM, by locking in such areas to the prioritization results.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">Prioritized areas for NCP and species</h3><p>Our results indicate that conserving 44% of global land area, excluding Antarctica, could provide 90% of current levels of ten NCP and meet minimum representation targets for 26,709 terrestrial vertebrate species, if spatially optimized and coordinated among nations (Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2</a>). If the current network of PA and OECM sites are locked in to the optimization results, the percent of global land area required to achieve targets increases to 49%. If species targets are not included, 90% of NCP could be provided with 36% of global land area, but many of the areas required to achieve NCP and species targets overlap (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig3">3</a>), demonstrating the opportunity for synergies between maintaining NCP and conserving biodiversity.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Percentage of global land area required to provide different levels of NCP."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1: Percentage of global land area required to provide different levels of NCP.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="969"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people (NCP) (blue squares) with species targets included (red circles) and with protected areas (PAs) and other effective area-based mechanisms (OECM) sites locked in (orange diamonds). Vertical dashed lines correspond to 30 and 50% of global land area. The horizontal dashed line corresponds to 90% of NCP.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people (NCP) and biodiversity."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2: Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people (NCP) and biodiversity.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="752"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p><b>a</b> Combined prioritization results for all species representation targets and NCP targets ranging from 5% (dark blue) to 90% (light yellow). <b>b</b> Combined prioritization results for NCP and species with the World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA) and other effective area-based conservation mechanisms (OECM) sites locked in to prioritization results. In all cases, dark blue areas represent areas required to achieve targets in the least amount of area. Collectively, dark blue to light yellow areas provide 90% of all ten NCP and meet species representation targets in the least amount of area. Prioritized areas achieve all species representation targets (see main text); only the level of NCP achieved varies.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people (NCP) only (90% of current levels of NCP, in blue), prioritized areas for both NCP (90% of current levels) and that also meet all species targets (red), and areas of overlap (purple)."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3: Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people (NCP) only (90% of current levels of NCP, in blue), prioritized areas for both NCP (90% of current levels) and that also meet all species targets (red), and areas of overlap (purple).</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="360"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Prioritized areas overlap over 33% of global land area (representing 94% of areas prioritized for NCP alone, or 75% of areas prioritized for NCP and species).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Prioritized areas for NCP and species are distributed unevenly across countries, including species-rich areas within the Amazon and Congo basins, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, and southeastern Australia, which also contain high levels of vulnerable ecosystem carbon storage<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Noon, M. L. et al. Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nat. Sustain 5, 37–46 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1035">11</a></sup> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2a</a>). Other notable areas include regions with unusually high endemism or restricted-range species, including the Himalayas (also important for water quality, flood regulation, and fuelwood production), the Andes (grazing and water quality), New Zealand (water quality, grazing), eastern Madagascar (vulnerable carbon, sediment retention, fuelwood), the Caribbean islands (water quality, pollination, nature access, and grazing), montane regions of Central America (nature access, fuelwood, grazing, pollination), western India (multiple NCP), and islands in Oceania. Western Europe (nature access, pollination and grazing) and the Yangtze basin (water quality, flood regulation, pollination, fuelwood, and timber) also provide globally high levels of NCP and important habitat for many species.</p><p>While species targets can be achieved with relatively little additional land area, when compared to areas prioritized solely for NCP, the inclusion of species targets changes the spatial distribution of priority areas slightly (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig3">3</a>). For example, sparsely vegetated arid lands (e.g., southwestern USA, western Australia) and northern latitudes (e.g., northern Canada and Russia), contain important biodiversity but relatively lower levels of the NCP modeled here due to sparse vegetation and/or lower human population densities (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">1</a>). The NCP included in this analysis, which can be modeled with globally available data, tend to be concentrated in regions with dense vegetation and in areas accessible to, or upstream of, human populations<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1051">10</a></sup>.</p><p>Only 18% of the prioritized areas for NCP and biodiversity are currently protected, based on the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), which includes other effective area-based conservation measures (OECM)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). https://www.protectedplanet.net (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1058">17</a></sup> (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">2</a>). We found that conserving or sustainably managing an additional 34% of land area beyond the current system of protected areas and OECM (49% of global land area) would be required to provide 90% of current levels of NCP and meet species representation targets (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig1">1</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Prioritized areas with high development potential</h3><p>More than one-third (37%) of areas prioritized for NCP and species also have high development potential for commercial agriculture, renewable energy, oil and gas, mining or urban expansion (equivalent to 16% of global land area) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig4">4a</a>). Only 11% of such areas are currently protected, which may result in future conflicts between development and conservation objectives. The renewable energy sector (concentrated solar power, photovoltaic solar, wind, and hydropower) comprises the largest share of areas with high development potential globally<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Oakleaf, J. R. et al. Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors. Sci. Data 6, 101 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1079">16</a></sup>, and overlaps with 10% of prioritized areas (4% of global land area) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig4">4b</a>). Though renewable energy is needed to avert catastrophic effects of climate change and can be implemented in ways that are compatible with NCP<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Grodsky, S. M. Matching renewable energy and conservation targets for a sustainable future. One Earth 4, 924–926 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1086">18</a></sup> our findings underscore the need to carefully plan, site, and evaluate tradeoffs with other objectives<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Johnson, J. A. et al. Energy matters: mitigating the impacts of future land expansion will require managing energy and extractive footprints. Ecol. Econ. 187, 107106 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1090">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kiesecker, J. et al. Hitting the target but missing the mark: Unintended environmental consequences of the Paris Climate Agreement. Front. Environ. Sci. 7, 151 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1093">20</a></sup>. Constraining new projects to already cleared or degraded lands, for example, would reduce conflicts between renewable energy and biodiversity conservation goals<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Grodsky, S. M. Matching renewable energy and conservation targets for a sustainable future. One Earth 4, 924–926 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1098">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kiesecker, J. et al. Hitting the target but missing the mark: Unintended environmental consequences of the Paris Climate Agreement. Front. Environ. Sci. 7, 151 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1101">20</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Rehbein, J. A. et al. Renewable energy development threatens many globally important biodiversity areas. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 3040–3051 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1104">21</a></sup>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people and biodiversity (NCP) that also have high development potential across several economic sectors."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4: Prioritized areas for nature’s contributions to people and biodiversity (NCP) that also have high development potential across several economic sectors.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-023-43832-9/MediaObjects/41467_2023_43832_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="713"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p><b>a</b> Prioritized areas (blue) represent areas providing 90% of current levels of NCP while also achieving all species targets. Areas with high and very high development potential (orange) and areas of overlap (green). <b>b</b> Prioritized areas with high development potential (areas of overlap), by economic sector. Sectors include agriculture (crops and biofuels expansion) (green); mining (metallic, non-metallic, and coal) (pink); oil and gas (conventional and unconventional) (yellow); renewable energy (concentrated solar power, photovoltaic solar, wind, and hydropower) (red); urban expansion (light blue), and “multiple sectors” where sectors overlap (dark blue).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Areas with high suitability for commercial agriculture (including crops and biofuels) overlap with 7% of prioritized areas (3% of global land area) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig4">4b</a>). While agricultural expansion can support food security, if not implemented sustainably, conversion of natural ecosystems to croplands may undermine nature’s other contributions<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Meng, Z. et al. Post-2020 biodiversity framework challenged by cropland expansion in protected areas. Nat. Sustain. 1–11 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01093-w (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1139">22</a></sup>. These include benefits to existing agricultural systems such as pollination, sediment retention, and flood mitigation. Policies promoting food security should therefore consider the contributions of croplands as well as natural and semi-natural habitats to food systems.</p><p>Mining, which overlaps with 6% of prioritized areas (3% of global land area), and oil and gas development (5% of prioritized areas, 2% of global land area) could create more localized but severe hazards for NCP and species, and are a cause for concern in parts of Western Asia, North America, and the Amazon.</p><p>For six of the world’s fourteen biomes (broad habitat types), at least one-quarter of their areas contain prioritized areas and are highly suitable for development, making these habitats of special concern. These include mangroves, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, flooded grasslands and savannas, tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, temperate conifer forests, and temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands (Supplementary Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">3</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">4</a> and Supplementary Data <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM4">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM5">2</a>). In these habitats, future development should be carefully sited and planned to avoid negatively impacting nature’s contributions for people and biodiversity.</p><p>Geographically, prioritized areas overlap with areas of high development potential across 31% of the land area of Oceania, 25% of South America, 23% of Europe, 20% of North America, 17% of Africa, 15% of Australia, and 11% of Asia (Supplementary Data <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM5">2</a>). More than half of the land area of certain countries such as Gambia (63%), Ireland (60%), and Jamaica (53%) contain globally prioritized areas with high development potential (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">4</a> and Supplementary Data <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM5">2</a>). These patterns are driven by the co-occurrence of NCP, species, and development pressures. For example, areas with dense vegetation (such as tropical forests) in proximity to, or upstream of, human populations may be simultaneously important for biodiversity, NCP (carbon storage, provision of timber and fuelwood, access for recreation), while also being highly suitable for certain kinds of development, such as palm oil.</p><p>The co-occurrence of NCP, biodiversity and development pressures aren’t limited to forests, however. New Zealand, for example, contains large numbers of endemic species as well as extensive areas important for grazing, pollination, and sediment retention, all overlapping with areas of high potential for expansion by oil and gas, mining, and renewable energy. European countries such as Ireland, the UK, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, and the Netherlands contain extensive areas important for grazing, access to nature, and sediment and nitrogen retention that overlap with areas with high development potential for expansion by agriculture, renewable energy, and mining. Conversely, some countries have only a small fraction of their land area in globally prioritized areas suitable for development, including high income countries such as Denmark (1%), Saudi Arabia (4%), and Iceland (4%).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec5">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><p>Our study offers a starting point to identify global targets and broad priority regions for conservation and sustainable use investments. We build on a history of efforts to define global biodiversity hotspots<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., da Fonseca, G. A. B. & Kent, J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853–858 (2000)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1186">23</a></sup> by adding two important new considerations: the diverse contributions of nature to people and potential conflicts with expansion of agriculture, energy, extractive industries, or urban development projects. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive effort to bring together data on NCP, biodiversity, and development pressures at a global scale. Our results lend support to proposals to conserve at least 30% of the planet by 2030, as well as proposals to conserve “Half-Earth” for biodiversity and its benefits to humanity. Our estimates of the proportion of global land area needed to achieve species and NCP targets (44–49%) are likely conservative, given that estimates based on biodiversity conservation alone range from 34–44%<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. Global conservation of species’ niches. Nature 580, 232–234 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1190">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Allan, J. R. et al. The minimum land area requiring conservation attention to safeguard biodiversity. Science 376, 1094–1101 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1193">24</a></sup>. The logistical challenges of conserving or sustainably managing small non-contiguous priority areas, and the likelihood that not all areas would be effectively conserved, also imply that more land area would be needed to achieve species and NCP targets.</p><p>By providing consistent and comparable data across countries, global maps can facilitate the establishment of international targets and highlight where broad action and investment may be most impactful<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Conservation needs to integrate knowledge across scales. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1–2 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01605-x (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1200">25</a></sup>. Our work builds on previous efforts that focused on national-scale NCP priorities that accrue at local- to regional-scales<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1204">10</a></sup>. Here we also include areas required for conserving vulnerable ecosystem carbon stocks (a global benefit) as well as biodiversity. Our aim in this paper was to identify global-scale priorities to support processes such as the Global Biodiversity Framework, and to inform funding priorities of actors with a worldwide remit. Within priority areas, national and sub-national planning also can benefit from understanding the global significance of local conservation efforts. Global priorities also can support efforts of less wealthy nations to secure resources to achieve shared global targets.</p><p>Many NCP (such as water quality regulation, flood mitigation, and carbon storage) cross national borders, as do many species (migratory birds, wide-ranging mammals) therefore identifying areas of global importance is a key first step. Nonetheless, we recognize that most development and conservation decision-making takes place at national and sub-national scales. In previous work, we provided national-scale priorities for NCP<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1211">10</a></sup>. Here, we provide globally optimized results disaggregated by country (Supplementary Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">3</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">4</a> and Supplementary Data <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM4">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM5">2</a>). We also provide spatial results from the global optimization scenarios to support finer-scale prioritization or decision making<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Neugarten, R. A. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical areas for biodiversity and people. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.7853188 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1228">26</a></sup>. Other recent work has compared global and national-scale priorities for biodiversity and carbon<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Shen, X. et al. Countries’ differentiated responsibilities to fulfill area-based conservation targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. One Earth 6, 548–559 (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1232">27</a></sup>. In all cases, finer-scale information related to conservation feasibility, costs, and the rights and preferences of local people should be combined with global- or national-scale priorities to identify appropriate interventions for particular locations<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Conservation needs to integrate knowledge across scales. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1–2 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01605-x (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1236">25</a></sup>. Furthermore, conservation and development projects should always be co-developed in partnership with Indigenous peoples and local communities to respect local perspectives and sovereignty, and to result in more effective and equitable outcomes<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Summary for Policymakers of the Methodological Assessment Regarding the Diverse Conceptualization of Multiple Values of Nature and its Benefits. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6522392 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1240">28</a></sup>.</p><p>While our maps identify areas in urgent need of conservation attention, they are not intended to define priorities for strict protection. Strictly protected areas preclude activities such as grazing or timber harvesting which are essential to the provision of certain NCP. Furthermore, the current PA and OECM networks are disproportionately located in remote areas with relatively low threat<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Joppa, L. N. & Pfaff, A. High and far: biases in the location of protected areas. PLoS ONE 4, e8273 (2009)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1247">29</a></sup>, and do not represent important areas for NCP particularly well (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">2</a>), as NCP tend to be concentrated in areas with natural and semi-natural habitat in proximity to human populations. That said, due to data limitations for both NCP and biodiversity, we do not recommend degazetting currently protected areas on the basis of our maps alone. Other conservation measures, including OECMs, strengthening Indigenous and local land tenure, Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES), and sustainable management will be essential for conserving NCP and biodiversity outside of the current system of protected areas. For example, areas providing high levels of water quality, flood regulation, and timber production could be targeted for PES, certification, or other mechanisms. Areas required to achieve species targets that also contain vulnerable carbon could be candidates for Indigenous, local, or government protection; but methods other than protection can also be effective at maintaining biodiversity and carbon stocks. Our maps of prioritized areas include both natural and semi-natural (e.g., grazed pasture, commercial forestry) landcover classes. In such areas, the goal would be to maintain sustainable flows of NCP while also conserving biodiversity.</p><p>Our optimization results represent a best-case scenario in which conservation efforts are internationally coordinated. Our findings indicate that conserving 30% of global land area could, if optimally allocated, represent areas supplying 65% of current levels of NCP while also meeting species representation targets. If the current system of PAs and OECM are locked in to the optimization scenario, 30% of land area only provides 45% of NCP while also achieving species targets. This provides a clue that expansion of protected areas, even if nations were to reach a 30% area target, will at best represent 45% of current levels of NCP. Also, given the many barriers to optimally targeting conservation action and investments, our estimates of the area required to achieve targets are likely conservative.</p><p>Conversely, areas not identified as priorities in our analysis may contain valuable NCP and biodiversity that are not well represented in globally available data, therefore supplementing global-scale priorities with local data, as well as data on NCP and biodiversity not represented here, is essential<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Conservation needs to integrate knowledge across scales. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1–2 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01605-x (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1261">25</a></sup>. Furthermore, our maps provide an indicator of areas where certain land uses may conflict with conservation in the future, but shifts in demand for energy and commodities, and ever-changing policies and incentives, make it very challenging to predict exactly which areas will actually be developed<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Johnson, J. A. et al. Energy matters: mitigating the impacts of future land expansion will require managing energy and extractive footprints. Ecol. Econ. 187, 107106 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1265">19</a></sup>. Our global estimates of areas with high suitability generally reflect patterns of expansion when production demands are considered<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Johnson, J. A. et al. Energy matters: mitigating the impacts of future land expansion will require managing energy and extractive footprints. Ecol. Econ. 187, 107106 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1269">19</a></sup>, and capture areas of projected tree cover loss<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Hewson, J., Crema, S. C., González-Roglich, M., Tabor, K. & Harvey, C. A. New 1 km resolution datasets of global and regional risks of tree cover loss. Land 8, 14 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1273">30</a></sup> and urban and cropland expansion<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Esri, Clark Labs, & ESA CCI. Converted Lands 2018 to 2050. (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1277">31</a></sup> by other studies (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">5</a>). However, we recognize that our development pressure map may under- or over-estimate development threats in certain regions. Where possible, new development should be constrained to already cleared or degraded areas<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Grodsky, S. M. Matching renewable energy and conservation targets for a sustainable future. One Earth 4, 924–926 (2021)." href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1285">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Johnson, J. A. et al. Energy matters: mitigating the impacts of future land expansion will require managing energy and extractive footprints. Ecol. Econ. 187, 107106 (2021)." href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1285_1">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kiesecker, J. et al. Hitting the target but missing the mark: Unintended environmental consequences of the Paris Climate Agreement. Front. Environ. Sci. 7, 151 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1288">20</a></sup>. Certain forms of development, if appropriately located and carefully designed, may be compatible with the ongoing provision of NCP and biodiversity conservation. Examples include water-sensitive urban design that enhances biodiversity, such as green roofs and rain gardens<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Liao, K.-H., Deng, S. & Tan, P. Y. Blue-green infrastructure: new frontier for sustainable urban stormwater management. in Greening Cities: Forms and Functions (eds Tan, P. Y. & Jim, C. Y.) 203–226 (Springer, 2017)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1292">32</a></sup> and solar energy farms that can double as livestock enclosures<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Zaplata, M. K. Solar parks as livestock enclosures can become key to linking energy, biodiversity and society. People Nat. pan3.10522 https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10522 (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1296">33</a></sup>, enhance crop production<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Williams, H. J., Hashad, K., Wang, H., & Max Zhang, K. The potential for agrivoltaics to enhance solar farm cooling. Appl. Energy 332, 120478 (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1300">34</a></sup> or provide habitat for pollinators and other ecosystem services<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Randle-Boggis, R. J. et al. Realising co-benefits for natural capital and ecosystem services from solar parks: a co-developed, evidence-based approach. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 125, 109775 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1304">35</a></sup>.