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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austronesian_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austronesian_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Austronesian origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austronesian_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Sanskrit influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.1</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.2</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sandhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voice/Focus/Trigger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voice/Focus/Trigger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Voice/Focus/Trigger</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voice/Focus/Trigger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Mood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_and_pronoun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_and_pronoun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Noun and pronoun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_and_pronoun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Particle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Particle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns_and_pronominal_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns_and_pronominal_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns_and_pronominal_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Demonstrative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determiner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determiner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Determiner</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determiner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Possessive suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Adjective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Adverb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Preposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Conjunction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Usage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Usage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oral_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Oral expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_famous_poems,_epics_and_other_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_famous_poems,_epics_and_other_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>List of famous poems, epics and other literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_famous_poems,_epics_and_other_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominent_authors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_authors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Prominent authors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_authors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inscription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inscription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Inscription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inscription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Scholars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Javanese</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Kawi" title="Basa Kawi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Kawi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Каві (мова) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каві (мова)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suanoy_na_Habanes" title="Suanoy na Habanes – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Suanoy na Habanes" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Протоявански език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Протоявански език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawi" title="Kawi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kawi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_kawi" title="Idioma kawi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma kawi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawi_(hizkuntza)" title="Kawi (hizkuntza) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kawi (hizkuntza)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C" title="زبان کاوی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان کاوی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawi" title="Kawi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kawi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कावि भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कावि भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawi_jezik" title="Kawi jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kawi jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Kawi" title="Pagsasao a Kawi – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Kawi" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Jawa_Kuno" title="Bahasa Jawa Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Jawa Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giavanese_antico" title="Giavanese antico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giavanese antico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Kawi" title="Basa Kawi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Kawi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90)" title="კავი (ენა) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კავი (ენა)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C3%A2sa_Kabi" title="Bhâsa Kabi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Bhâsa Kabi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कवी भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कवी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Jawa_Kuno" title="Bahasa Jawa Kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" 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citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: pink;">Old Javanese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: pink;"><i><span style="font-size:120%"><span title="Kawi-language text"><span lang="kaw">ᬚᬯ</span></span></span></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="kaw-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈʝʌ̞ʋ̟ə]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madura" title="Madura">Madura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombok" title="Lombok">Lombok</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>, developed into Middle Javanese by 13th–14th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old Javanese</b></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: pink;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=228">kaw</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kaw" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:kaw">kaw</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/kaw">kaw</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kawi1241">kawi1241</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg/220px-Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg/330px-Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg/440px-Copy_of_a_stone_stele_written_in_Kawi_script.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2512" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption>Copy of stele wirtten in Kawi script</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Old Javanese</b> or <b>Kawi</b> is the oldest attested phase of the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese language</a>. It was spoken in the eastern part of what is now <a href="/wiki/Central_Java" title="Central Java">Central Java</a> and the whole of <a href="/wiki/East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. As a literary language, Kawi was used across Java and on the islands of <a href="/wiki/Madura" title="Madura">Madura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lombok" title="Lombok">Lombok</a>. It had a sizable vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> loanwords but had not yet developed the formal <i>krama</i> language register, to be used with one's social superiors that is characteristic of modern Javanese. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While evidence of writing in Java dates to the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_inscriptions_in_the_Malay_world" title="Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world">Tarumanegara inscription</a></i> of 450 AD, the oldest example written entirely in Javanese, called the Sukabumi inscription, is dated 25 March 804 AD. This inscription, located in the district of <a href="/wiki/Pare,_Kediri" title="Pare, Kediri">Pare</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kediri_Regency" title="Kediri Regency">Kediri Regency</a> of East Java, is a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents concern the construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (now shortened to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Srinjing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Srinjing (page does not exist)">Srinjing</a>). This inscription is the last of its kind to be written using <a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava script</a>; all consequent examples of Old Javanese are written using <a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Majapahit_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Majapahit empire">Majapahit empire</a> in 1292. The <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese language</a> which was spoken and written in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austronesian_origins">Austronesian origins</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Austronesian origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was its <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure, and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in Southeast Asia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sanskrit_influence">Sanskrit influence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sanskrit influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Indian linguistic influence in the Old Javanese language was almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> influence. There is no evidence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the influence of Indian linguistics in the (Old) Malay language. </p><p>Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vocabulary of the Javanese language. The <i>Old Javanese–English Dictionary</i>, written by Professor <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Josephus_Zoetmulder" title="Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder">P.J. Zoetmulder</a> in 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. This large number is not an indication of usage, but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Phonology">Phonology</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit has also influenced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Javanese. Old Javanese also contains <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex consonants</a>, which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex consonants was an independent development within the Austronesian language family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A related question is the form in which Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The borrowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form (Sanskrit <i>lingga</i>). Old Javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in Sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords. Wherever these diacritics occur in Old Javanese texts, they are neglected in pronunciation: <i>bhaṭāra</i> is the same as <i>baṭara</i> (loss of <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspiration</a> is also shared by <a href="/wiki/Elu" title="Elu">Elu Prakrit</a>, the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a>). Nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary: the variants s, ṣ, and ś, for example, are all treated like s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences">Influences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script continued to be circulated within the courts of <a href="/wiki/Kartosuro" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartosuro">Kartasura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surakarta_Sunanate" title="Surakarta Sunanate">Surakarta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">Yogyakarta</a>. The poems were called <i>layang kawi</i> (Kawi books) or <i>kakawin</i> and were held in high regard. Starting in the 18th century, literature inspired by Old Javanese was written using the modern Javanese language and verse.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology_2">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese has six vowels. Those vowels are "a", "ĕ" /ə/, "e" /e/, i, u, and o in Latin transliteration. Little can be said about the pronunciation of Old Javanese. It is believed that it has not been much different from the pronunciation of modern Javanese. However, the major difference is the pronunciation of /a/ in open syllables: now å, then /a/, such as in <span title="Kawi-language text"><i lang="kaw">wana</i></span> (forest). Although, Old Javanese made a distinction between those "short vowels" and "long vowels" in writing such as ā, ö, e, ī, ū, and o, however, these "long vowels" have no distinction in phonology with those "short vowels". This distinction is generally happened with unadapted loanwords from Sanskrit which differentiates the short and long vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are twenty consonants in Old Javanese which are written as b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, ŋ, p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y in Latin transliteration. The consonant ñ sometimes is written as the digraph ny and IPA ɲ, while the consonant ŋ sometimes is written as the digraph ng.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="width:60%;"> <caption style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Consonant articulation</a> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="3"><b>Place of articulation</b> </th> <th colspan="5"><b>Pancawalimukha</b> </th> <th rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a></b> </th> <th rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a></b> </th> <th rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a></b> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Unvoiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Unvoiced consonant">Unvoiced</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">Voiced</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Unaspirated</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_aspirated"><a href="#endnote_aspirated">1</a></sup> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Unaspirated</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_aspirated"><a href="#endnote_aspirated">1</a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></b> </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">gʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> </td> <th> </th> <th> </th> <td style="text-align:center;">(h)a </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></b> </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">cʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʝʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> </td> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a></b> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ɖʰ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> </td> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a></b> </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t̪ʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">d̪ʰ</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n̪</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental lateral approximant">l̪</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant">s̪</a> </td> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a></b> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">bʰ</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced bilabial approximant">ʋ̟</a> </td> <th> </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left"><b>Notes</b> <dl><dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_aspirated"><b><a href="#ref_aspirated">^1</a></b></span> Aspirated consonants are pronounced as their unaspirated counterparts.</dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_ṇa"><b><a href="#ref_ṇa">^2</a></b></span> The retroflex nasal consonant is pronounced as the dental counterpart.</dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_sa"><b><a href="#ref_sa">^3</a></b></span> The sibilants are pronounced as the dental counterpart.