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href="#Middle_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Middle English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Modern_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Early Modern English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Modern_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Modern_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Modern_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Spread of Modern English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Modern_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geographical distribution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geographical_distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geographical distribution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Three_circles_of_English-speaking_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_circles_of_English-speaking_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Three circles of English-speaking countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_circles_of_English-speaking_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pluricentric_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pluricentric_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Pluricentric English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pluricentric_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_as_a_global_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_as_a_global_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 English as a global language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_as_a_global_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Phonotactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress,_rhythm_and_intonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress,_rhythm_and_intonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Stress, rhythm and intonation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress,_rhythm_and_intonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Regional variation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_and_noun_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_and_noun_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Nouns and noun phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_and_noun_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determiners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determiners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Determiners </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determiners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns,_case,_and_person" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns,_case,_and_person"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Pronouns, case, and person </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns,_case,_and_person-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Prepositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_and_verb_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_and_verb_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Verbs and verb phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_and_verb_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tense,_aspect_and_mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense,_aspect_and_mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Tense, aspect and mood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense,_aspect_and_mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phrasal_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrasal_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Phrasal verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrasal_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Adverbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_constituent_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_constituent_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Basic constituent order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_constituent_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Clause syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_verb_constructions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_verb_constructions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Auxiliary verb constructions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_verb_constructions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Questions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discourse_level_syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discourse_level_syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5 Discourse level syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discourse_level_syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Word-formation_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word-formation_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Word-formation processes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word-formation_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Word origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_loanwords_and_calques_in_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_loanwords_and_calques_in_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 English loanwords and calques in other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_loanwords_and_calques_in_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects,_accents_and_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects,_accents_and_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Dialects, accents and varieties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects,_accents_and_varieties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dialects, accents and varieties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects,_accents_and_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain_and_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Britain and Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_and_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Australia and New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa,_the_Caribbean,_and_South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa,_the_Caribbean,_and_South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa,_the_Caribbean,_and_South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-native_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-native_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Non-native varieties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-native_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">English language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 308 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-308" aria-hidden="true" > 308 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggr%C3%A9h" title="Basa Inggréh – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Basa Inggréh" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Инджылыбзэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Инджылыбзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Инджылызыбзэ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Инджылызыбзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engels" title="Engels – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Engels" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Englische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%8A%E1%8B%9D%E1%8A%9B" title="እንግሊዝኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="እንግሊዝኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%8Bg%C3%A2l%C3%A2skiel%C3%A2" title="Eŋgâlâskielâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Eŋgâlâskielâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अंग्रेजी भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अंग्रेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwenglisc_spr%C3%A6c" title="Niwenglisc spræc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Niwenglisc spræc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B7_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Англыз бызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Англыз бызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الإنجليزية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الإنجليزية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_angl%C3%A9s" title="Idioma anglés – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma anglés" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%90%DC%A2%DC%93%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܐܢܓܠܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܐܢܓܠܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A7%D5%B6" title="Անգլերէն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Անգլերէն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_anglicheasc%C3%A3" title="Limba anglicheascã – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Limba anglicheascã" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angll%C3%A8s" title="Angllès – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Angllès" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="ইংৰাজী ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইংৰাজী ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_ingl%C3%A9s" title="Idioma inglés – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma inglés" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अंग्रेजी भाषा – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="अंग्रेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingle%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Ingleñe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ingleñe'ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="Ингилис мацӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Ингилис мацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlish_aru" title="Inlish aru – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Inlish aru" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngilis_dili" title="İngilis dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İngilis dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اینگیلیس دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اینگیلیس دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angil%C9%9Bkan" title="Angilɛkan – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Angilɛkan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="ইংরেজি ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইংরেজি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eng-g%C3%AD" title="Eng-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Eng-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Инглиз теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Инглиз теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Англійская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Англійская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Ангельская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ангельская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="अंग्रेजी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अंग्रेजी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Ingles" title="Tataramon na Ingles – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Ingles" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglis" title="Inglis – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Inglis" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Английски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Английски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Sproch" title="Englische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Englische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="དབྱིན་ཡིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དབྱིན་ཡིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engleski_jezik" title="Engleski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Engleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saozneg" title="Saozneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Saozneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Англи хэлэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Англи хэлэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%A8s" title="Anglès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anglès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Акăлчан чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Акăлчан чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iningles" title="Iningles – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Iningles" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" title="Angličtina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Angličtina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_Ingl%C3%A9s" title="Lengua Inglés – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Lengua Inglés" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chingerezi" title="Chingerezi – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Chingerezi" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirungu" title="Chirungu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chirungu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChiZungu" title="ChiZungu – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="ChiZungu" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_inglese" title="Lingua inglese – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lingua inglese" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saesneg" title="Saesneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Saesneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliminsili" title="Siliminsili – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Siliminsili" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk_(sprog)" title="Engelsk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Engelsk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DD%A3%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نݣليزية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="نݣليزية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ea%C5%8Bgalsgiella" title="Eaŋgalsgiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Eaŋgalsgiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Schprooch" title="Englische