</p><p>The large disparities between countries in terms of levels of NCP, biodiversity, and development potential highlights the importance of international cooperation<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Shen, X. et al. Countries’ differentiated responsibilities to fulfill area-based conservation targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. One Earth 6, 548–559 (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1311">27</a></sup>. Countries with larger conservation responsibilities but without sufficient domestic resources will require access to international funding from their wealthier peers, via mechanisms such as the Global Environmental Facility<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Xu, H. et al. Ensuring effective implementation of the post-2020 global biodiversity targets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1–8 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-01375-y (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1315">36</a></sup>. The Global Biodiversity Framework includes a target of increasing biodiversity-related funding from developed countries to developing countries to at least USD 30 billion per year by 2030<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="UN CBD. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: Draft Decision Submitted by the President. https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1319">3</a></sup>. An alternative approach is for all countries to set consistent targets, such as conserving thirty percent of their land area<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="DOI. Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/report-conserving-and-restoring-america-the-beautiful-2021.pdf (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1323">4</a></sup>. While resulting in more equitable distribution of land areas between countries, consistent area-based targets requires more land area overall to achieve targets<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1327">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Shen, X. et al. Countries’ differentiated responsibilities to fulfill area-based conservation targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. One Earth 6, 548–559 (2023)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1330">27</a></sup>, and risks missing the mark for NCP and species which are disproportionately concentrated in a minority of countries.</p><p>While our analysis includes a large number of NCP and species, the areas we identified are still an underestimate of the true extent of natural ecosystems needed to sustain all life on earth. Advances in NCP modeling and data availability will soon make it possible to model additional NCP at global scales<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Galaz García, C. et al. The future of ecosystem assessments is automation, collaboration, and artificial intelligence. Environ. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acab19 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1337">37</a></sup>. Biodiversity priorities will benefit from data on additional taxa such as plants<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Jung, M. et al. Areas of global importance for conserving terrestrial biodiversity, carbon and water. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 5, 1499–1509 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1341">38</a></sup> and invertebrates, marine<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 39" title="Sala, E. et al. Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate. Nature 592, 397–402 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1345">39</a></sup> and freshwater<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 40" title="Tickner, D. et al. Bending the curve of global freshwater biodiversity loss: an emergency recovery plan. BioScience 70, 330–342 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1349">40</a></sup> species. More comprehensive biodiversity priorities should also incorporate other important dimensions of biodiversity such as evolutionary processes, species traits<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Harris, T., Mulligan, M. & Brummitt, N. Opportunities and challenges for herbaria in studying the spatial variation in plant functional diversity. Syst. Biodivers. 19, 322–332 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1353">41</a></sup>, intactness of ecosystems<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Riggio, J. et al. Global human influence maps reveal clear opportunities in conserving Earth’s remaining intact terrestrial ecosystems. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 4344–4356 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1358">42</a></sup>, and ecosystem representation<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Sayre, R. et al. An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps of World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 21, e00860 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1362">43</a></sup>, many of which are represented in Key Biodiversity Areas<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="IUCN. A Global Standard for the Identification of Key Biodiversity Areas, Version 1.0. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2016-048.pdf (2016)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1366">44</a></sup>. Computational limitations constrained the spatial resolution of our analysis; future research to conduct prioritizations using more powerful computing resources could advance our understanding of finer-scale patterns and priorities. Projected future demand for NCP due to changes in climate, population, and consumption patterns, as well as species responses to climate change, could help identify ecosystems that will become critical in the future<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Global modeling of nature’s contributions to people. Science 366, 255–258 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1370">45</a></sup>.</p><p>To date, international agreements such as the recently adopted Global Biodiversity Framework and the Paris Climate Agreement have largely ignored nature’s many other contributions to human life and well-being. The natural ecosystems we identify here underpin at least half of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, including providing clean water, reducing hunger, contributing to climate resilience, renewable energy, and supporting health and well-being<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Hole, D. G. et al. Make nature’s role visible to achieve the SDGs. Glob. Sustain. 5, e8 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1377">8</a></sup>. Given that every person on the planet benefits from nature, and ~87% of the global population, 6.4 billion people, benefit locally from critical natural assets<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1381">10</a></sup>, conservation and climate targets should more explicitly incorporate the many other benefits that nature provides to humanity. Future global negotiations must move beyond considering biodiversity, climate, and sustainable development in isolation to jointly consider the multitude of nature’s contributions to life, livelihoods, and cultures on earth.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec6">Methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Nature’s contributions to people</h3><p>We included global maps of ten NCP that were first mapped in a previous analysis<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1397">10</a></sup> in a new optimization framework which includes biodiversity. The NCP included here are vulnerable ecosystem carbon storage, coastal risk reduction, flood regulation, sediment retention, nitrogen retention, crop pollination, fodder production for livestock (including grazing), fuel wood production, timber production, and access to nature. Vulnerable ecosystem carbon storage is mapped as the above-ground and below-ground ecosystem carbon lost in a “typical” disturbance event<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Noon, M. L. et al. Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nat. Sustain 5, 37–46 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1401">11</a></sup>. This includes terrestrial and coastal (mangrove, salt marsh, seagrass) ecosystem carbon pools (above-ground, below-ground, and soils), based on how much carbon is likely to be released if the ecosystem were converted. Coastal protection, sediment retention, nitrogen retention, and crop pollination were modeled using InVEST models<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Sharp, R. et al. InVEST 3.8.0 User’s Guide. http://releases.naturalcapitalproject.org/invest-userguide/latest/ (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1405">46</a></sup>, adapted to be run at global scales<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1409">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Global modeling of nature’s contributions to people. Science 366, 255–258 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1412">45</a></sup>. Fodder production for livestock, timber production, and fuelwood production were modeled using Version 3 of Co$ting Nature<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1416">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Mulligan, M. et al. Mapping nature’s contribution to SDG 6 and implications for other SDGs at policy relevant scales. Remote Sens. Environ. 239, 111671 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1419">47</a></sup>. Flood regulation was modeled using Version 2 of WaterWorld<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1424">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Gunnell, K., Mulligan, M., Francis, R. A. & Hole, D. G. Evaluating natural infrastructure for flood management within the watersheds of selected global cities. Sci. Total Environ. 