</dd></dl> <p>The presence of such aspirated consonants, retroflex nasal, palatal sibilant, and retroflex sibilant are used for unadapted loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> (specifically <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>). </p> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sandhi">Sandhi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sandhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Sandhi</b> is a cover term for a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">sound</a> changes that occur at <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> or word boundaries. </p> <ul><li>If a word ends in a vowel and the next word in the same sentence begins with a vowel, both words may merge into one, with one vowel instead of two vowels, such as <i>dewatādi</i> instead of <i>dewata</i> + <i>adi</i>.</li> <li>A merger of ĕ with the preceding vowel results in assimilated ĕ to the preceding vowel, such as <i>wawan</i> (load, cargo; vessel, carrier, container, setting) from <i>wawa</i> (to carry, to bring) + <i>ĕn</i>.</li> <li>Similar vowels without short-long vowels consideration are assimilated as "long vowels". For example, <i>rĕngön</i> (hearing) is constructed from <i>rĕngö</i> (hearing, listening) + <i>ĕn</i>.</li> <li>The open vowel /a/ followed by close-front vowels of /e/ or /i/ are assimilated as /e/, such as <i>bhinna ika</i> become <i>bhinneka</i> (those are different). Meanwhile, the open vowel /a/ followed by close-back vowels of /o/ or /u/ is assimilated as /o/, such as <i>mantra oṣadha</i> becomes <i>mantroṣadha</i>.</li> <li>The semi-vowel y or w will replace the corresponding vowel i, u, or ö, when followed by a dissimilar vowel. For example, <i>kadi amṛta</i> become <i>kadyamṛta</i> (i + a → ya), <i>ri ubhaya</i> become <i>ryubhaya</i> (i + u → yu), <i>milu āśā</i> become <i>milwāśā</i> (u + a → wa), <i>māsku ibu</i> become <i>māskwibu</i> (u + i → wi), and <i>angangsö agawe</i> become <i>angangswagawe</i> (ö + a → wa).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb">Verb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voice/Focus/Trigger"><span id="Voice.2FFocus.2FTrigger"></span>Voice/Focus/Trigger</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Voice/Focus/Trigger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The active voice is derived through either prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i>. <ul><li>The prefix <i>(m)aN-</i>, which is realised as <i>maN-</i> and <i>aN-,</i> is the prefix to make transitive verbs, for example, <i>amati</i> (to kill) from <i>pati</i> (death) and <i>mangan</i> (to eat) from <i>pangan</i> (food), if the base word is a verb. However, if the base word is a noun, the derivation can result in both transitive and intransitive verbs, such as <i>angjanma</i> (to be born, incarnate) from <i>janma</i> (man), whether the result will be either transitive or intransitive can not be predicted. In the base word is an adjective, the derived verbs are <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a>, such as <i>anghilang</i> (to cause something to disappear) from <i>hilang</i> (disappeared). The derivation can undergo <a href="/wiki/Denasalization" title="Denasalization">denasalization</a> in particular situations such as <i>pamangan</i> instead of <i>mamangan</i> (to eat) and <i>panginum</i> instead of <i>manginum</i> (to drink).</li> <li>The infix <i>-um-</i> is the prefix to show active verb which generally shows no difference in meaning with the derivation with prefix <i>(m)aN-</i>. Sometimes, there is a difference in meaning between the prefixed <i>(m)aN-</i> and infixed <i>-um-</i>, such as <i>anahur</i> (to repay) and <i>sumahur</i> (to answer) from <i>sahur</i> (answer, return).</li></ul></li> <li>Passive voices are derived through either the prefix <i>ka-</i> or infix <i>-in-</i>. It is not necessary to express the actor in a passive sentence. If the actor is explicitly mentioned, the actor is introduced by <i>de</i> and put after the subject, such as <i>"Katon pwa ta de sang Śrutasena"</i>. <ul><li>The prefix <i>ka-</i> refers to passive voice. If it is put before the consonant of the stem, it shows no change. However, if it is put before vowels, the sandhi is applicable, such as in <i>kālap</i> (taken) from <i>ka-</i> + <i>alap</i>. Other than <i>ā</i> from <i>a + a</i>, the other sandhi is <i>ā</i> from a + ĕ /ə/, e from a + either i or e, and o from a + u (there is no example with a + o exist).</li> <li>The other passive voice derivation is through infix <i>-in-</i>, such as <i>inalap</i> (taken) from <i>alap</i>.</li></ul></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Nasalization rule for prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Initial of base word </th> <th>Sandhi </th> <th>Harmonized prefix </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>nasal (m-, n-, ng-) </td> <td><i>(m)aN-</i> + <i>N-</i> → <i>(m)a-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)a-</i> </td> <td><i>maga</i> → <i>amaga</i> (to disappoint) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>k</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN</i> + <i>k-</i> → <i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>kĕmit</i> → <i>angĕmit</i> (to guard) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>p, w</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN-</i> + <i>p-,w-</i> → <i>(m)am-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)am-</i> </td> <td><i>pahat</i> → <i>amahat</i> (to tap) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>s, t</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN-</i> + <i>s-,t-</i> → <i>(m)an-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)an-</i> </td> <td><i>sambut</i> → <i>anambut</i> (to seize) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>c</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN- + c- → (m)any-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)any-</i> </td> <td><i>cangking</i> → <i>anyangking</i> (to carry) </td></tr> <tr> <td>vowels </td> <td><i>(m)aN-</i> + <i>V-</i> → <i>(m)ang</i>- + <i>V-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>abĕn</i> → <i>angabĕn</i> (to attack) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>d, g, h</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN- + d-,g-,h-</i> → <i>(m)ang- + d-,g-,h-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>haḍang</i> <i>→</i> <i>anghaḍang</i> (to stand off) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>j</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN-</i> + <i>j-</i> → <i>(m)ang- + j-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>jajah → angjajah</i> (to explore) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> (r, l, w) </td> <td><i>(m)aN- + H- → (m)ang- + H-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)ang-</i> </td> <td><i>liput</i> → <i>angliput</i> (to envelop) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>b</i> </td> <td><i>(m)aN- + b- → (m)am- + b-</i> </td> <td><i>(m)am-</i> </td> <td><i>bawa → ambawa</i> (to bring) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Nasalization rule for infix <i>-um-</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Initial of base word </th> <th>Sandhi </th> <th>Harmonized infix </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>vowels </td> <td><i>-um-</i> + V- → <i>umV-</i> </td> <td><i>umV-</i> </td> <td><i>alap</i> → <i>umalap</i> (to take) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labials</a> (<i>b-,p-,m-,w-</i>) </td> <td><i>-um-</i> + C- → <i>um-</i> </td> <td><i>um-</i> </td> <td><i>wawa</i> → <i>umawa</i> (to carry) </td></tr> <tr> <td>others </td> <td>no change </td> <td>no change </td> <td><i>jawil → jumawil</i> (to touch) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Case">Case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Benefactive_case" title="Benefactive case">beneficiary-orientedness</a> or plurality can be indicated with the suffix <i>-i</i> and <i>-an</i>. The suffix <i>-i</i> is used for active transitive verbs (with prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i>) which harmonised into either <i>-i</i> (<i>amatī</i>, to slay, from <i>pati</i>) and <i>-ani</i> (<i>amatyani</i>, to slay, from <i>pati</i>) after a vowel. However, passive transitive verbs use the suffix <i>-an</i> (with the prefix <i>ka-</i> or infix <i>-in-</i>). In case of a final vowel <i>-a</i>, <i>-an</i> is attached, not <i>-anan</i>, for example, <i>kapaḍan</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">Causative</a> can be indicated by the suffix -<i>akĕn</i> from verbal and nominal bases (either prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i>). The verb with <i>-akĕn</i> is object-oriented. There is no combination between the passive <i>ka-</i> and with suffix -<i>akĕn.