Schprooch – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Englische Schprooch" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%8E%DE%A8%DE%83%DE%AD%DE%90%DE%A8" title="އިނގިރޭސި – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިނގިރޭސި" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilag%C3%A1ana_bizaad" title="Bilagáana bizaad – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Bilagáana bizaad" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Engelšćina – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Engelšćina" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अङरेजी भाषा – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="अङरेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%A4" title="ཨིང་ལིཤ – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="ཨིང་ལིཤ" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target">ཇོང་ཁ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglise_keel" title="Inglise keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inglise keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αγγλική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αγγλική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s" title="Inglés – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Inglés" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Англань кель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Англань кель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_ingl%C3%A9s" title="Idioma inglés – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma inglés" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angla_lingvo" title="Angla lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Angla lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_ingresa" title="Lengua ingresa – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lengua ingresa" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeles" title="Ingeles – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingeles" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%8Blisigbe" title="Eŋlisigbe – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Eŋlisigbe" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زبان انگلیسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان انگلیسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_bhasa" title="English bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="English bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Enskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Enskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglais" title="Anglais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anglais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelsk" title="Ingelsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ingelsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_inglese" title="Lenghe inglese – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Lenghe inglese" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_B%C3%A9arla" title="An Béarla – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Béarla" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baarle" title="Baarle – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Baarle" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngiliz_dili" title="İngiliz dili – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="İngiliz dili" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beurla" title="Beurla – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Beurla" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Ингалсий мотт – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ингалсий мотт" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E" title="英語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="英語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%A4%D9%86" title="اينگيليسي زوؤن – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="اينگيليسي زوؤن" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="અંગ્રેજી ભાષા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અંગ્રેજી ભાષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglez" title="Inglez – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="Inglez" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AEn-ng%C3%AE" title="Yîn-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yîn-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD" title="Инглишин келн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Инглишин келн" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EC%96%B4" title="영어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turanci" title="Turanci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Turanci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BB%C5%8Clelo_Pelekania" title="ʻŌlelo Pelekania – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻŌlelo Pelekania" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Անգլերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անգլերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अंग्रेज़ी भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंग्रेज़ी भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jend%C5%BAel%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Jendźelšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Jendźelšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engleski_jezik" title="Engleski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Engleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angla_linguo" title="Angla linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Angla linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%E1%BB%A5s%E1%BB%A5_Bekee" title="Asụsụ Bekee – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Asụsụ Bekee" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_nga_Ingles" title="Pagsasao nga Ingles – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao nga Ingles" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="ইংরেজি ঠার – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="ইংরেজি ঠার" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggris" title="Bahasa Inggris – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_anglese" title="Lingua anglese – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua anglese" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglesi" title="Anglesi – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Anglesi" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%96%83%E1%93%AA%E1%93%97%E1%93%88%E1%91%8E%E1%91%90%E1%91%A6" title="ᖃᓪᓗᓈᑎᑐᑦ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᖃᓪᓗᓈᑎᑐᑦ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalua%C4%A1miutun" title="Naluaġmiutun – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Naluaġmiutun" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Англисаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Англисаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiNgesi" title="IsiNgesi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IsiNgesi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiNgisi" title="IsiNgisi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiNgisi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enska" title="Enska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Enska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_inglese" title="Lingua inglese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua inglese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אנגלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנגלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engl%C9%A9s%C9%A9%C9%A9_k%CA%8An%CA%8A%C5%8B" title="Englɩsɩɩ kʊnʊŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Englɩsɩɩ kʊnʊŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuluttut" title="Tuluttut – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Tuluttut" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಭಾಷೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಂಗ್ಲ ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanung_Ingles" title="Amanung Ingles – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Amanung Ingles" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Ингилиз тил – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Ингилиз тил" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ინგლისური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინგლისური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%9B%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%96%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="اَنٛگریٖزی زَبان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="اَنٛگریٖزی زَبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anielsczi_j%C3%A3z%C3%ABk" title="Anielsczi jãzëk – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Anielsczi jãzëk" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Ағылшын тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ағылшын тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowsnek" title="Sowsnek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Sowsnek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icyongereza" title="Icyongereza – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Icyongereza" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiingereza" title="Kiingereza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiingereza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Англичан кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Англичан кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingelezi" title="Kingelezi – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kingelezi" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lang_angle" title="Lang angle – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lang angle" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anngl%C3%A9" title="Annglé – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Annglé" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_ingl%C3%AEz%C3%AE" title="Zimanê inglîzî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê inglîzî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Англис тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Англис тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB_%D0%B9%D3%B9%D0%BB%D0%BC%D3%B9" title="Англ йӹлмӹ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Англ йӹлмӹ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaz_ngl%C3%ABisc" title="Lingaz nglëisc – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Lingaz nglëisc" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ingleza" title="Lingua ingleza – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua ingleza" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Ингилис маз – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Ингилис маз" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94" title="ພາສາອັງກິດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາອັງກິດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C4%AB%C5%A1u_vol%C5%ABda" title="Anglīšu volūda – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Anglīšu volūda" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Anglica" title="Lingua Anglica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Anglica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang%C4%BCu_valoda" title="Angļu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Angļu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englesch" title="Englesch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Englesch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Инглис чӀал – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Инглис чӀал" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C5%B3_kalba" title="Anglų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Anglų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Inggris" title="Li Inggris – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Li Inggris" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8ngoa_ingleise" title="Lèngoa ingleise – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lèngoa ingleise" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingels" title="Ingels – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ingels" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C9%9Bl%C9%9B%CC%81sa" title="Lingɛlɛ́sa – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lingɛlɛ́sa" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engles_(lingua)" title="Engles (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Engles (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglien_kieli" title="Anglien kieli – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Anglien kieli" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/glibau" title="glibau – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="glibau" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungereza" title="Lungereza – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Lungereza" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_inglesa" title="Lengua inglesa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angol_nyelv" title="Angol nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Angol nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C3%A2sa_Inggris" title="Bhâsa Inggris – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Bhâsa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अङ्ग्रेजी भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अङ्ग्रेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Англиски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Англиски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_anglisy" title="Fiteny anglisy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny anglisy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwa_Ingli%C5%BCa" title="Lingwa Ingliża – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwa Ingliża" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_P%C4%81keh%C4%81" title="Reo Pākehā – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Pākehā" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="इंग्रजी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इंग्रजी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ინგლისური ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ინგლისური ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%89" title="انجليزى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="انجليزى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86" title="اینگلیسی زوون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اینگلیسی زوون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggeris" title="Bahasa Inggeris – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Inggeris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%AA%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯏꯪꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯏꯪꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahaso_Inggirih" title="Bahaso Inggirih – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bahaso Inggirih" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%ACng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Ĭng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ĭng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ngua_anglesa" title="Léngua anglesa – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Léngua anglesa" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Англань кяль – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Англань кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Англи хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Англи хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="အင်္ဂလိပ်ဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်္ဂလိပ်ဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_langwej" title="English langwej – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="English langwej" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosa_Vakavalagi" title="Vosa Vakavalagi – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vosa Vakavalagi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engels" title="Engels – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Engels" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engels" title="Engels – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Engels" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अङ्ग्रेजी भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अङ्ग्रेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अंग्रेजी भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अंग्रेजी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E" title="英語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="英語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_ngrese" title="Lengua ngrese – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Lengua ngrese" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Ингалсан мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ингалсан мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelsk_spriak" title="Ingelsk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ingelsk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglish" title="Inglish – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Inglish" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk" title="Engelsk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Engelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk" title="Engelsk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Engelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angliais" title="Angliais – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Angliais" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglum" title="Anglum – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Anglum" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%A9s" title="Anglés – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Anglés" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Англичан йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Англичан йылме" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%82%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%80_%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BE" title="ଇଂରାଜୀ ଭାଷା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଇଂରାଜୀ ଭାଷା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afaan_Ingiliish" title="Afaan Ingiliish – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Afaan Ingiliish" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ng mw-list-item"><a href="https://ng.wikipedia.org/wiki/English" title="English – Ndonga" lang="ng" hreflang="ng" data-title="English" data-language-autonym="Oshiwambo" data-language-local-name="Ndonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oshiwambo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingliz_tili" title="Ingliz tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ingliz tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਬੋਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਬੋਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80ngalabh%C4%81s%C4%81" title="Āngalabhāsā – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="Āngalabhāsā" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Englische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salitan_Ingles" title="Salitan Ingles – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Salitan Ingles" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikiris_a_sowal" title="Ikiris a sowal – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Ikiris a sowal" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="انگریزی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انگریزی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AB" title="အိန်းကလေတ်ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အိန်းကလေတ်ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingles" title="Ingles – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Ingles" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%D8%B1%DB%90%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="انګرېزي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انګرېزي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingglish" title="Ingglish – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ingglish" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%88_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Инглиш кыв – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Инглиш кыв" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F" title="ភាសាអង់គ្លេស – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាអង់គ្លេស" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9" title="Inglé – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Inglé" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_angl%C3%A8isa" title="Lenga anglèisa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga anglèisa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokples_Inglis" title="Tokples Inglis – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Tokples Inglis" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsche_Spraak" title="Engelsche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Engelsche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_angielski" title="Język angielski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język angielski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_inglesa" title="Língua inglesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglis_tili" title="Inglis tili – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Inglis tili" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngliz_tili" title="İngliz tili – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="İngliz tili" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ty mw-list-item"><a href="https://ty.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_Parat%C4%81ne" title="Reo Paratāne – Tahitian" lang="ty" hreflang="ty" data-title="Reo Paratāne" data-language-autonym="Reo tahiti" data-language-local-name="Tahitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Reo tahiti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84nglische_Sproch" title="Änglische Sproch – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Änglische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_englez%C4%83" title="Limba engleză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba engleză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_englaisa" title="Lingua englaisa – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Lingua englaisa" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlis_simi" title="Inlis simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Inlis simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D2%91%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Анґліцькый язык – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Анґліцькый язык" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Английский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Английский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B0%D2%A5%D1%8B%D0%BB_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Ааҥыл тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ааҥыл тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%CA%BBa_Peretania" title="Faʻa Peretania – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Faʻa Peretania" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="आङ्ग्लभाषा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आङ्ग्लभाषा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%ABe" title="Anglëe – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Anglëe" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱤᱝᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱤᱝᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="انگریزی – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="انگریزی" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_inglesa" title="Limba inglesa – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba inglesa" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglis_leid" title="Inglis leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Inglis leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_Dame" title="Kari Dame – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Kari Dame" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84ngelske_Sproake" title="Ängelske Sproake – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Ängelske Sproake" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senyesemane" title="Senyesemane – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Senyesemane" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seisimane" title="Seisimane – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Seisimane" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekgowa" title="Sekgowa – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Sekgowa" data-language-autonym="Setswana" data-language-local-name="Tswana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Setswana</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_angleze" title="Gjuha angleze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha angleze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ngrisa" title="Lingua ngrisa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua ngrisa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" title="English language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="English language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="انگريزي ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="انگريزي ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADNg%C3%ADsi" title="SíNgísi – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="SíNgísi" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" title="Angličtina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Angličtina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Angleščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Angleščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%97%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D1%A9%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Англїискъ ѩꙁꙑкъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Англїискъ ѩꙁꙑкъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelsko_godka" title="Angelsko godka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Angelsko godka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af-Ingiriisi" title="Af-Ingiriisi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Af-Ingiriisi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="زمانی ئینگلیزی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی ئینگلیزی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingristongo" title="Ingristongo – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Ingristongo" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Енглески језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Енглески језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engleski_jezik" title="Engleski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Engleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englannin_kieli" title="Englannin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Englannin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelska" title="Engelska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Engelska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Ingles" title="Wikang Ingles – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Ingles" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆங்கிலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆங்கிலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_Tanglizt" title="Tutlayt Tanglizt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayt Tanglizt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taglizit" title="Taglizit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Taglizit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8nga_%27nglese" title="Lènga 'nglese – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Lènga 'nglese" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Инглиз теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Инглиз теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%81%B5%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%80%A2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%81%B5%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%89" title="လိၵ်ႈဢင်းၵိတ်ႉ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="လိၵ်ႈဢင်းၵိတ်ႉ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="ఇంగ్లీషు భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇంగ్లీషు భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9" title="ภาษาอังกฤษ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอังกฤษ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B_%E1%8A%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%8A%E1%8B%9D%E1%8A%9B" title="ቋንቋ እንግሊዝኛ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ቋንቋ እንግሊዝኛ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Забони инглисӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони инглисӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea_fakapilit%C4%81nia" title="Lea fakapilitānia – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Lea fakapilitānia" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A9%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%8F_%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%AF%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97" title="ᎩᎵᏏ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎩᎵᏏ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9%27ho%27%C3%A9nestse" title="Vé'ho'énestse – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Vé'ho'énestse" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tsetsêhestâhese</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve mw-list-item"><a href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/English" title="English – Venda" lang="ve" hreflang="ve" data-title="English" data-language-autonym="Tshivenda" data-language-local-name="Venda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tshivenda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಸ್ ಬಾಸೆ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಸ್ ಬಾಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngilizce" title="İngilizce – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İngilizce" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C5%88lis_dili" title="Iňlis dili – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Iňlis dili" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C9%94fo" title="Brɔfo – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Brɔfo" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shong_(a%CC%B1lyem)" title="Shong (a̱lyem) – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Shong (a̱lyem)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Англи дыл – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Англи дыл" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Англи кыл – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Англи кыл" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%85%E1%A8%94_%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%8B%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%97" title="ᨅᨔ ᨕᨗᨋᨗᨔᨗ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨅᨔ ᨕᨗᨋᨗᨔᨗ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Англійська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Англійська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="انگریزی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انگریزی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B2_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="ئىنگلىز تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىنگلىز تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vah_Yinghgoz" title="Vah Yinghgoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vah Yinghgoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngua_ingleze" title="Łéngua ingleze – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Łéngua ingleze" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglijan_kel%27" title="Anglijan kel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Anglijan kel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Anh" title="Tiếng Anh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Anh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingl%C3%A4nap%C3%BCk" title="Linglänapük – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Linglänapük" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%BCse_kiil" title="Inglüse kiil – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Inglüse kiil" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A8s_(lingaedje)" title="Inglès (lingaedje) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Inglès (lingaedje)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink%C3%BCleenaiki" title="Inküleenaiki – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Inküleenaiki" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E" title="英語 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="英語" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iengels" title="Iengels – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Iengels" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ininglis" title="Ininglis – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ininglis" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu-angalteer" title="Wu-angalteer – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Wu-angalteer" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="英语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinghezi" title="Xinghezi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Xinghezi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9" title="ענגליש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ענגליש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_G%E1%BA%B9%CC%80%E1%BA%B9%CC%81s%C3%AC" title="Èdè Gẹ̀ẹ́sì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Gẹ̀ẹ́sì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87" title="英文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="英文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ng%C4%B1l%C4%B1zki" title="İngılızki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İngılızki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iengels" title="Iengels – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Iengels" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onglu_kalba" title="Onglu kalba – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Onglu kalba" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hata_Inggris" title="Hata Inggris – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Hata Inggris" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="Batak Toba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Toba</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Inggris" title="Basa Inggris – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Basa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saro_Inggeris" title="Saro Inggeris – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Saro Inggeris" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boros_Inggeris" title="Boros Inggeris – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Boros Inggeris" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku_Inggeris" title="Jaku Inggeris – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku Inggeris" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggris" title="Bahasa Inggris – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Bahasa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tdd mw-list-item"><a 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color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">English</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015Entry:_[httpwwwoxfordlearnersdictionariescomuspronunciationenglishenglish_1_English_–_Pronunciation]-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">The <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">others</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a>: 380 million (2021)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a>: 1.077 billion (2021)<a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">Total</a>: 1.457 billion</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages#Anglic_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>English</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">English alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon runes</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English Braille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_English" title="Manually coded English">Manually coded English</a> (multiple systems)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language#Sovereign_states" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">57 countries</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language#Non-sovereign_entities" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">31 non-sovereign entities</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Barbuda" title="Barbuda">Barbuda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rotuma" title="Rotuma">Rotuma</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sint_Maarten" title="Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia" title="South Georgia">South Georgia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tokelau" title="Tokelau">Tokelau</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a> </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language#English_is_a_de_facto_working_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">Working language</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left"><div>Various organisations</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">ICC</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">IMF</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">IOC</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/WTO" class="mw-redirect" title="WTO">WTO</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/USMCA" class="mw-redirect" title="USMCA">USMCA</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">OIC</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/GUAM_Organization_for_Democracy_and_Economic_Development" title="GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development">GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">PIF</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Economic_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="ASEAN Economic Community">ASEAN Economic Community</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States" title="Organization of Turkic States">Organization of Turkic States</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_of_Turkic_Culture" title="International Organization of Turkic Culture">Türksoy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">ECO</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=en">en</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=130">eng</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/eng" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:eng">eng</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/stan1293">stan1293</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=52-ABA">52-ABA</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglospeak_(subnational_version).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg/280px-Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg/420px-Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg/560px-Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2437" data-file-height="1064" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Countries and territories where English is the native language of the majority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Countries and territories where English is an official or administrative language but not a majority native language</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English language</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef;"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="English as a second or foreign language">As a second language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef;"> Advanced topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_by_country_or_language_of_origin" title="Lists of English words by country or language of origin">Loanwords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism_in_English" title="Linguistic purism in English">Linguistic purism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef;"> Phonology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">Phonology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">History</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef;"> Dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anguillian_Creole" title="Anguillian Creole">Anguillian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_English" title="Antarctic English">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiguan_and_Barbudan_Creole" title="Antiguan and Barbudan Creole">Antiguan and Barbudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajan_English" title="Bajan English">Bajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English" title="Bangladeshi English">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_English" title="Bay Islands English">Bay Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_English" title="Belizean English">Belizean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermudian_English" title="Bermudian English">Bermudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei_English" title="Brunei English">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_English" title="Cameroonian English">Cameroonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_English" title="Caribbean English">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_dialect" title="Cornish dialect">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_English" title="Falkland Islands English">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Fiji#English" title="Languages of Fiji">Fijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_English" title="Gambian English">Gambian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_English" title="Ghanaian English">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavia_English" title="Gustavia English">Gustavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_English" title="Jamaican English">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_English" title="Kenyan