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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Victim_proneness-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Victim proneness subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Victim_proneness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Environmental theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantification_of_victim-proneness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantification_of_victim-proneness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Quantification of victim-proneness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantification_of_victim-proneness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fundamental_attribution_error" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamental_attribution_error"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Fundamental attribution error</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamental_attribution_error-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victim_facilitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victim_facilitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Victim facilitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victim_facilitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victimization_rate_in_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victimization_rate_in_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Victimization rate in United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victimization_rate_in_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victimization_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victimization_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Victimization in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victimization_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Crime_Victims_Survey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Crime_Victims_Survey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>International Crime Victims Survey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Crime_Victims_Survey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_as_crime_victim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_as_crime_victim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Society as crime victim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_as_crime_victim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penal_couple" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penal_couple"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Penal couple</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penal_couple-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rights_of_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights_of_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Rights of victims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rights_of_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="علم الضحايا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الضحايا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Віктымалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Віктымалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologija" title="Viktimologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Viktimologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologie" title="Viktimologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Viktimologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologi" title="Viktimologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Viktimologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologie" title="Viktimologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Viktimologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victimolog%C3%ADa" title="Victimología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Victimología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biktimologia" title="Biktimologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biktimologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victimologie" title="Victimologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Victimologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%BC%ED%95%B4%EC%9E%90%ED%95%99" title="피해자학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="피해자학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AA%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տուժողի հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տուժողի հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="आहत शास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आहत शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologi" title="Viktimologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Viktimologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittimologia" title="Vittimologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vittimologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="ויקטימולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויקטימולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Виктимология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Виктимология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Виктимология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Виктимология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologija" title="Viktimologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viktimologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimol%C3%B3gia" title="Viktimológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Viktimológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victimologie" title="Victimologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Victimologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AE%B3%E8%80%85%E5%AD%A6" title="被害者学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="被害者学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologi" title="Viktimologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Viktimologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologiya" title="Viktimologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Viktimologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktymologia" title="Wiktymologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wiktymologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitimologia" title="Vitimologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vitimologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Виктимология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Виктимология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimol%C3%B3gia" title="Viktimológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Viktimológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Виктимологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Виктимологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktimologi" title="Viktimologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Viktimologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Виктимология – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Виктимология" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C4%9Fdur_bilimi" title="Mağdur bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mağdur bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Віктимологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Віктимологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/500px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk and actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victimology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_victimisation" title="Secondary victimisation">Secondary victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_crime" title="Immigration and crime">Immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_reform" title="Criminal justice reform">reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_reform" title="Sentencing reform">sentencing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">Crime prevention</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrections" title="Corrections">Corrections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_tolerance" title="Zero tolerance">Zero tolerance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">Prison reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_rights" title="Victims' rights">Victims' rights</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/20px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/40px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Victimology</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Victimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Victimization">victimization</a>, including the psychological effects on victims, the relationship between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> system—that is, the <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> and <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts</a>, and corrections officials—and the connections between victims and other social groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social movements.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victim_of_a_crime">Victim of a crime</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Victim of a crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, a victim of a crime is an identifiable person who has been harmed individually and directly by the perpetrator, rather than by <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> as a whole. However, this may not always be the case, as with victims of <a href="/wiki/White_collar_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="White collar crime">white-collar crime</a>, who may not be clearly identifiable or directly linked to crime against a particular individual. Victims of white-collar crime are often denied their status as victims by the social construction of the concept.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept also remains a controversial topic within <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">women's studies</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> first recognized the rights of crime victims to make a <a href="/wiki/Victim_impact_statement" title="Victim impact statement">victim impact statement</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentencing</a> phase of a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal trial</a> in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Payne_v._Tennessee" title="Payne v. Tennessee">Payne v. Tennessee</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_501" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 501">501</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/501/808/">808</a> (1991). </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Victim_impact_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Victim impact panel">victim impact panel</a>, which usually follows the <a href="/wiki/Victim_impact_statement" title="Victim impact statement">victim impact statement</a>, is a form of community-based or <a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">restorative justice</a> in which the crime victims (or relatives and friends of deceased crime victims) meet with the defendant after conviction to tell the convict about how the criminal activity affected them, in the hope of <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (psychology)">deterrence</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories">Theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Quinney" title="Richard Quinney">Richard Quinney</a> has argued "the victim" is a <a href="/wiki/Social_construct" title="Social construct">social construct</a> because in order for a person to be labeled a victim, some societal agreement needs to exist. Societal power dynamics affect collective perceptions of victimization. <a href="/wiki/Nils_Christie" title="Nils Christie">Nils Christie</a> classifies "ideal victims" as those most likely to obtain “the complete and legitimate status of being a victim” when harmed. Christie writes that this is most likely to occur when the victim is perceived as weak, was participating in a reputable activity, not seen as accountable for playing a part in their victimization, and the offender is large and evil and not known to the victim.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences_of_crimes">Consequences of crimes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consequences of crimes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Psychological_pain" title="Psychological pain">Emotional distress</a> as the result of crime is a recurring theme for all victims of crime. The most common problems, affecting three-quarters of victims, were psychological problems, including <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">anxiety</a>, nervousness, <a href="/wiki/Self-blame" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-blame">self-blame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shame</a>, and difficulty sleeping.<sup id="cite_ref-Sebba_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sebba-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These problems often result in the development of chronic <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD). Post-crime distress is also linked to pre-existing emotional problems and sociodemographic variables. This has been known to become a leading case of the elderly being more adversely affected.(Ferraro, 1995) </p><p>Victims may experience the following psychological reactions: </p> <ul><li>Increase in the realization of personal <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability" title="Vulnerability">vulnerability</a>.</li> <li>The perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible.</li> <li>They view themselves in a negative light.<sup id="cite_ref-Sebba_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sebba-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The experience of victimization may result in increasing fear on the part of the victim, and the spread of fear in the community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victim_proneness">Victim proneness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Victim proneness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_theory">Environmental theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Environmental theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The environmental theory posits that the location and context of the crime bring the victim of the crime and its perpetrator together.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies in the early 2010s showed that crimes are negatively correlated to trees in urban environments; more trees in an area are congruent with lower victimization rates or violent crime rates.