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applicative_voice" title="Applicative voice">Applicative</a> can be indicated by prefix <i>maka-</i> and <i>pinaka-</i> with sandhi rules applied. Prefix <i>maka-</i> is used for active voice (with <i>(m)aN-</i> and <i>-um-</i> integrated), while passive voice uses the prefix <i>pinaka-</i> (with <i>-in</i>- and <i>ka-</i> integrated). The denasalisation phenomenon can happen.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mood">Mood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">Irrealis mood</a> can be indicated by suffix <i>-a</i> to the verbs. The active irrealis verb can be constructed as active affixes (prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i>) with suffix -a (such as <i>manghuripa</i> from <i>manghurip</i>). However, passive irrealis can be constructed with suppression of infix <i>-in-</i> and addition of the suffix -<i>ĕn</i> (such as <i>huripĕn</i>), while the addition of suffix <i>-a</i> to prefixed <i>ka-</i> passive verbs. The presence of sandhi sometimes made it impossible to see whether -a of irrealis mood. In the case of pronominal suffix presence, the irrealis suffix is prioritized.</li> <li>There are three ways to put a verb in the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a>. <ul><li>...by bare form without any affix, such as <i>mijil</i> (please come out) and <i>anunggangi</i> (please mount), which is the polite form. This form is just recognized by the context.</li> <li>...drop the verbal prefix, such as <i>wijil</i> and <i>tunggangi</i>.</li> <li>...place either <i>t(a)</i> or <i>p(a)</i> before the unchanged or reduced form<i>,</i> such as <i>ta mijil</i>, <i>ta wijil, pamijil</i> or <i>pawijil</i> and <i>tānunggangi, ta tunggangi, pānunggangi</i> or <i>patunggangi</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>Prohibition is expressed by the word <i>haywa</i> (do not), such as <i>"haywa ta kita malara!"</i> (Don't be sad!).</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Construction of verbs in irrealis mood </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Irrealis mood </th> <th>Benefactive case <p><i>-i</i> </p> </th> <th>Causative case <p>-<i>akĕn</i> </p> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Active voice <p>prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i> </p> </th> <td>the prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i> present <p>the suffix <i>-ana</i> </p> </td> <td>the prefix <i>(m)aN-</i> or infix <i>-um-</i> present <p>the suffix <i>-akna</i> or -<i>akĕn</i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Passive voice <p>infix <i>-in-</i> </p> </th> <td>the infix <i>-in-</i> absent <p>the suffix <i>-ana</i> </p> </td> <td>the infix <i>-in-</i> absent <p>the suffix <i>-akna or -akĕn</i> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_and_pronoun">Noun and pronoun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Noun and pronoun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Particle">Particle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Particle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are various particles in Old Javanese. Particle <i>ta</i> is the most common one. The other particles that occur regularly are <i>pwa</i>, <i>ya,</i> and <i>sira</i>. These <i>ya</i> and <i>sira</i> as particles must be differentiated from the personal pronouns <i>ya</i> and <i>sira</i>, ‘he, she’. Sometimes they are combined such as <i>ta pwa</i> and <i>ta ya</i>. It is not compulsory to use them; they are often left out. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal_pronouns_and_pronominal_suffixes">Personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns and pronominal suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese have several personal pronouns for the first, second, and third person. The pronoun is not differentiated by singular and plural and social status in general. <i>Sira</i> may be used as an honorific particle, similar to <i>sang</i>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Old Javanese Personal Pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>low/neutral </th> <th>neutral </th> <th>neutral/high </th></tr> <tr> <td>first person </td> <td> </td> <td><i>aku</i> <small>(singular only)</small><br /><i>kami,</i><br /><i>mami</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>second person </td> <td><i>ko</i> </td> <td><i>kita,</i><br /><i>kamu,</i><br /><i>kanyu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>third person </td> <td><i>ya</i> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>sira</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The personal pronoun has corresponding pronominal suffixes which serve to express either the possessive relationship or an agent<i>.</i> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Old Javanese Pronominal Suffixes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>low/neutral </th> <th>neutral </th></tr> <tr> <td>first person </td> <td> </td> <td><i>-ku</i><br /><i>-mami</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>second person </td> <td><i>-mu</i><br /><i>-nyu</i> </td> <td><i>-ta</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>third person </td> <td><i>-nya</i> </td> <td><i>-nira</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The suffixes exhibit sandhi features, such as </p> <ul><li>The suffix <i>-ku</i> has no change after a consonant, such as in <i>tanganku</i> (my hand). However, the suffix will change into <i>-ngku</i> after a vowel.</li> <li>The suffix <i>-ta</i> has no change after consonant, but will change into <i>-nta</i> after vowel.</li> <li>The suffix <i>-nya</i> will change into <i>-ya</i> after n.</li> <li>The suffix <i>-nira</i> will change into <i>-ira</i> after n.</li></ul> <p>The third person pronominal suffixes can express a possessive relationship between two words, such as in <i>"Wĕtunira sang Suyodhana"</i> (the birth of Suyodhana). </p><p>The third person pronominal suffixes can be used to nominalise verbs and adjectives such as <i>widagdhanya</i> (his skills) from adjective <i>widagdha</i> and <i>pinintanira</i> (his being asked) from the verb <i>pininta</i>. </p><p>In Old Javanese, a large number of other words than personal pronouns are used by way of personal pronouns for the first and second person. They consist of fixed expressions in which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations. Proper names do not play a role in this respect. For example, first person pronouns can be manifested as <i>nghulun</i> (<i>hulun</i>, slave) and <i>ngwang</i> (<i>wwang</i>, man). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstrative_pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Demonstrative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns. The members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from the speaker, while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Demonstrative pronouns in Old Javanese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>neutral </th> <th>stress </th> <th>more stress </th> <th>more stress </th></tr> <tr> <td>this </td> <td><i>iki</i> </td> <td><i>tiki</i> </td> <td><i>ike</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>that (with the listener) </td> <td><i>iku</i> </td> <td><i>tiku</i> </td> <td><i>iko</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>that (far from both) </td> <td><i>ika</i> </td> <td><i>tika</i> </td> <td><i>ikā</i> </td> <td><i>tikā</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Determiner">Determiner</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Determiner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese does not have an indefinite article. A noun without an article is indefinite. Old Javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness: a definite article, several honorific articles, and <i>ika</i> (there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in Old Javanese, for example, the possessive suffix). Both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before