English">Kenyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_English" title="Malawian English">Malawian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_English" title="Malaysian English">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_English" title="Manx English">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namlish" title="Namlish">Namibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_English" title="Nigerian English">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_English" title="Philippine English">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Andr%C3%A9s%E2%80%93Providencia_Creole" title="San Andrés–Providencia Creole">San Andrés–Providencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_English" title="Sierra Leonean English">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_English" title="Singapore English">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_English" title="South Atlantic English">South Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lankan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_English" title="Ugandan English">Ugandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_English" title="Zimbabwean English">Zimbabwean</a></li> <li>see also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_English" title="List of dialects of English">List of dialects of English</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef;"> Teaching</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="Teaching English as a second or foreign language">Teaching English as a second language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_language_sidebar" title="Template:English language sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_language_sidebar" title="Template talk:English language sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_language_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English language sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> English is a <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="West Germanic language">West Germanic language</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language family</a>, whose speakers, called <a href="/wiki/Anglophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglophones">Anglophones</a>, originated in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">early medieval England</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a6-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardhaugh201055-6">[6]</a> The namesake of the language is the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, one of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> that <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">migrated to Britain</a>. It is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers" title="List of languages by total number of speakers">most spoken language</a> in the world, primarily due to the global influences of the former <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> (succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> English is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">third-most spoken native language</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEthnologue2010-8">[8]</a> it is also the most widely learned <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> in the world, with more second-language speakers than native speakers. English is either the official language or one of the official languages in <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">59 sovereign states</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>). In some other countries, it is the sole or dominant language for historical reasons without being explicitly defined by law (such as in the United States and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b108–109-9">[9]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">co-official language of the United Nations</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union" title="Languages of the European Union">European Union</a>, and many other international and regional organisations. It has also become the de facto <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of diplomacy, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_science" title="Languages of science">science</a>, technology, international trade, logistics, tourism, aviation, entertainment, and the <a href="/wiki/Languages_used_on_the_Internet" title="Languages used on the Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> English accounts for at least 70% of total speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a> branch, and as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> estimated that there were over 1.5 billion speakers worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> emerged from a group of West Germanic dialects spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>. Late Old English borrowed some grammar and core vocabulary from <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, a <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="North Germanic language">North Germanic language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wolff-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBammesberger199230-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech200639-13">[13]</a> Then, <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> borrowed vocabulary extensively from <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">French dialects</a>, which are the source of approximately <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_French_origin" title="List of English words of French origin">28% of Modern English words</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, which is <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_words_with_English_derivatives" title="List of Latin words with English derivatives">the source of an additional 28%</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> As such, though most of its total vocabulary comes from <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, Modern English's grammar, phonology, and most commonly used words in everyday use keep it <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">genealogically</a> classified under the Germanic branch. It exists on a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> with <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> and is then most closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low Saxon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian languages</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG/220px-Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG/330px-Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG/440px-Europe_germanic-languages_2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic languages</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  English</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></div> within the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a>, which also include <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a> (<a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">West</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland</a>);</div> within the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="North Sea Germanic languages">North Sea Germanic languages</a>, which also include <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>/Saxon;</div> within the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a>, which also include <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> in Europe and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> in Africa</div> ...... <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (<a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High</a>): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central</a>; in <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Lux.</a>: <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper</a></div> ...... <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Germanic_languages_(simplified).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg/220px-West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg/330px-West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg/440px-West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2447" data-file-height="1130" /></a><figcaption>A family tree of the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> language family</figcaption></figure> English is an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a> and belongs to the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Germanic">West Germanic</a> group of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBammesberger199229–30-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> originated from a Germanic tribal and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_continuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic continuum">linguistic continuum</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisian</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast, whose languages gradually evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic languages</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, and into the Frisian languages and <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>/Low Saxon on the continent. The Frisian languages, which together with the Anglic languages form the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a>, are the closest living relatives of English. Low German/Low Saxon is also closely related, and sometimes English, the Frisian languages, and Low German are grouped together as the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a> languages, though this grouping remains debated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBammesberger199230-12">[12]</a> Old English evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>, which in turn evolved into Modern English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1992-16">[16]</a> Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other Anglic languages, including <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine198256–65-17">[17]</a> and the extinct <a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a> dialect and <a href="/wiki/Yola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yola language">Yola language</a> of Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry198286–87-18">[18]</a> Like <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>, the development of English in the British Isles isolated it from the continental Germanic languages and influences, and it has since diverged considerably. English is not <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> with any continental Germanic language, as it differs in <a href="/wiki/Lexis_(linguistics)" title="Lexis (linguistics)">vocabulary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. However, some of these, such as Dutch or Frisian, do show strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier stages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarbert2006-19">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Unlike Icelandic and Faroese, which were isolated, the development of English was influenced by a long series of invasions of the British Isles by other peoples and languages, particularly <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">French dialects</a>. These left a profound mark of their own on the language, so that English shows some similarities in vocabulary and grammar with many languages outside its linguistic <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>—but it is not mutually intelligible with any of those languages either. Some scholars have argued that English can be considered a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed language</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a>—a theory called the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_creole_hypothesis" title="Middle English creole hypothesis">Middle English creole hypothesis</a>. Although the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasonKaufman1988264–265-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2011Chapter_4-21">[21]</a> English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">innovations</a> with other Germanic languages including <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurrell2006-22">[22]</a> These shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor called <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>. Some shared features of Germanic languages include the division of verbs into <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">weak</a> classes, the use of <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verbs</a>, and the sound changes affecting <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> consonants, known as <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's laws</a>. English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalisation</a> of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English#Palatalization" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönigvan_der_Auwera1994-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_of_history">Overview of history</h3></div> The earliest varieties of an English language, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> or "Anglo-Saxon", evolved from a group of <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a> dialects brought to Britain in the 5th century. Old English dialects were later influenced by <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age#England" title="Viking Age">Viking invaders and settlers</a>, starting in the 8th and 9th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> began in the late 11th century after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of England, when a considerable amount of <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> vocabulary was incorporated into English over some three centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Ian_Short_2007-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b30-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> began