<sup id="cite_ref-More_Trees_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-More_Trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Big_Trees-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Some_Trees_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Some_Trees-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Portland_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portland-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baltimore_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baltimore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This relationship was established by studies in 2010 in <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a> and in 2012 in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore, Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-More_Trees_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-More_Trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Big_Trees-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Portland_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portland-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baltimore_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baltimore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geoffrey Donovan of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a> (USFS), one of the researchers, said, "trees, which provide a range of other benefits, could improve <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> in Portland by reducing crime..."<sup id="cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Big_Trees-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because "We believe that large street trees can reduce crime by signaling to a potential criminal that a neighborhood is better cared for and, therefore, a criminal is more likely to be caught."<sup id="cite_ref-More_Trees_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-More_Trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Portland_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portland-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that the presence of <i>large</i> street trees especially indicated a reduction in crime, as opposed to newer, smaller trees.<sup id="cite_ref-More_Trees_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-More_Trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Portland_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portland-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2012 Baltimore study, led by scientists from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vermont" title="University of Vermont">University of Vermont</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA), a "conservative spatially adjusted model indicated that a 10% increase in tree canopy was associated with a roughly 12% decrease in crime.... [and] we found that the inverse relationship continued in both contexts, but the magnitude was 40% greater for public than for private lands."<sup id="cite_ref-Baltimore_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baltimore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantification_of_victim-proneness">Quantification of victim-proneness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Quantification of victim-proneness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been some studies recently to quantify the real existence of victim-proneness.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to the popular belief that more women are repeat victims, and thus more victim-prone than men, actually men in their prime (15- to 34-year-old males) are more likely to be victims of repeated crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of juvenile offenders, the study results also show that people are more likely to be victimized as a result of a serious offense by someone they know; the most frequent crimes committed by adolescents towards someone they know were sexual assault, common assault, and homicide. Adolescents victimizing people they did not know generally committed common assault, forcible confinement, and armed or unarmed robbery.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sex workers are, anecdotally, thought to have an abnormally high incidence of violent crime committed against them, and such crimes frequently go unresolved, but there are few victimological studies of the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fundamental_attribution_error">Fundamental attribution error</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fundamental attribution error"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger effect</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">fundamental attribution error</a> (also known as <i>correspondence bias</i> or <i>attribution effect</i>) describes the tendency to over-value <a href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">dispositional</a> or personality-based explanations for the observed <a href="/wiki/Behaviors" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviors">behaviors</a> of others while under-valuing situational explanations for those behaviors. The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Lee_Ross" title="Lee Ross">Lee Ross</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some years after a now-classic experiment by <a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Jones" title="Edward E. Jones">Edward E. Jones</a> and Victor Harris (1967).<sup id="cite_ref-JonesHarris67_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JonesHarris67-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain the behavior of others. It does not explain interpretations of one's own behavior—where situational factors are often taken into consideration. This discrepancy is called the <a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Actor–observer bias">actor–observer bias</a>. As a simple example, if Alice saw Bob trip over a rock and fall, Alice might consider Bob to be clumsy or careless (dispositional). If Alice later tripped over the same rock herself, she would be more likely to blame the placement of the rock (situational). Victim proneness or <a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">victim blaming</a> can be a form of fundamental attribution error, and more specifically, the <i>just-world phenomenon</i>(Aronson, Wilson, Akert, & Sommers, 2016, p. 107).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Just-world_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-world phenomenon">Just-world phenomenon</a> is the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, which was first theorized by <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Lerner" class="mw-redirect" title="Melvin Lerner">Melvin Lerner</a> (1977).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attributing failures to dispositional causes rather than situational causes, which are unchangeable and uncontrollable, satisfies our need to believe that the world is fair and we have control over our life. We are motivated to see a just world because this reduces our perceived threats,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gives us a sense of security, helps us find meaning in difficult and unsettling circumstances, and benefits us psychologically.