670, 411–424 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1427">48</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Mulligan, M. WaterWorld: a self-parameterising, physically based model for application in data-poor but problem-rich environments globally. Hydrol. Res. 44, 748 (2013)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1430">49</a></sup>. Access to nature was modeled as the number of urban and rural people<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Cattaneo, A., Nelson, A. & McMenomy, T. Global mapping of urban–rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 118, e2011990118 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1434">50</a></sup> within one hour of travel of natural and semi-natural habitat, taking the least-cost path (by foot, road, rail or boat) across a friction surface developed using data on roads, railroads, rivers, bodies of water, elevation and slope, land cover, and national borders<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1438">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Weiss, D. J. et al. A global map of travel time to cities to assess inequalities in accessibility in 2015. Nature 553, 333–336 (2018)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1441">51</a></sup>. This layer may overestimate the accessibility of nature for people who don’t have access to cars, and it doesn’t account for access rights nor physical barriers such as fences. Data sources, units of measurement, and the original spatial resolution of each modeled NCP are summarized in Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">1</a>; additional datasets included in our analysis are summarized in Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">2</a>.</p><p>All NCP are realized, either as an end use or benefit (e.g., timber harvest or livestock fodder production per unit area of land), or, where possible given current data, weighted by number of beneficiaries<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1454">10</a></sup>. Beneficiaries include people downstream of habitats providing flood regulation or water quality benefits, coastal populations protected from coastal storm surge, or people within a certain travel time of natural habitats. We attributed all NCP to the natural and semi-natural land cover classes providing the benefit, excluding developed lands (croplands and urban areas) and unvegetated areas (Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">3</a>). We excluded Antarctica due to lack of data on NCP from that continent.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">Biodiversity (area of habitat, AOH)</h3><p>As a measure of biodiversity, we used species area of habitat (AOH)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1469">12</a></sup> for all 26,709 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians for which data was available. AOH are based on species range maps from IUCN but refined using habitat preferences and elevational limits from IUCN Red List data<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1473">12</a></sup>. AOH are more specific than extent-of-occurrence (EOO) which can overestimate species range sizes<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Hurlbert, A. H. & Jetz, W. Species richness, hotspots, and the scale dependence of range maps in ecology and conservation. PNAS 104, 13384–13389 (2007)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1477">52</a></sup>. AOH areas “exclude areas of unsuitable habitat from each species’ range, which reduces commission errors and more closely approximates the actual occurrence of the species”<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Soto-Navarro, C. et al. Mapping co-benefits for carbon storage and biodiversity to inform conservation policy and action. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 375, 20190128 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1481">53</a></sup>.</p><p>Species AOH ranges were produced for all terrestrial vertebrates for which IUCN range polygon data is available<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1488">12</a></sup>. This includes 10,774 species of birds, 5219 mammals, 4462 reptiles and 6254 amphibians. Species range polygons obtained from the IUCN Red List spatial data portal<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="IUCN Red List & UNEP WCMC. Species Range Polygons. https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/other-spatial-downloads (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1492">54</a></sup> and the Birdlife International spatial data zone<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="BirdLife International and Handbook of the Birds of the World. Bird Species Distribution Maps of the World. (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1496">55</a></sup> were first filtered for “extant” range then rasterized to a global one km grid in the Eckert IV equal area projection. Individual species range rasters were then modified to only include land cover classes that match the habitat associations for each species. Habitat associations were obtained from the IUCN Red List species habitat classification scheme and were matched to ESA land cover classes for the year 2018<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Santini, L. et al. Applying habitat and population-density models to land-cover time series to inform IUCN Red List assessments. Conserv. Biol. 33, 1084–1093 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1500">56</a></sup>. ESA land cover classification data was aggregated from its native 300 m resolution to match the global ten km grid using a majority rule. Species ranges were additionally filtered so that only areas within a species' accepted elevational range were included. Global elevation data derived from SRTM was obtained from WorldClim v. 2<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Fick, S. E. & Hijmans, R. J. WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int. J. Climatol. 37, 4302–4315 (2017)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1504">57</a></sup>. For bird species, seasonal range codes 1–3 (1 = year-round; 2 = breeding range; 3 = non-breeding range) were processed individually and stored as separate range files where applicable. Species targets used for the spatial optimization are described below.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Spatial optimization</h3><p>We used linear programming techniques<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Rodrigues, A. S., Orestes Cerdeira, J. & Gaston, K. J. Flexibility, efficiency, and accountability: adapting reserve selection algorithms to more complex conservation problems. Ecography 23, 565–574 (2000)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1516">58</a></sup> to estimate how much land area is needed to provide different levels of NCP and/or achieve species representation targets. We identified areas that provide the highest value across all ten NCP using spatial prioritization procedures. Specifically, we generated prioritizations using the minimum set formulation of the reserve selection problem, and completing optimization procedures using linear programming techniques<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Schuster, R. et al. Optimizing the conservation of migratory species over their full annual cycle. Nat. Commun. 10, 1754 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1520">15</a></sup>. These procedures were completed using the prioritizr R package<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Schuster, R. et al. Optimizing the conservation of migratory species over their full annual cycle. Nat. Commun. 10, 1754 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1524">15</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. prioritizr: Systematic Conservation Prioritization in R. R package version 8.0.3. (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1527">59</a></sup> and Gurobi<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Gurobi Optimization, LLC. Gurobi Optimizer Reference Manual v9.1.2. (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1531">60</a></sup>. Because our global-scale optimization included a large number of planning units (more than 20 million) along with 26,709 species and ten NCP features, prioritizr stood out as both computationally efficient and, when combined with Gurobi, sufficiently powerful to solve large optimization problems<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. prioritizr: Systematic Conservation Prioritization in R. R package version 8.0.3. (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1535">59</a></sup>.