in the late 15th century with the start of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> trend of borrowing further <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words and roots, concurrent with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> to London. This era notably culminated in the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="King James Bible">King James Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays" title="Shakespeare's plays">the works of William Shakespeare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHow_English_evolved_into_a_global_language2010-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The printing press greatly standardised English spelling,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> which has remained largely unchanged since then, despite a wide variety of later sound shifts in English dialects. Modern English has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the worldwide influence of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the United States. Through all types of printed and electronic media in these countries, English has become the leading language of international <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> in many regions and professional contexts such as science, <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, and law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English-4">[4]</a> Its <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">modern grammar</a> is the result of a gradual change from a <a href="/wiki/Dependent-marking" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent-marking">dependent-marking</a> pattern typical of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> with a rich <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional morphology</a> and relatively <a href="/wiki/Free_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Free word order">free word order</a> to a mostly <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> pattern with little inflection and a fairly fixed <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Subject–verb–object word order">subject–verb–object word order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994539-29">[29]</a> Modern English relies more on <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> for the expression of complex <a href="/wiki/Tenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenses">tenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive constructions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">interrogatives</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Negation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (linguistics)">negation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Germanic_to_Old_English">Proto-Germanic to Old English</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/220px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/330px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/440px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a><figcaption>The opening of <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a>, an Old English epic poem <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">handwritten</a> in <a href="/wiki/Half-uncial" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-uncial">half-uncial</a> script between 975 AD and 1025 AD: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... ("Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings...")</figcaption></figure> The earliest form of English is called <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> or Anglo-Saxon (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 450–1150). Old English developed from a set of <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Germanic">West Germanic</a> dialects, often grouped as <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian">Anglo-Frisian</a> or <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a>, and originally spoken along the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a>, Lower Saxony and southern <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> by Germanic peoples known to the historical record as the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> From the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">settled Britain</a> as <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">the Roman economy and administration collapsed</a>. By the 7th century, this Germanic language of the Anglo-Saxons <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language_decline_in_England" title="Celtic language decline in England">became dominant in Britain</a>, replacing the languages of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> (43–409): <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic language">Celtic language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a>, brought to Britain by the Roman occupation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollingwoodMyres1936-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddolLeithSwann_et_al.2007-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlenchSpriggs1999-33">[33]</a> At this time, these dialects generally resisted influence from the then-local Brittonic and Latin languages. England and English (originally Ænglaland and Ænglisc) are both named after the Angles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthToller1921-34">[34]</a> English may have a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrate</a> influence from Common Brittonic, and a number of possible <a href="/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English" title="Brittonicisms in English">Brittonicisms in English</a> have been proposed, but whether most of these supposed Brittonicisms are actually a direct result of Brittonic substrate influence is disputed. Old English was divided into four dialects: the Anglian dialects (<a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a>) and the Saxon dialects (<a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell19594-35">[35]</a> Through the educational reforms of <a href="/wiki/King_Alfred" class="mw-redirect" title="King Alfred">King Alfred</a> in the 9th century and the influence of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, the West Saxon dialect became the <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard written variety</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToon1992Chapter:_Old_English_Dialects-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a>, is written in Northumbrian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonoghue2008-37">[37]</a> Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots language</a> developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the early period of Old English were written using a <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">runic script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGneuss201323-38">[38]</a> By the 6th century, a <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was adopted, written with <a href="/wiki/Half-uncial" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-uncial">half-uncial</a> <a href="/wiki/Letterform" title="Letterform">letterforms</a>. It included the runic letters <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> ⟨ƿ⟩ and <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a> ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters <a href="/wiki/Eth" title="Eth">eth</a> ⟨ð⟩, and <a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">ash</a> ⟨æ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGneuss201323-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenisonHogg200630–31-39">[39]</a> Old English is essentially a distinct language from Modern English and is virtually impossible for 21st-century unstudied English-speakers to understand. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs</a> had many more <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional endings and forms</a>, and word order was <a href="/wiki/Free_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Free word order">much freer</a> than in Modern English. Modern English has <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case forms</a> in pronouns (he, him, his) and has a few verb inflections (speak, speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> endings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1992Chapter_3._Phonology_and_Morphology-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2009-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETraskTrask2010-42">[42]</a> Its closest relative is <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a>, but even some centuries after the Anglo-Saxon migration, Old English retained considerable <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> with other Germanic varieties. Even in the 9th and 10th centuries, amidst the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> invasions, there is historical evidence that Old Norse and Old English retained considerable mutual intelligibility,<a href="#cite_note-Gay_2014-43">[43]</a> although probably the northern dialects of Old English were more similar to Old Norse than the southern dialects. Theoretically, as late as the 900s AD, a commoner from certain (northern) parts of England could hold a conversation with a commoner from certain parts of Scandinavia. Research continues into the details of the myriad tribes in peoples in England and Scandinavia and the mutual contacts between them.<a href="#cite_note-Gay_2014-43">[43]</a> The translation of <a href="/wiki/Matthew_8:20" title="Matthew 8:20">Matthew 8:20</a> from 1000 shows examples of case endings (<a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> plural, <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> plural, <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> singular) and a verb ending (<a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> plural): <ul><li>Foxas habbað holu and heofonan fuglas nest</li> <li>Fox-as habb-að hol-u and heofon-an fugl-as nest-∅</li> <li>fox-NOM.PL have-PRS.PL hole-ACC.PL and heaven-GEN.SG bird-NOM.PL nest-ACC.PL</li> <li>"Foxes have holes and the birds of heaven nests"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass200646–47-44">[44]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_Old_Norse">Influence of Old Norse</h3></div> From the 8th to the 11th centuries, Old English gradually <a href="/wiki/Middle_English#Transition_from_Old_English" title="Middle English">transformed</a> through <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> with <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> in some regions. The waves of Norse (Viking) colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English into intense contact with <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, a <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Germanic">North Germanic</a> language. Norse influence was strongest in the north-eastern varieties of Old English spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> area around York, which was the centre of Norse colonisation; today these features are still particularly present in <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">Northern English</a>. The centre of Norsified English was in the <a href="/wiki/Midlands" title="Midlands">Midlands</a> around <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a>. After 920 CE, when Lindsey was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon polity, English spread extensively throughout the region. An element of Norse influence that continues in all English varieties today is the third person pronoun group beginning with th- (they, them, their) which replaced the Anglo-Saxon pronouns with h- (hie, him, hera).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasonKaufman1988284–290-45">[45]</a> Other core <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">Norse loanwords</a> include "give", "get", "sky", "skirt", "egg", and "cake", typically displacing a native Anglo-Saxon equivalent. Old Norse in this era retained considerable mutual intelligibility with some dialects of Old English, particularly northern ones. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_English">Middle English</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_French_on_English" title="Influence of French on English">Influence of French on English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University_College_Oxford02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/University_College_Oxford02.jpg/220px-University_College_Oxford02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/University_College_Oxford02.jpg/330px-University_College_Oxford02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/University_College_Oxford02.jpg/440px-University_College_Oxford02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1898" data-file-height="2959" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, the world's oldest English-speaking university and world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation" title="List of oldest universities in continuous operation">second-oldest university</a>, founded in 1096</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_John%27s_College_Second_Court,_Cambridge,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/220px-St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/330px-St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/440px-St_John%27s_College_Second_Court%2C_Cambridge%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4759" data-file-height="5000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, the world's second-oldest English-speaking university and world's third-oldest university, founded in 1209</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote centered" style=";"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre manner speche, Souþeron, Northeron, and Myddel speche in þe myddel of þe lond, ... Noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes, and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbytting. Although, from the beginning, Englishmen had three manners of speaking, southern, northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country, ... Nevertheless, through intermingling and mixing, first with Danes and then with Normans, amongst many the country language has arisen, and some use strange stammering, chattering, snarling, and grating gnashing. </blockquote> <cite class="center-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/John_Trevisa" title="John Trevisa">John Trevisa</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1385<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg2006360–361-46">[46]</a></cite> </div> Middle English is often arbitrarily defined as beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of England">conquest of England</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> in 1066, but it developed further in the period from 1150 to 1500.