<sup id="cite_ref-correspondence_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-correspondence-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, the just-world hypothesis also results in a tendency for people to blame and disparage victims of a tragedy or an accident, such as victims of <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Domestic_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic abuse">domestic abuse</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to reassure themselves of their insusceptibility to such events. People may even blame the victim's faults in "past lives" to pursue justification for their bad outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victim_facilitation">Victim facilitation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Victim facilitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Victim facilitation, another controversial sub-topic, but a more accepted theory than victim proneness, finds its roots in the writings of criminologists such as <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Wolfgang" title="Marvin Wolfgang">Marvin Wolfgang</a>. The choice to use victim facilitation as opposed to "victim proneness" or some other term is that victim facilitation is not blaming the victim, but rather the interactions of the victim that make them vulnerable to a crime. </p><p>The theory of victim facilitation calls for study of the external elements that make a victim more accessible or vulnerable to an attack.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an article that summarizes the major movements in victimology internationally, Schneider expresses victim facilitation as a model that ultimately describes only the misinterpretation by the offender of victim behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Schneider,_H._J._2001_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schneider,_H._J._2001-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is based upon the theory of a symbolic interaction and does not alleviate the offender of their exclusive responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-Schneider,_H._J._2001_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schneider,_H._J._2001-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Eric Hickey's <i>Serial Murderers and their Victims,</i> a major analysis of 329 <a href="/wiki/Serial_killers" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial killers">serial killers</a> in America is conducted. As part of Hickey's analysis, he categorized victims as high, low, or mixed regarding the victim's facilitation of the murder. Categorization was based upon lifestyle risk (example, amount of time spent interacting with strangers), type of employment, and their location at the time of the killing (example, bar, home or place of business). Hickey found that 13–15% of victims had high facilitation, 60–64% of victims had low facilitation and 23–25% of victims had a combination of high and low facilitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey,_Eric_W._2006_pp._260–262_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey,_Eric_W._2006_pp._260–262-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hickey also noted that among serial killer victims after 1975, one in five victims were at greater risk from hitchhiking, working as a prostitute, or involving themselves in situations in which they often came into contact with strangers.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey,_Eric_W._2006_pp._260–262_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey,_Eric_W._2006_pp._260–262-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is importance in studying and understanding victim facilitation as well as continuing to research it as a sub-topic of victimization. For instance, a study of victim facilitation increases public awareness, leads to more research on victim-offender relationship, and advances theoretical <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiologies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Violent_crime" title="Violent crime">violent crime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the ultimate purposes of this type of knowledge is to inform the public and increase awareness so fewer people become victims. Another goal of studying victim facilitation, as stated by Maurice Godwin, is to aid in investigations. Godwin discusses the theory of victim social networks as a concept in which one looks at the areas of highest risk for victimization from a <a href="/wiki/Serial_killer" title="Serial killer">serial killer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be connected to victim facilitation because the victim social networks are the locations in which the victim is most vulnerable to the serial killer. Using this process, investigators can create a profile of places where the serial killer and victim both frequent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victimization_rate_in_United_States">Victimization rate in United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Victimization rate in United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Crime_Victimization_Survey" title="National Crime Victimization Survey">National Crime Victimization Survey</a> (NCVS) is a tool to measure the existence of actual, rather than reported, crimes—the victimization rate.<sup id="cite_ref-NCVS_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCVS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Crime Victimization Survey is the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>' "primary source of information on crime victimization. Each year, data is obtained from a nationally representative sample of 77,200 households comprising nearly 134,000 persons on the frequency, characteristics and consequences of criminal victimization in the United States. This survey enables the (government) to estimate the likelihood of victimization for <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">robbery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, household burglary, and motor vehicle theft for the population as a whole as well as for segments of the population such as women, the elderly, members of various racial groups, city dwellers, or other groups."<sup id="cite_ref-NCVS_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCVS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">Bureau of Justice Statistics</a> (BJS), the NCVS reveals that, from 1994 to 2005, violent crime rates declined, reaching the lowest levels ever recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-NCVS_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCVS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Property crimes continue to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-NCVS_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCVS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Serial_killing" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial killing">Serial killings</a> are waning in particular, and according to a 2020 <i><a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">ABA Journal</a></i> report, it's in large part because "people are less vulnerable than in the past."