</p><p>The minimum set formulation of the reserve selection problem seeks to minimize the overall cost of the prioritization, whilst ensuring that representation targets are met for all of the conservation features. To define this formulation mathematically, let <i>I</i> denote the set of planning units (indexed by <i>i</i>) and <i>J</i> denote the set of features (indexed by <i>j</i>). Also, let <i>c</i><sub><i>i</i></sub> denote the cost of planning units <i>i</i> <span class="stix">∈</span> <i>I</i>, <i>r</i><sub><i>ij</i></sub> denote the amount of features <i>j</i> <span class="stix">∈</span> <i>J</i> in planning units i <span class="stix">∈</span> <i>I</i>, and <i>T</i><sub><i>j</i></sub> denote the targets for feature <i>j</i> <span class="stix">∈</span> <i>J</i>. Additionally, the decision variables are the <i>x</i><sub><i>i</i></sub> variables, which indicate if planning units <i>i</i> <span class="stix">∈</span> <i>I</i> are selected, or not, for prioritization (using values of one and zero, respectively). Given these variables, the problem can be formulated following:</p><div id="Equ1" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${{{{{\rm{Minimize}}}}}}\mathop{\sum }\limits_{i=1}^{I}{x}_{i}{c}_{i}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (1) </div></div><p>subject to</p><div id="Equ2" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathop{\sum }\limits_{i=1}^{I}{x}_{i}{r}_{{ij}}\ge {T}_{j}\forall \,j\in J$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (2) </div></div><p>The objective function (Eq. (<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Equ1">1</a>)) is to minimize the cost of selected planning units. Constraints (Eq. (<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Equ2">2</a>)) are used to ensure that the representation targets are met.</p><p>To explore the land area required to maintain different levels of NCP provision, we ran the optimization using 19 different targets ranging from 5 to 95% of total NCP value, across all ten NCP, at 5% increments.</p><p>To explore how much additional area is required to conserve biodiversity, we added species representation targets, using data on extent of suitable habitat, or area of habitat (AOH)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1787">12</a></sup> data for all species of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds for which data was available (26,709 species in total). We followed previous studies which established targets based on species’ habitat size, with the goal of ensuring that both restricted-range and wide-ranging species are represented<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Brooks, T. M. et al. Measuring terrestrial Area of Habitat (AOH) and its utility for the IUCN Red List. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34, 977–986 (2019)." href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1791">12</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Hanson, J. O. et al. Global conservation of species’ niches. Nature 580, 232–234 (2020)." href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1791_1">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Rodrigues, A. S. L. et al. Global gap analysis: priority regions for expanding the global protected-area network. BioScience 54, 1092–1100 (2004)." href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1791_2">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Schuster, R. et al. Optimizing the conservation of migratory species over their full annual cycle. Nat. Commun. 10, 1754 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1794">15</a></sup>. We assigned a 100% threshold to species with less than 1000 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (2391 species of amphibians, 1024 birds, 680 mammals, and 1264 reptiles), a 10% threshold to species with more than 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (695 amphibians, 5600 birds, 1758 mammals, and 589 reptiles), and log-linearly interpolated thresholds for species with intermediate amounts of suitable habitat (2872 amphibians, 6296 birds, 2607 mammals, and 2168 reptiles; migratory bird species were assigned targets for each seasonal distribution separately). We also assigned a cap of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> for species with a large amount of suitable habitat (>10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>) (six amphibians, 148 birds, 57 mammals, and six reptiles). These targets should be considered minimum representation targets as they do not account for habitat connectivity, ecological intactness<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Riggio, J. et al. Global human influence maps reveal clear opportunities in conserving Earth’s remaining intact terrestrial ecosystems. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 4344–4356 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1807">42</a></sup>, species traits<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Harris, T., Mulligan, M. & Brummitt, N. Opportunities and challenges for herbaria in studying the spatial variation in plant functional diversity. Syst. Biodivers. 19, 322–332 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1811">41</a></sup>, evolutionary processes, ecosystem representation<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Sayre, R. et al. An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps of World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 21, e00860 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1815">43</a></sup>, genetic diversity, or other important dimensions of biodiversity. Species targets are also summarized in Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">4</a>. Species targets were consistent across all scenarios (that is, NCP targets varied from 5–95% across scenarios, but species targets were achieved in all scenarios.)</p><p>To develop the maps in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2</a>, we combined (summed) the optimization results for NCP targets ranging from 5–90%. Darker blue areas in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2</a> provide the highest levels of NCP per unit area (collectively providing 5% of current levels of all ten NCP in the least area) and lighter yellow areas provide lower levels of NCP per unit area (collectively, the dark blue to light yellow areas provide 90% of all ten NCP). Species targets were held constant across all scenarios.</p><p>For subsequent analyses, we focused on prioritized areas, defined as areas providing 90% of current levels of all ten NCP which also meet all species targets. We overlaid prioritized areas with data on development potential to examine overall conversion risk as well as risks from major sectors.</p><p>Separately, we also ran scenarios in which protected areas from the World Database on Protected Areas<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). https://www.protectedplanet.net (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1837">17</a></sup> were locked in to the spatial prioritization (that is, protected areas were required as part of the solution in each scenario). This allowed us to estimate how much additional land area would be required to achieve NCP and species representation targets, beyond the current system of protected areas (Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2</a> and Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">5</a>).</p><p>For the scenarios that included NCP (but not species), we ran the optimizations globally and at a spatial resolution of two km. Due to computational constraints and the large number of planning units (more than 20 million) and species (26,709), 10 km was the finest resolution at which we were able to run optimizations for scenarios that contained both NCP and species targets. After running the optimizations, we masked the 10 km optimization results using natural and semi-natural landcover data<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="ESA Climate Change Initiative—Land Cover project. Land Cover CCI. https://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download.php (2017)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1853">61</a></sup> at two km. This allowed us to more precisely map and quantify the natural and semi-natural habitats providing NCP, and to align our results with NCP-only scenarios run at a higher spatial resolution<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1857">10</a></sup>. The NCP models used here assume low or no provision of NCP in sparsely vegetated areas (such as the extremely arid deserts of the Sahara, the Australian outback, and the Arabian peninsula) and human-modified habitats (such as intensive croplands and developed urban areas.) Many species rely on deserts and modified landscapes, however. To address this, we re-included the prioritized areas for species (at 10 km), ensuring that species that rely on deserts and human-modified habitats were included.</p><p>Computational limitations associated with optimizing across the large number of planning units (more than 20 million) and features (more than 26,000) prevented use of a contiguity criterion, which would have selected adjacent (contiguous) planning units when possible. Consequently, though our results are area efficient, they include prioritized areas that are not contiguous in certain regions and may thus require additional planning for implementation. Global priorities such as those provided here can be informative, but should always be combined with local information, including existing land use, to inform decision making.</p><p>In the present study, solutions which achieved all targets in the least amount of land area (minimum land area) are used in place of a minimum cost objective. Globally available data on opportunity costs of conservation for agriculture (e.g., Naidoo and Iwamura<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Naidoo, R. & Iwamura, T. Global-scale mapping of economic benefits from agricultural lands: implications for conservation priorities. Biol. Conserv. 140, 40–49 (2007)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1868">62</a></sup>) have limitations (e.g., lack of information about potential land uses other than agriculture) and were considered unsuitable for this analysis. Proxy indicators such as gridded GDP were also considered a poor measure of cost since costs of safeguarding NCP and biodiversity may be poorly correlated with national or local estimates of economic productivity. Areas with high value for NCP and biodiversity that also have high suitability for development may have high opportunity costs of conservation, due to their potential value for alternative land uses. Instead of a measure of cost, therefore, we separately include data on development potential across major sectors<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Oakleaf, J. R. et al. Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors. Sci. Data 6, 101 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1872">16</a></sup>.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec10">Development pressure</h3><p>We integrated spatially-explicit estimates of the potential for habitat conversion for development across several economic sectors<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Oakleaf, J. R. et al. Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors. Sci. Data 6, 101 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1884">16</a></sup>. To create a development pressure map (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">6</a>), we used published Development Potential Indices (DPIs)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Oakleaf, J. R. et al. Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors. Sci. Data 6, 101 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1891">16</a></sup> for renewable energy (concentrated and photovoltaic solar power, wind power, and hydropower), oil and gas (conventional and unconventional oil and gas), mining (coal, metallic and non-metallic mining), and commercial agriculture (crop and biofuels expansion). For urban expansion pressure, we created an Urban Pressure Index (UPI) following similar methodologies and categorization techniques as the DPIs using urban expansion probabilities<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Zhou, Y., Varquez, A. C. G. & Kanda, M. High-resolution global urban growth projection based on multiple applications of the SLEUTH urban growth model. Sci Data 6, 34 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1895">63</a></sup> (see Supplementary Materials for details on the UPI).</p><p>DPIs are global, spatially explicit one km resolution maps that depict the suitability of land for potential expansion by agriculture, renewable energy, oil and gas, mining, and urbanization. Each DPI has standardized 0–1 values that account for sector-specific land constraints that restrict development (e.g., suitable land cover, slope); land suitability for sector expansion based on resource availability (sector-specific yields); and siting feasibility of new development (e.g., ability to transport resources or materials, access to demand centers, existing development, and other economic costs associated with resource siting). For each of the 14 DPIs, we binned the range of values represented into six categories based on standardized <i>z</i>-score ranges to characterize development pressure as very low (≤10th percentile), low (>10th–25th percentile), medium-low (>25th–50th percentile), medium-high (>50th–75th percentile), high (>75th–90th percentile), and very high (>90th percentile). We calculated <i>z</i>-scores by mean-standardizing values per country to capture national-level domestic demand coupled with global-level demand likely to drive national-level resource extraction to occur within each countries’ highest development suitability for that resource. To identify regions of high development pressure, we retained the highest value within the 14 classified DPIs (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">6a</a>) and then selected the high and very high classified cells (i.e., values 5 and 6) (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">6b</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11">Protected areas</h3><p>We evaluated the extent to which currently protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECM) might achieve targets and maintain NCP, and how much additional land area might require conservation or stewardship. For this step, we compiled spatial data to delineate the boundaries of protected areas and other conservation areas worldwide. To achieve this, we obtained the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) and the World Database on Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (WDOECM)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). https://www.protectedplanet.net (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1923">17</a></sup>. We prepared these data for analysis following standard practices (using the wdpar R package)<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Hanson, J. O. wdpar: Interface to the World Database on Protected Areas. (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1927">64</a></sup>. Briefly, we (1) excluded sites within an unknown or proposed designation, (2) excluded UNESCO Biosphere Reserves<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Coetzer, K. L., Witkowski, E. T. F. & Erasmus, B. F. N. Reviewing Biosphere Reserves globally: effective conservation action or bureaucratic label?. Biol. Rev. 89, 82–104 (2014)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1931">65</a></sup>, (3) transformed the site boundaries to avoid numerical issues associated with geometries that cross the dateline, (4) reprojected the data to an equal-area coordinate reference system (World Behrmann; ESRI:54017), (5) replaced sites represented as point localities with circular reserves matching their reported area<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Visconti, P. et al. Effects of errors and gaps in spatial data sets on assessment of conservation progress: errors and gaps in spatial data sets. Conserv. Biol. 27, 1000–1010 (2013)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1935">66</a></sup>, (6) removed slivers and (7) excluded marine protected areas. Additionally, throughout this process, we implemented routines to detect and repair invalid geometries.</p><p>We included WDPA and OECM areas in our analysis in two different ways. First, to calculate the percentage of prioritized areas that are currently protected or effectively conserved, we overlaid prioritized areas with the combined WDPA and OECM areas (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">2</a>). Second, to calculate how much additional land area would be required to achieve NCP and species representation targets, beyond the current system of protected areas, we ran separate spatial optimization scenarios in which WDPA and OECM areas were locked in (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig2">2b</a>). Because protected areas and OECM do not necessarily overlap with prioritized areas, locking them in to the prioritization solutions results in larger total land areas to achieve targets (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#Fig1">1</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec12">Spatial resolution</h3><p>To test the effect of spatial resolution on our results, we conducted prioritizations for NCP at four different resolutions: two, three, five, and 10 km. At coarser resolutions, more land area is required to achieve NCP targets (Supplementary Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">7</a> and Supplementary Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM1">6</a>), consistent with previous studies<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Arponen, A., Lehtomäki, J., Leppänen, J., Tomppo, E. & Moilanen, A. Effects of connectivity and spatial resolution of analyses on conservation prioritization across large extents. Conserv. Biol. 26, 294–304 (2012)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1965">67</a></sup>. Due to the global geographic scope and the large number of species (26,709), prioritizations at finer spatial resolutions for both NCP and species were beyond the scope of this analysis, which relied on traditional computational resources. To address this issue, and to bring our results in line with previous work<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical natural assets. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 51–61 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1969">10</a></sup>, we masked the 10 km prioritization results to natural and semi-natural habitat data at a finer spatial resolution (two km), which more precisely identifies the two km habitat grid cells which provide NCP within each 10 km grid cell. Spatial analyses other than optimizations were conducted using R<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Core Team, 2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1973">68</a></sup>, QGIS<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="QGIS Development Team. QGIS Geographic Information System v3.26.3. (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1978">69</a></sup>, and ArcGIS Desktop<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="Esri. ArcGIS Desktop v10.7. (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e1982">70</a></sup>.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec13">Reporting summary</h3><p>Further information on research design is available in the <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM6">Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary</a> linked to this article.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div> <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>The data on prioritized areas and high development potential areas generated in this study have been deposited in the Zenodo database<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Neugarten, R. A. et al. Mapping the planet’s critical areas for biodiversity and people. 