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the now-Norsified Old English language was subject to another wave of intense contact, this time with <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norman French">Old Norman French</a>, influencing it as a superstrate. The Norman French spoken by the elite in England eventually developed into the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ian_Short_2007-24">[24]</a> Because Norman was spoken primarily by the elites and nobles, while the lower classes continued speaking English, the main influence of Norman was the introduction of a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> related to politics, legislation and prestigious social domains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech200639-13">[13]</a> Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system, probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English, which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar. The distinction between nominative and accusative cases was lost except in personal pronouns, the instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a>. The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass1992103–123-48">[48]</a> and gradually simplified the system of agreement, making word order less flexible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischervan_der_Wurff2006111–13-49">[49]</a> The transition from Old to Middle English can be placed during the writing of the <a href="/wiki/Ormulum" title="Ormulum">Ormulum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johannesson2-50">[50]</a> The oldest Middle English texts that were written by the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian canon</a> <a href="/wiki/Orrm" title="Orrm">Orrm</a>, which highlights the blending of both Old English and Anglo-Norman elements in English for the first time. In Wycliff'e Bible of the 1380s, the verse Matthew 8:20 was written: Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han nestis.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Here the plural suffix -n on the verb have is still retained, but none of the case endings on the nouns are present. By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed, integrating both Norse and French features; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around 1500. Middle English literature includes <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a>. In the Middle English period, the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Modern_English">Early Modern English</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg/220px-Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg/330px-Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg/440px-Great_Vowel_Shift2a.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Graphic representation of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a> showing how the pronunciation of the long vowels gradually shifted with the high vowels i: and u: breaking into diphthongs and the lower vowels each shifting their pronunciation up one level</figcaption></figure> The next period in the history of English was Early Modern English (1500–1700). Early Modern English was characterised by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a> (1350–1700), inflectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation. The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English. It was a <a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">chain shift</a>, meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system. <a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open vowels</a> were <a href="/wiki/Raising_(sound_change)" title="Raising (sound change)">raised</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">close vowels</a> were <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">broken</a> into <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>. For example, the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today, and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass2000-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGörlach199166–70-54">[54]</a> English began to rise in prestige, relative to Norman French, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>. Around 1430, the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a> began using English in its <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">official documents</a>, and a new standard form of Middle English, known as <a href="/wiki/Chancery_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancery Standard">Chancery Standard</a>, developed from the dialects of London and the <a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_English" title="East Midlands English">East Midlands</a>. In 1476, <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> to England and began publishing the first printed books in London, expanding the influence of this form of English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENevalainenTieken-Boon_van_Ostade2006274–79-55">[55]</a> Literature from the Early Modern period includes the works of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> and the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">translation of the Bible</a> commissioned by <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James I</a>. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: for example, the <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a> /kn ɡn sw/ in knight, gnat, and sword were still pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Modern English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECercignani1981-56">[56]</a> In the 1611 <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a> of the Bible, written in Early Modern English, Matthew 8:20 says, "The Foxes haue holes and the birds of the ayre haue nests."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass200646–47-44">[44]</a> This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure (replacement with subject–verb–object word order, and the use of of instead of the non-possessive genitive), and the introduction of loanwords from French (ayre) and word replacements (bird originally meaning "nestling" had replaced OE fugol).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass200646–47-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Modern_English">Spread of Modern English</h3></div> By the late 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHow_English_evolved_into_a_global_language2010-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English-4">[4]</a> English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Oceania, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> that had multiple <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a> opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine2006586-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMufwene2006614-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthrup201381–86-59">[59]</a> In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a-62">[62]</a> In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCrumMacNeilCran20039–10-63">[63]</a> As Modern English developed, explicit norms for standard usage were published, and spread through official media such as public education and state-sponsored publications. In 1755, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> published his <a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a>, which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms. In 1828, <a href="/wiki/Noah_Webster" title="Noah Webster">Noah Webster</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary" title="Webster's Dictionary">American Dictionary of the English language</a> to try to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent of the British standard. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19991–56-64">[64]</a> In modern English, the loss of grammatical case is almost complete (it is now only found in pronouns, such as he and him, she and her, who and whom), and SVO word order is mostly fixed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19991–56-64">[64]</a> Some changes, such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support">do-support</a>, have become universalised. (Earlier English did not use the word "do" as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it was only used in question constructions, and even then was not obligatory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19992-65">[65]</a> Now, do-support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised.) The use of progressive forms in -ing, appears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues (e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt), and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common (e.g. more polite instead of politer). British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the United States as a world power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeechHundtMairSmith200918–19-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMairLeech2006-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2006-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_distribution">Geographical distribution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">List of countries and territories where English is an official language</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_population" title="List of countries by English-speaking population">List of countries by English-speaking population</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_English_native_speakers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Map_of_English_native_speakers.png/220px-Map_of_English_native_speakers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Map_of_English_native_speakers.png/330px-Map_of_English_native_speakers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Map_of_English_native_speakers.png/440px-Map_of_English_native_speakers.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of native speakers of English and English creoles globally as of 2017</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg/220px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg/330px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg/440px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Anglophone_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1314" /></a><figcaption> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Co-official and majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Official but minority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Secondary language: spoken as a second language by more than 20% of the population, de facto working language of government, language of instruction in education, etc.</div> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/220px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/330px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/440px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of Americans aged 5+ speaking English at home in each Microdata Area (PUMA) of the 50 states, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, according to the 2016–2021 five-year <a href="/wiki/American_Community_Survey" title="American Community Survey">American Community Survey</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg/300px-EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg/450px-EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg/600px-EF_English_Proficiency_Index_2019_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/EF_English_Proficiency_Index" title="EF English Proficiency Index">EF English Proficiency Index</a> 2019 in Europe:<a href="#cite_note-b783-69">[69]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "Very High Proficiency" (score 63.07–70.27)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "High Proficiency" (score 58.26–61.86)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "Moderate Proficiency" (score 52.50–57.38)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "Low Proficiency" (score 48.69–52.39)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "Very Low Proficiency" (score 40.87–48.19)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Not included in report</div></figcaption></figure> As of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, 400 million people spoke English as their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a>, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> English is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers" title="List of languages by total number of speakers">largest language by number of speakers</a>. English is spoken by communities on every continent and on islands in all the major oceans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b106-71">[71]</a> The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The "inner circle"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20062-72">[72]</a> countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_circles_of_English-speaking_countries">Three circles of English-speaking countries</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg/220px-English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg/330px-English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg/440px-English_as_main_language_in_London_2021.