<sup id="cite_ref-Serial_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Serial-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn is due to several societal changes, according to experts and a news reports cited by the <i>ABA Journal</i>: (1) "People don't hitchhike anymore;" (2) "They have means of reaching out in an emergency situation using cellphones;" (3) "There are cameras everywhere;” (4) "parents today are less likely to allow [children] to leave home unsupervised;" (5) "interventions that help troubled children might reform potential killers" (for example, <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social work</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="School nurse">school nurses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Child_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Child psychology">child psychology</a>); (6) "easy access to pornography is providing an outlet that satiates ... sexual impulses"; and (7) "would-be serial killers are turning instead to mass shootings."<sup id="cite_ref-Serial_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Serial-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other reports show some evidence that serial killings are (8) <a href="/wiki/General_deterrence" class="mw-redirect" title="General deterrence">deterred generally</a> by "longer prison sentences" and (9) <a href="/wiki/Specific_deterrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific deterrence">deterred specifically</a> by "a reduction in parole."<sup id="cite_ref-Serial_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Serial-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victimization_in_Canada">Victimization in Canada</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Victimization in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Canada the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Federal_Ombudsman_for_Victims_of_Crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime">Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime</a> (OFOVC) is an independent resource for victims of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>. It was created in 2007 to ensure the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government">federal government</a> meets its responsibilities to victims of crime. The ombudsman provides information to victims about their <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> under <a href="/wiki/Canadian_federal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian federal law">Canadian federal law</a>, the services available to them, or to make a complaint about any <a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">federal agency</a> or federal <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a> dealing with victims of crime. The ombudsman also works to ensure that policy makers and other <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> personnel are aware of victims' needs and concerns and to identify important issues and trends that may negatively impact victims. Where appropriate, the Ombudsman may also make recommendations to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government">federal government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_Crime_Victims_Survey">International Crime Victims Survey</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: International Crime Victims Survey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many countries have such victimization surveys. They give a much better account for the volume crimes but are less accurate for crimes that occur with a (relative) low frequency such as homicide, or <a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">victimless 'crimes'</a> such as drug (ab)use. Attempts to use the data from these national surveys for international comparison have failed. Differences in definitions of crime and other methodological differences are too big for proper comparison. </p><p>A dedicated survey for international comparison: A group of European <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminologists</a> started an international victimization study with the sole purpose to generate international comparative crime and victimization data. The project is now known as the <a href="/wiki/International_Crime_Victims_Survey" title="International Crime Victims Survey">International Crime Victims Survey</a> (ICVS). After the first round in 1989, the surveys were repeated in 1992, 1996, and 2000 and 2004/2005. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_as_crime_victim">Society as crime victim</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Society as crime victim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One train of thought supposes society itself is the victim of many crimes, especially such <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felonies</a> as <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a>. Many lawyers, judges, and academics have espoused this sentiment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Penal_couple">Penal couple</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Penal couple"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>penal couple</i> is defined as the relationship between perpetrator and victim of a crime. That is, both are involved in the event.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A sociologist invented the term in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is now accepted by many <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Domestic_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domestic-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Van_Ness_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Ness-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept is, essentially, that "when a crime takes place, it has two partners, one the offender and second the victim, who is providing opportunity to the criminal in committing the crime."<sup id="cite_ref-Domestic_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domestic-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The victim, in this view, is "a participant in the penal couple and should bear some 'functional responsibility' for the crime."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The very idea is rejected by some other victimologists as <a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">blaming the victim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Ness_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Ness-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rights_of_victims">Rights of victims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Rights of victims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Victims%27_rights" title="Victims' rights">Victims' rights</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_(4508207576).