the noun and cannot stand by themselves. The definite article is <i>(a)ng</i> and it is written combined with particles. Examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect are <i>si</i>, <i>pun</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>sang hyang</i>, <i>ḍang hyang</i>, <i>śrī,</i> and <i>ra</i>. </p><p>Besides the definite article and the articles of respect, <i>ika</i> can be used to express definiteness. The word <i>ika</i> has two functions, those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun. The word <i>ika</i> as a demonstrative pronoun means 'that' which is used to differentiate from 'this'. If there is no such contrast, its function is that of a definite article, meaning ‘the’. <i>Ika</i> is put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessive_suffixes">Possessive suffixes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Possessive suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Expression of possessiveness in Old Javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes, such as suffix <i>-(n)ing</i> and <i>-(n)ika</i>. The suffix -<i>ning</i> is constructed from clitic <i>-(n)i</i> and the definite article <i>(a)ng</i>. The clitic <i>-(n)i</i> have no meaning and cannot self-standing, although it is required in the construction. It is generally written as <i>-ning,</i> while it is written as <i>-ing</i> after base word ending in <i>n</i>. The suffix <i>-(n)ika</i> is constructed from clitic <i>-(n)i</i> and definite article <i>ika</i> and is written as <i>-nika</i> generally, while it is written as <i>-ika</i> after base word ending in <i>n</i>. The possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes, in which no definite article is added in a such case. Honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness, such as <i>ujar sang guru</i> (the word of the teacher), by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjective">Adjective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Adjective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Javanese have two types of adjectives. The first one is an adjective-class base word, such as <i>urip</i> (alive). The second one is an adjective-class-derived word that uses affixation with the prefix <i>(m)a-</i> from noun base words, such as <i>adoh</i> (far away) from <i>doh</i> (distance), <i>ahayu</i> (beautiful) from <i>hayu</i> (beauty) and <i>mastrī</i> (married) from <i>strī</i> (wife). In case of derivation with the prefix <i>(m)a-</i>, the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with a vowel, such as <i>mānak</i> (having a child) from <i>anak</i> (child), <i>enak</i> (at ease) from <i>inak</i> (ease), and <i>mojar</i> (having speech) from <i>ujar</i> (speech), while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant. Nouns can be qualified by adjectives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverb">Adverb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Adverb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs and adjectives, and also adverbs, can be qualified by adverbs. Adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify, except <i>dahat</i> (very, very much) is placed after the word. The word <i>tan</i> is used to express 'not' and have several forms as <i>tatan</i>, <i>tātan</i>, <i>ndatan</i>, and <i>ndātan</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preposition">Preposition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Preposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several prepositions in Old Javanese, in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite, such as: </p> <ul><li>Preposition <i>(r)i</i> has the meaning of ‘in’, ‘on’, ‘at’, and ‘to’, but also ‘for’, ‘towards’, and even ‘by’, and ‘through’.</li> <li>Preposition <i>sa(ng)ka</i> has the meaning of ‘from’, ‘compared to’ (‘than’ in comparisons), ‘because of’.</li> <li>Combination of both prepositions</li></ul> <p>However, there are particularities in the expression of 'inside' or 'from inside' in Old Javanese. Old Javanese use a combination of either <i>jĕro</i> or <i>dalĕm</i> (inner part, depth) followed by clitic <i>-ni</i>, such as <i>dalĕmnikang</i> to express the idea of 'inside' or 'from inside'. The preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either <i>(r)i</i> or <i>sake</i> before either <i>jĕro</i> or <i>dalĕm</i> (inner part, depth) without placement of both clitic <i>-ni</i> and definite articles. </p><p>It is important to remember that <i>(r)i</i> can be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjunction">Conjunction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conjunction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several conjunctions in Old Javanese; the most common ones are <i>an</i>, <i>yan</i>, <i>apan</i>, and <i>yarapwan</i>. The order of elements in sub-clauses headed by <i>an</i> is the same as in main clauses: the subject follows the predicate. However, different from main clauses, in sub-clauses headed by an no separating particle is used. </p> <ul><li>Conjunction <i>an</i> can be interpreted as either 'that', 'so that, in order to' and 'while, as'. The use of <i>an</i> may cause the suppression of -um- and denasalization.</li> <li>Conjunction <i>yan</i> means 'that' or 'if, when'.</li> <li>Conjunction <i>apan</i> means 'because'.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a basic clause, predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle (<i>ta</i>) marking the border between both parts of the sentence. For example, "<i>lunghā ta sira</i>" means "he leaves" as leave (<i>lunghā</i>), particle (<i>ta</i>), and the third person pronoun (<i>sira</i>). The predicate comes first in the sentence, the subject follows the predicate, which is the normal order. However, the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer. These sentences lack an indication of time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subject in Old Javanese can be personal pronoun, noun, and proper names. The predicate can be a verbal predicate where the predicate is a verb. The predicate can also be a nominal predicate, where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns, including proper names, and pronouns. Old Javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi script</a></div> <p><b>Old Javanese</b> was written with <a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi or Old Javanese script</a> in 8th–16th century. The Kawi script is a <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic script">Brahmic script</a> found primarily in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and used across much of <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>. The Kawi script is related to the <a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba script</a> in South India. Nowadays, <b>Old Javanese</b> can be written with <a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese script</a> in modern literatures which are descendants of Kawi script. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oral_expression">Oral expression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Oral expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language. It is commonly used in some Javanese traditional events such as <a href="/wiki/Wayang_golek" title="Wayang golek">wayang golek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wayang_wong" title="Wayang wong">wayang wong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wayang_kulit" title="Wayang kulit">wayang kulit</a>, in addition to high activities such as a Javanese <a href="/wiki/Wedding" title="Wedding">wedding</a>, especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride's parents with groom's parents in the ceremonies of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peningsetan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peningsetan (page does not exist)">Peningsetan</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Panggih&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Panggih (page does not exist)">Panggih</a>. Archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition, it is used for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Midodareni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midodareni (page does not exist)">Midodareni</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Siraman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siraman (page does not