 https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.7853188
 
 (2022)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e2064">26</a></sup>. The prioritized areas data disaggregated by country, continent, and biome generated in this study are provided in Supplementary Data files <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM4">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#MOESM5">2</a>. Data on nature’s contributions to people used in this study are available in the Open Science Framework database<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 71" title="Chaplin-Kramer, R. et al. Critical Natural Assets. 
 https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/R5XZ7
 
 (2020)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e2074">71</a></sup> and can be visualized at: <a href="https://bit.ly/3Jk8vDo">https://bit.ly/3Jk8vDo</a>. The biodiversity data used in this study are available under restricted access for non-commercial use, access can be obtained by request (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/spatial-data-download">https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/spatial-data-download</a>). The WDPA and OECM data used in this study are available under restricted access for non-commercial use, access can be obtained by request (<a href="http://www.protectedplanet.net">www.protectedplanet.net</a>). The vulnerable carbon data used in this study are available in the Zenodo database<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Noon, M. et al. Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. 
 https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.4091029
 
 (2021)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e2100">72</a></sup>. The data on projected tree cover loss used in this study are also available in the Zenodo database<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Hewson, J., Crema, S., González-Roglich, M., Tabor, K. & Harvey, C. Global model results for transition potential. 
 https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.3237796
 
 (2019)." href="/articles/s41467-023-43832-9#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d93066128e2104">73</a></sup>. The data on areas vulnerable to land cover change used in this study are available from ArcGIS Online (<a href="https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=645c280931ac486cadb92c828eac09e3">https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=645c280931ac486cadb92c828eac09e3</a>).</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Code availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="code-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="code-availability">Code availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="code-availability-content"> <p>Code is available on Zenodo: <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/8225989">https://zenodo.org/record/8225989</a>.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Díaz, S. et al. 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We gratefully acknowledge funding support from the Cornell University Department of Natural Resources and the Environment (R.A.N.) the Cornell Lab of Ornithology (R.A.N., A.D.R., M.S.M.), Betty and Gordon Moore (R.A.N., P.R.R., D.H.), Conservation International (R.A.N., P.R.R., D.H.), The Natural Capital Project (R.C.K., R.P.S.), SPRING (R.C.K., R.P.S.), John and Jody Arnhold (P.R.R.), Environment and Climate Change Canada (J.O.H.), Nature Conservancy of Canada (J.O.H., R.S.) The Nature Conservancy (C.M.K., J.R.O., J.K.), the Liber Ero Fellowship (R.S.), and One Earth (C.M.K., J.R.O.). We thank the National Science Foundation for funding through Graduate Research Fellowship DGE—2139899 (R.A.N.) and NSF awards 2225078 and 2225076 (P.R.R.). EC Horizon 2020 ReSET project grant 101017857 (M.M., A.v.S.), UKRI/F4B Nature Finance Seed Corn Grant (M.M., A.v.S.).</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Cornell University, 226 Mann Drive, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rachel A. Neugarten & Amanda D. Rodewald</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Conservation International, 2100 Crystal Drive #600, Arlington, VA, 22202, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rachel A. Neugarten, Patrick R. Roehrdanz & David Hole</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, 159 Sapsucker Woods Rd, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rachel A. Neugarten, Matthew Strimas-Mackey & Amanda D. Rodewald</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Global Science, WWF, 131 Steuart St, San Francisco, CA, 94105, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer & Richard P. Sharp</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota, 1954 Buford Ave, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">SPRING, 5455 Shafter Ave, Oakland, CA, 94618, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Richard P. Sharp</p></li><li id="Aff7"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Nature Conservancy of Canada, 245 Eglinton Ave East, Suite 410, Toronto, ON, M4P 3J1, Canada</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Richard Schuster</p></li><li id="Aff8"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Richard Schuster & Jeffrey O. Hanson</p></li><li id="Aff9"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Geography, King’s College London, Bush House, North East Wing, 40 Aldwych, London, WC2B 4BG, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Mark Mulligan & Arnout van Soesbergen</p></li><li id="Aff10"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0DL, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Arnout van Soesbergen</p></li><li id="Aff11"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Global Science, The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, 80524, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christina M. Kennedy</p></li><li id="Aff12"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Global Protect Oceans, Lands and Waters Program, The Nature Conservancy, Fort Collins, CO, 80524, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">James R. Oakleaf & Joseph Kiesecker</p></li><li id="Aff13"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Justin A. Johnson & Stephen Polasky</p></li><li id="Aff14"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Natural Capital Project, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Justin A. Johnson & Stephen Polasky</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Rachel_A_-Neugarten-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Rachel A. 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Rodewald</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Amanda%20D.%20Rodewald" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Amanda%20D.%20Rodewald" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Amanda%20D.%20Rodewald%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>R.A.N., R.C.K., D.H., S.P., and A.D.R. conceptualized and designed the analysis. R.A.N., R.C.K., R.P.S., R.S., M.S.M., P.R.R., M.M., A.v.S., C.M.K., J.R.O., J.K., J.A.J., S.P., and J.O.H. contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data. R.P.S., M.M., J.A.J., and J.O.H. created new software and code used in the analysis. R.A.N., R.C.K., and A.D.R. drafted and substantially revised the manuscript. A.D.R. supervised the study. All authors contributed to reviewing and revising the manuscript and approved the final submitted version.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:ran63@cornell.edu">Rachel A. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Neugarten, R.A., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Sharp, R.P. <i>et al.</i> Mapping the planet’s critical areas for biodiversity and nature’s contributions to people. <i>Nat Commun</i> <b>15</b>, 261 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43832-9</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/s41467-023-43832-9?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li 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