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg/220px-Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg/330px-Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg/440px-Anna_Baldry_watches_as_participants_conduct_role-play_scenarios_%284508207576%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1608" data-file-height="1068" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anna_Costanza_Baldry" title="Anna Costanza Baldry">Anna Costanza Baldry</a> (left), senior researcher at the <a href="/wiki/Tilburg_University" title="Tilburg University">International Victimology Institute Tilburg</a> (INTERVICT), watches as participants conduct role-play scenarios during domestic and gender-based violence training at the Central Training Center. <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Police" title="Afghan National Police">Afghan National Police</a> (ANP)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> adopted the Declaration on the Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the <a href="/wiki/Tilburg_University" title="Tilburg University">International Victimology Institute Tilburg (INTERVICT)</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Society_of_Victimology" title="World Society of Victimology">World Society of Victimology</a> developed a UN Convention for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>victimology</i>, in fact, denotes to the subject, which studies about the harm(s) caused to victims in commission of crime and the relative scope for compensation to the victim as a means of redressal. In criminal jurisprudence, mere punishment of an offender is not considered sufficient in redressing the grievance of victim; there is need to compensate the loss or harms suffered by the victim. In Criminal Procedure Code, though provisions have been made in Section 357 to provide compensation to victims, who have suffered loss or harms in consequence to commission of offence. But, what has been provided in Indian Law, as a compensatory measure to victims of crimes, is not enough and this aspect needs to be reviewed by the legislature to frame or enact necessary law, so as to sufficiently compensate to victims of crimes and to provide safeguards to victims of crimes, besides compensating him in monetary terms. [S.P. Sharma, Advocate, Rajasthan High Court, Jodhpur, December, 2010]. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Ben-David" title="Sarah Ben-David">Sarah Ben-David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Crime_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="British Crime Survey">British Crime Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_on_Juvenile_and_Criminal_Justice" title="Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice">Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_abuse" title="Clandestine abuse">Clandestine abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coping" title="Coping">Coping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_victim_advocacy_program" title="Crime victim advocacy program">Crime victim advocacy program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_Victims%27_Rights_Week" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime Victims' Rights Week">Crime Victims' Rights Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence (penology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychopathology" title="Developmental psychopathology">Developmental psychopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_domestic_violence_on_children" title="Effects of domestic violence on children">Effects of domestic violence on children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_rape_and_aftermath" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of rape and aftermath">Effects of rape and aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Lopez_(psychiatrist)" title="Gérard Lopez (psychiatrist)">Gérard Lopez (psychiatrist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Like_sheep_to_the_slaughter" title="Like sheep to the slaughter">Like sheep to the slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering" title="Mass gathering">Mass gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_traumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Post traumatic stress disorder">Post traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_States" title="Race and crime in the United States">Race and crime in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_engulfment" title="Role engulfment">Role engulfment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">Shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_disorganization_theory" title="Social disorganization theory">Social disorganization theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stress" title="Social stress">Social stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome" title="Stockholm syndrome">Stockholm syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_victimology" title="Theories of victimology">Theories of victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_mentality" title="Victim mentality">Victim mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_playing" class="mw-redirect" title="Victim playing">Victim playing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_study" title="Victim study">Victim study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Victim support">Victim support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Society_of_Victimology" title="World Society of Victimology">World Society of Victimology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Karmen, 2003, <i>Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology</i>, Wadsworth Publishing, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-61632-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-61632-8">978-0-534-61632-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCroall2001" class="citation book cs1">Croall, Hazel (2001). <i>Understanding white collar crime</i>. Buckingham, [England] ; Phildelphia: Open University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780335204281" title="Special:BookSources/9780335204281"><bdi>9780335204281</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+white+collar+crime&rft.place=Buckingham%2C+%5BEngland%5D+%3B+Phildelphia&rft.pub=Open+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780335204281&rft.aulast=Croall&rft.aufirst=Hazel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>White-collar crime research: old views and future potentials: lectures and papers from a Scandinavian seminar</i>. Stockholm: The National Council for Crime Prevention [Brottsförebyggande rådet] (BRÅ : Fritze [distributör]. 2001. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789138317204" title="Special:BookSources/9789138317204"><bdi>9789138317204</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White-collar+crime+research%3A+old+views+and+future+potentials%3A+lectures+and+papers+from+a+Scandinavian+seminar&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pub=The+National+Council+for+Crime+Prevention+%5BBrottsf%C3%B6rebyggande+r%C3%A5det%5D+%28BR%C3%85+%3A+Fritze+%5Bdistribut%C3%B6r%5D&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9789138317204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorgaardRoebuck2023" class="citation web cs1">Norgaard, Jordana; Roebuck, Benjamin (2023-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/introcrim/chapter/14-2-theories-of-victimization/">"14.2 Theories of Victimisation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=14.2+Theories+of+Victimisation&rft.date=2023-03-01&rft.aulast=Norgaard&rft.aufirst=Jordana&rft.au=Roebuck%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkpu.pressbooks.pub%2Fintrocrim%2Fchapter%2F14-2-theories-of-victimization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sebba-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sebba_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sebba_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sebba, L., (1996). Third Parties, Victims and the Criminal Justice System. Ohio State University Press, Columbus.