exist)">Siraman</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sungkeman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sungkeman (page does not exist)">Sungkeman</a> ceremonies of the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a> wedding. </p><p>The island of <a href="/wiki/Lombok" title="Lombok">Lombok</a> has adopted Kawi as its regional language, reflecting the very strong influence of <a href="/wiki/East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a>. Today, it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of National curriculum. Traditionally, Kawi is written on <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript#Javanese_and_Balinese" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">lontar</a> prepared palm leaves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kakawin" title="Kakawin">Kakawin</a></div> <p>Kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language, in a similar fashion to <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>-era <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>. </p><p>There are many important literary works written in Kawi, most notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Empu_Tantular&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Empu Tantular (page does not exist)">Empu Tantular</a>'s epic poem, <i>"Kakawin Sutasoma",</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which is taken the National motto of Indonesia: <i>"<a href="/wiki/Bhinneka_Tunggal_Ika" title="Bhinneka Tunggal Ika">Bhinneka Tunggal Ika</a>"</i>. Although often glibly translated as "Unity in Diversity", it is more correctly rendered as "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one"— referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation, not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times. </p><p>A more modern work is the poem <i>"Susila Budhi Dharma"</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Subuh_Sumohadiwidjojo" title="Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo">Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a>. In this work, he provides a framework for understanding the experience of the <a href="/wiki/Latihan" title="Latihan">latihan</a> kejiwaan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="List_of_famous_poems,_epics_and_other_literature"><span id="List_of_famous_poems.2C_epics_and_other_literature"></span>List of famous poems, epics and other literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: List of famous poems, epics and other literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Famous poems, epics and other literature include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shivagrha_inscription" title="Shivagrha inscription">Shivagrha inscription</a>, 856</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Ramayana" title="Kakawin Ramayana">Kakawin Ramayana</a> ~ 870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Arjunawiwaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kakawin Arjunawiwaha">Kakawin Arjunawiwaha</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu (page does not exist)">mpu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kanwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanwa">Kanwa</a>, ~ 1030</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Kresnayana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Kresnayana (page does not exist)">Kakawin Kresnayana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Sumanasantaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Sumanasantaka (page does not exist)">Kakawin Sumanasantaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smaradhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Smaradhana">Kakawin Smaradhana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Bhomakawya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Bhomakawya (page does not exist)">Kakawin Bhomakawya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Bharatayuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kakawin Bharatayuddha">Kakawin Bharatayuddha</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu (page does not exist)">mpu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sedah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sedah (page does not exist)">Sedah</a> and mpu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Panuluh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Panuluh (page does not exist)">Panuluh</a>, 1157</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Hariwangsa" title="Kakawin Hariwangsa">Kakawin Hariwangsa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Gatotkacasraya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Gatotkacasraya (page does not exist)">Kakawin Gatotkacasraya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Wrettasa%C3%B1caya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Wrettasañcaya (page does not exist)">Kakawin Wrettasañcaya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Wrettayana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Wrettayana (page does not exist)">Kakawin Wrettayana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Brahmandapurana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Brahmandapurana (page does not exist)">Kakawin Brahmandapurana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Kunjarakarna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Kunjarakarna (page does not exist)">Kakawin Kunjarakarna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mpu_Dusun" title="Mpu Dusun">mpu "Dusun"</a></li> <li>Kakawin <a href="/wiki/Nagarakertagama" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagarakertagama">Nagarakertagama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mpu_Prapanca" title="Mpu Prapanca">mpu Prapanca</a>, 1365</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Arjunawijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kakawin Arjunawijaya">Kakawin Arjunawijaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mpu_Tantular" title="Mpu Tantular">mpu Tantular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Sutasoma" title="Kakawin Sutasoma">Kakawin Sutasoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mpu_Tantular" title="Mpu Tantular">mpu Tantular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakawin_Siwaratrikalpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kakawin Siwaratrikalpa">Kakawin Siwaratrikalpa</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Lubdhaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Lubdhaka (page does not exist)">Kakawin Lubdhaka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Parthayajna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Parthayajna (page does not exist)">Kakawin Parthayajna</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Nitisastra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Nitisastra (page does not exist)">Kakawin Nitisastra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Nirarthaprakreta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Nirarthaprakreta (page does not exist)">Kakawin Nirarthaprakreta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Dharmasunya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Dharmasunya (page does not exist)">Kakawin Dharmasunya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Harisraya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Harisraya (page does not exist)">Kakawin Harisraya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kakawin_Banawa_Sekar_Tanakung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kakawin Banawa Sekar Tanakung (page does not exist)">Kakawin Banawa Sekar Tanakung</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prominent_authors">Prominent authors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prominent authors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are notable authors of literary works in Kawi.<sup id="cite_ref-kalangwan_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalangwan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu_Kanwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu Kanwa (page does not exist)">Mpu Kanwa</a> (11th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpu_Sedah" title="Mpu Sedah">Mpu Sedah</a> (12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpu_Panuluh" title="Mpu Panuluh">Mpu Panuluh</a> (12th century)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu_Dharmaja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu Dharmaja (page does not exist)">Mpu Dharmaja</a> (12th century)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu_Monaguna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu Monaguna (page does not exist)">Mpu Monaguna</a> (12th century)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu_Triguna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu Triguna (page does not exist)">Mpu Triguna</a> (12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpu_Tantular" title="Mpu Tantular">Mpu Tantular</a> (14th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpu_Prapanca" title="Mpu Prapanca">Mpu Prapanca</a> (14th century)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpu_Tanakung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpu Tanakung (page does not exist)">Mpu Tanakung</a> (15th century)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inscription">Inscription</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Inscription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest written records in an indigenous language found in Java are indeed in (Old) Javanese.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karangtengah_inscription" title="Karangtengah inscription">Karangtengah inscription</a> (824 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tri_Tepusan_inscription" title="Tri Tepusan inscription">Tri Tepusan inscription</a> (842 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shivagrha_inscription" title="Shivagrha inscription">Shivagrha inscription</a> (856 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantyasih_inscription" title="Mantyasih inscription">Mantyasih inscription</a> (907 CE)</li> <li>Turyyan inscription (929)</li> <li>Anjuk Ladang inscription (935/937)</li> <li>Terep inscription (1032)</li> <li>Turun Hyang II inscription (1044)</li> <li>Kambang Putih inscription (1050)</li> <li>Banjaran inscription (1052)</li> <li>Malenga inscription (1052)</li> <li>Garaman inscription (1053)</li> <li>Sumengka inscription (1059)</li> <li>Hantang/Ngantang inscription (1135)</li> <li>Mula Malurung inscription (1255)</li> <li>Kudadu inscription (1294)</li> <li>Tuhañaru/Jayanagara II inscription (1323)</li> <li>Waringin Pitu inscription (1447)</li></ul> <p>Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this pattern of language distribution in the epigraphical record. There are several inscription using Old Javanese language on the island of Sumatra, by editing three short epigraphs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Inscription of Kapalo Bukit Gombak II</li> <li>Inscribed Makara from the Northern Gopura, Candi Kedaton, Muara Jambi Temple Complex</li> <li>Inscribed Golden Bowl of Rokan Hilir, Riau</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholars">Scholars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Scholars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first scholar to address Kawi in a serious academic manner was <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a>, who considered it the father of all Malay-Polynesian languages. Furthermore, he deprecated misconceptions about Kawi being wholly influenced by Sanskrit, finding that Kawi did not use <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflexion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflexion">inflexion</a>, thus differing from Sanskrit's highly developed inflectional system. Kawi might have come from a very ancient settlement in the pacific side of Asia. In Kawi language, the meaning of a sentence must be grasped through word order and context. Humboldt further noted that Kawi utilizes <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> distinctions, with past, present, and future, and differentiated moods via the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>. </p><p>Numerous scholars have studied the language, including the Dutch expatriate Indonesian Prof. Dr. Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder S.J., who contributed an enormous quantity of original texts and serious scholarly study to the language, and his pupil and associate, Father Dr. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignatius_Kuntara_Wiryamartana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ignatius Kuntara Wiryamartana (page does not exist)">Ignatius Kuntara Wiryamartana</a>. Other eminent Indonesian scholars of the language include Poedjawijatna, Sumarti Suprayitna, Poerbatjaraka and Tardjan Hadiwidjaja. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhinneka_Tunggal_Ika" title="Bhinneka Tunggal Ika">Bhinneka Tunggal Ika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Hendrik_Caspar_Kern" title="Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern">Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Marius_Uhlenbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugenius Marius Uhlenbeck">Eugenius Marius Uhlenbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Josephus_Zoetmulder" title="Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder">Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Malay">Old Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Sundanese">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArps2019" class="citation journal cs1">Arps, Bernard (2 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13639811.2019.1654217">"The power of the heart that blazes in the world: An Islamic theory of religions in early modern Java"</a>. <i>Indonesia and the Malay World</i>. <b>47</b> (139): 308–334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13639811.2019.1654217">10.1080/13639811.2019.1654217</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1363-9811">1363-9811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indonesia+and+the+Malay+World&rft.atitle=The+power+of+the+heart+that+blazes+in+the+world%3A+An+Islamic+theory+of+religions+in+early+modern+Java&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=139&rft.pages=308-334&rft.date=2019-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13639811.2019.1654217&rft.issn=1363-9811&rft.aulast=Arps&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13639811.2019.1654217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Molen2015" class="citation book cs1">van der Molen, Willem (2015). <i>An Introduction to Old Javanese</i>. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Javanese&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Research+Institute+for+Languages+and+Cultures+of+Asia+and+Africa%2C+Tokyo+University+of+Foreign+Studies&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=van+der+Molen&rft.aufirst=Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlenbeck1964" class="citation book cs1">Uhlenbeck, E. M. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-011-8790-9"><i>A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Java and Madura</i></a>. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8790-9">10.1007/978-94-011-8790-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-011-8158-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-011-8158-7"><bdi>978-94-011-8158-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Survey+of+Studies+on+the+Languages+of+Java+and+Madura&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-8790-9&rft.isbn=978-94-011-8158-7&rft.aulast=Uhlenbeck&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-8790-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kalangwan-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kalangwan_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoetmulder1974" class="citation book cs1">Zoetmulder, P.J. (1974). <i>Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature</i>. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kalangwan%3A+A+Survey+of+Old+Javanese+Literature&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Zoetmulder&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths2012" class="citation journal cs1">Griffiths, Arlo (October 2012). "Inscriptions of Sumatra, II. Short Epigraphs in Old Javanese". <i>Wacana Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 197–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17510%2Fwjhi.v14i2.61">10.17510/wjhi.v14i2.61</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wacana+Journal+of+the+Humanities+of+Indonesia&rft.atitle=Inscriptions+of+Sumatra%2C+II.+Short+Epigraphs+in+Old+Javanese.