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison on the <i>environmental theory</i>, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cameron.edu/~harrison/259,4">Environmental Theory</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-More_Trees-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-More_Trees_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-More_Trees_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-More_Trees_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-More_Trees_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavies2012" class="citation web cs1">Davies, Alex (June 19, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treehugger.com/health/more-trees-means-less-crime-baltimore-study-shows.html">"More Trees (Equals) Less Crime in Baltimore, Study Shows"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=More+Trees+%28Equals%29+Less+Crime+in+Baltimore%2C+Study+Shows&rft.date=2012-06-19&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treehugger.com%2Fhealth%2Fmore-trees-means-less-crime-baltimore-study-shows.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Big_Trees-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Big_Trees_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMessenger2010" class="citation web cs1">Messenger, Stephen (November 1, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120725070103/http://www.treehugger.com/natural-sciences/big-trees-may-make-communities-safer-says-study.html">"Big Trees May Make Communities Safer, Says Study"</a>. 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Retrieved April 1, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Ness-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Ness_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Ness_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel W. Van Ness, <i>Crime and its victims: what we can do</i>, (InterVarsity Press, 1986) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87784-512-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87784-512-6">978-0-87784-512-6</a> at 29, found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QX8jrxTBu10C&dq=%22penal+couple%22&pg=PA29">Google Books</a>. Retrieved April 1, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. C. Sengstock & J. Liang, "Elderly Victims of Crime – A Refinement of Theory in Victimology," (<a href="/wiki/AARP" title="AARP">AARP</a> study 1979), found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=74191">National Criminal Justice Reference service (NCJRS) Abstracts – a United States government website</a>. Retrieved April 1, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/40/a40r034.htm">"A/RES/40/34. Declaration of basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power"</a>. Un.org. 1985-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A%2FRES%2F40%2F34.+Declaration+of+basic+principles+of+justice+for+victims+of+crime+and+abuse+of+power&rft.pub=Un.org&rft.date=1985-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fdocuments%2Fga%2Fres%2F40%2Fa40r034.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tilburguniversity.nl/intervict/">"Search results"</a>. <i>Tilburg University</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tilburg+University&rft.atitle=Search+results&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tilburguniversity.nl%2Fintervict%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tilburguniversity.nl/intervict/undeclaration/convention.pdf">"Search results"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Tilburg University</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tilburg+University&rft.atitle=Search+results&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tilburguniversity.nl%2Fintervict%2Fundeclaration%2Fconvention.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZjaAAAAMAAJ">Acker, James R., and Karp, Daniel R., <i>Wounds that Do Not Bind: Victim-based Perspectives on the Death Penalty</i></a>, Carolina Academic Press, 2006</li> <li>Croall, H. (2001) <i>Understanding White Collar Crime (Open University Press).</i> Croall, H. (2001) "The Victims of White Collar Crime," in Lindgren, S. (ed) <i>White Collar Crime Research. Old Views and Future Potentials,</i> National Council for Crime Prevention, Sweden. Both noted at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gcal.ac.uk/lss/global/contactmaps/staff/law/hcroall.html">Glasgow Caledonian University website page for Hazel Croall, Professor of Criminology, School of Law & Social Sciences</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lisak" title="David Lisak">Lisak, David</a>, "Understanding the Predatory Nature of Sexual Violence," 12 pages, n.d., at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618224025/http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/240951/original">Middlebury College website</a></li> <li>Ruhs, Florian: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110904185203/http://www.aventinus-online.de/no_cache/persistent/artikel/8599/">"Foreign Workers in the Second World War. The Ordeal of Slovenians in Germany"</a>, in: <i>aventinus nova</i> Nr. 32 [29.05.2011]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilson2009" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Janet K. (August 25, 2009). <i>The Praeger Handbook of Victimology</i>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35935-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35935-4"><bdi>978-0-313-35935-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Praeger+Handbook+of+Victimology&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2009-08-25&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35935-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Janet+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictimology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victimology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110529142522/http://194.94.124.228/scripts/victimology/index.asp">TIVI Bibliography of Victimology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tilburguniversity.nl/intervict/">International Victimology Institute Tilburg (INTERVICT)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://american-society-victimology.us/">American Society of Victimology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091216081347/http://www.american-society-victimology.us/">Archived</a> 2009-12-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sascv.org/">[1]</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Asian_Society_of_Criminology_and_Victimology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="South Asian Society of Criminology and Victimology (page does not exist)">South Asian Society of Criminology and Victimology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cybervictims.org/">Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britsoccrim.org/victims-network/">Victims Network: British Society of Criminology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of medicine">medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">visual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Major theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Key themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> 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