&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-214&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17510%2Fwjhi.v14i2.61&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Arlo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Casparis1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gijsbertus_de_Casparis" title="Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis">De Casparis, J. G</a> (1975). <i>Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the beginnings to c. AD 1500</i>. Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Palaeography%3A+A+History+of+Writing+in+Indonesia+from+the+beginnings+to+c.+AD+1500&rft.place=Leiden%2FK%C3%B6ln&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=De+Casparis&rft.aufirst=J.+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorida1993" class="citation book cs1">Florida, Nancy K. (1993). <i>Javanese Literature in Surakarta Manuscripts: Introduction and Manuscripts of the Karaton Surakarta</i>. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87727-603-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87727-603-X"><bdi>0-87727-603-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Javanese+Literature+in+Surakarta+Manuscripts%3A+Introduction+and+Manuscripts+of+the+Karaton+Surakarta&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87727-603-X&rft.aulast=Florida&rft.aufirst=Nancy+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wilhelm von Humboldt (1836). <i>Über die Kawi-Sprache</i> [On the Kawi Language] (in German): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EgYJAAAAQAAJ">Vol 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xfEUAAAAYAAJ">Vol 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cwYJAAAAQAAJ">Vol 3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoerbatjarakaTardjan_Hadiwidjaja1952" class="citation book cs1">Poerbatjaraka; Tardjan Hadiwidjaja (1952). <i>Kepustakaan Djawa</i>. Djakarta/Amsterdam: Djambatan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kepustakaan+Djawa&rft.place=Djakarta%2FAmsterdam&rft.pub=Djambatan&rft.date=1952&rft.au=Poerbatjaraka&rft.au=Tardjan+Hadiwidjaja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvenir_Stepanovich_Teselkin1972" class="citation book cs1">Avenir Stepanovich Teselkin (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmip.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cmip;idno=cmip054"><i>Old Javanese (Kawi)</i></a>. Cornell University. Modern Indonesia Project. Translation series. Ithaca, N.Y.: Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Javanese+%28Kawi%29&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y.&rft.series=Cornell+University.+Modern+Indonesia+Project.+Translation+series&rft.pub=Modern+Indonesia+Project%2C+Southeast+Asia+Program%2C+Cornell+University&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Avenir+Stepanovich+Teselkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcmip.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Dcmip%3Bidno%3Dcmip054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeeuwRobson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Teeuw" title="A. Teeuw">Teeuw, A.</a>; Robson, S.O., eds. (2005). <i>Bhomāntaka: the death of Bhoma</i>. Bibliotheca Indonesica, 32. Leiden: KITLV Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6718-253-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-6718-253-2"><bdi>90-6718-253-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bhom%C4%81ntaka%3A+the+death+of+Bhoma&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Indonesica%2C+32&rft.pub=KITLV+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=90-6718-253-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlenbeck1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E.M._Uhlenbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="E.M. Uhlenbeck">Uhlenbeck, E.M.</a> (1964). <i>A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Java and Madura</i>. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Survey+of+Studies+on+the+Languages+of+Java+and+Madura&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Uhlenbeck&rft.aufirst=E.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZurbuchen1976" class="citation book cs1">Zurbuchen, Mary S. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/41870"><i>Introduction to Old Javanese Language and Literature: A Kawi Prose Anthology</i></a>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.11902952">10.3998/mpub.11902952</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F41870">20.500.12657/41870</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472902187" title="Special:BookSources/9780472902187"><bdi>9780472902187</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Old+Javanese+Language+and+Literature%3A+A+Kawi+Prose+Anthology&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F41870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11902952&rft.isbn=9780472902187&rft.aulast=Zurbuchen&rft.aufirst=Mary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F41870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoetmulderRobson1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Josephus_Zoetmulder" title="Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder">Zoetmulder, P.J.</a>; Robson, S.O. (1995). <i>Kamus Jawa Kuna–Indonesia</i>. Translated by Darusuprapta; Sumarti Suprayitna. Jakarta: Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde and Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia and PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-605-347-0" title="Special:BookSources/979-605-347-0"><bdi>979-605-347-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kamus+Jawa+Kuna%E2%80%93Indonesia&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pub=Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde+and+Lembaga+Ilmu+Pengetahuan+Indonesia+and+PT+Gramedia+Pustaka+Utama&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=979-605-347-0&rft.aulast=Zoetmulder&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Robson%2C+S.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>1992–1993, Bahasa parwa : tatabahasa Jawa Kuna: Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Bekerja sama dengan I.J. Poedjawijatna. Cetakan ulang dari edisi tahun 1954</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoetmulder1950" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zoetmulder, P.J. (1950). <i>De Taal van het Adiparwa</i> (in Indonesian). <a href="/wiki/Bandung" title="Bandung">Bandung</a>: Nix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Taal+van+het+Adiparwa&rft.place=Bandung&rft.pub=Nix&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Zoetmulder&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoetmulderS.O._Robson1982" class="citation book cs1">Zoetmulder, P.J.; S.O. Robson (1982). <i>Old Javanese – English Dictionary</i>. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-247-6178-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-247-6178-6"><bdi>90-247-6178-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Javanese+%E2%80%93+English+Dictionary&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=90-247-6178-6&rft.aulast=Zoetmulder&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=S.O.+Robson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoetmulder1974" class="citation book cs1">Zoetmulder, P.J. (1974). <i>Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>: Martinus Nijhoff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kalangwan%3A+A+Survey+of+Old+Javanese+Literature&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Zoetmulder&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Javanese" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Javanese&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041207051056/http://www.bucalic.de/lontars/index.html">About lontar</a> (palmleaf manuscripts).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/ojed/index.htm">Zoetmulder's Dictionary of Old Javanese</a> (<a href="/wiki/SEAlang_Library" title="SEAlang Library">SEAlang Library</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/oldjava/">Old Javanese inscriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/SEAlang_Library" title="SEAlang Library">SEAlang Library</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/en/training/ilc/ilc-list/20152">An Introduction to Old Javanese</a> at Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (A pdf primer in English, though the web page is in Japanese)</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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