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> residents for whom English was their primary language as of 2021</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg/220px-Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg/330px-Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg/440px-Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Braj_Kachru" title="Braj Kachru">Braj Kachru</a>'s Three Circles of English</figcaption></figure> The Indian linguist <a href="/wiki/Braj_Kachru" title="Braj Kachru">Braj Kachru</a> distinguished countries where English is spoken with a <a href="/wiki/Three_Circles_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Circles of English">three circles model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20062-72">[72]</a> In his model, <ul><li>the "inner circle" countries have large communities of native speakers of English,</li> <li>"outer circle" countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes, and</li> <li>"expanding circle" countries are countries where many people learn English as a foreign language.</li></ul> Kachru based his model on the history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country. The three circles change membership over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006196-73">[73]</a> Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (at least 231 million),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2013Table_1-74">[74]</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (60 million),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOffice_for_National_Statistics2013Key_Points-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Records_of_Scotland2013-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthern_Ireland_Statistics_and_Research_Agency2012Table_KS207NI:_Main_Language-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> (19 million),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_Canada2014-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> (at least 17 million),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Bureau_of_Statistics2013-79">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (4.8 million),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_South_Africa2012Table_2.5_Population_by_first_language_spoken_and_province_(number)-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> (4.2 million), and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (3.7 million).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_New_Zealand2014-81">[81]</a> In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages and new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006377-82">[82]</a> The inner-circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006196-73">[73]</a> Estimates of the numbers of <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> and foreign-language English speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 billion, depending on how proficiency is defined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b108–109-9">[9]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">David Crystal</a> estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a69-83">[83]</a> In Kachru's three-circles model, the "outer circle" countries are countries such as the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubino2006-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick2006a-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELimAnsaldo2006-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnell2006-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider2007-88">[88]</a> with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085-89">[89]</a> Those countries have millions of native speakers of <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continua</a> ranging from an <a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_languages" title="English-based creole languages">English-based creole</a> to a more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006377-82">[82]</a> Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner-circle countries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006377-82">[82]</a> and they may show grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006377-82">[82]</a> In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language, make up the "expanding circle".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20084-90">[90]</a> The distinctions between English as a first language, as a second language, and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085-89">[89]</a> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and some other countries of Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population able to use it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEuropean_Commission2012-91">[91]</a> and thus English is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education. In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle". English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006197-92">[92]</a> Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006198-93">[93]</a> Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006-94">[94]</a> Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries. This is particularly true of the shared vocabulary of mathematics and the sciences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20087-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluricentric_English">Pluricentric English</h3></div> English is a <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a>, which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20082-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine1999-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaughCable2002-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20088–9-99">[99]</a> Spoken English, including English used in broadcasting, generally follows national pronunciation standards that are established by custom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their <a href="/wiki/Accent_(sociolinguistics)" title="Accent (sociolinguistics)">accents</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill2006-100">[100]</a> but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international <a href="/wiki/Standard_written_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard written English">standard written English</a>. The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmmon20081537–1539-101">[101]</a> American listeners readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting. Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the English-speaking world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech2006122-102">[102]</a> Both standard and non-standard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non-technical registers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085–6-103">[103]</a> The settlement history of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koineised</a> forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006130-104">[104]</a> The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2013Table_1-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006131-105">[105]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia#Language" title="Australia">Australia</a> has no official languages at the federal or state level.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Official_bilingualism_in_Canada" title="Official bilingualism in Canada">Canada</a>, English and French share an <a href="/wiki/Official_Languages_Act_(Canada)" title="Official Languages Act (Canada)">official status</a> at the federal level.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> English has official or co-official status in six provinces and three territories, while three provinces have none and Quebec's only official language is French.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li> <li>English is the official second language of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ireland" title="Languages of Ireland">Ireland</a>, while Irish is the first.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li>While <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_New_Zealand" title="Languages of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> is majority English-speaking, its two official languages are <a href="/wiki/Maori_Language_Act_1987" title="Maori Language Act 1987">Māori</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Sign_Language#Official_language_status" title="New Zealand Sign Language">New Zealand Sign Language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Languages of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> does not have an official language. In Wales and Northern Ireland, English is co-official alongside <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1993" title="Welsh Language Act 1993">Welsh</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_and_Language_(Northern_Ireland)_Act_2022" title="Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022">Irish</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> respectively. Neither Scotland nor England have an official language.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">United States</a>, there is no official language at the federal level.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> English has official or co-official status in 32 states, as well as all five territories.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Eighteen states and the District of Columbia have no official language.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_as_a_global_language">English as a global language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foreign-language_influences_in_English" title="Foreign-language influences in English">Foreign-language influences in English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Study of global communication</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg/220px-Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg/330px-Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg/440px-Countries_in_which_English_Language_is_a_Mandatory_or_an_Optional_Subject.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>Countries in which English language is a mandatory or an optional subject<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  English is a mandatory subject</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  English is an optional subject</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No data</div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg/220px-English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg/330px-English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg/440px-English_Proficiency_Index_by_country_as_of_2014.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Very high proficiency (80–100%)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  High proficiency (60–80%)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Moderate proficiency (40–60%)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Low proficiency (20–40%)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Very low proficiency (0.1–20%)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No data</div></figcaption></figure> English has ceased to be an "English language" in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19995-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20061-121">[121]</a> Use of English is growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006195-122">[122]</a> Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an "Afro-Saxon" language community that unites Africans from different countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazruiMazrui1998-123">[123]</a> As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMufwene2006614-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthrup201381–86-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMesthrie2010594-124">[124]</a> For example, the view of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">English language</a> among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnnamalai2006-125">[125]</a> English is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESailaja20092–9-126">[126]</a> However, English is rarely spoken as a first language, numbering only around a couple hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the population speak fluent English in India.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> David Crystal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2004-129">[129]</a> but the number of English speakers in India is uncertain, with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddol2010-130">[130]</a> Modern English, sometimes described as the first global <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeierkord2006165-131">[131]</a> is also regarded as the first <a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">world language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrutt-Griffler2006690–91-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthrup2013-133">[133]</a> English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthrup2013-133">[133]</a> English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required <a href="/wiki/Controlled_natural_language" title="Controlled natural language">controlled natural languages</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWojcik2006139-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seaspeak" title="Seaspeak">Seaspeak</a> and Airspeak, used as <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">international languages</a> of seafaring<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Maritime_Organization2011-135">[135]</a> and aviation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Civil_Aviation_Organization2011-136">[136]</a> English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordin2015-137">[137]</a> It achieved parity with <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> as a language of diplomacy at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> negotiations in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillipson200447-138">[138]</a> By the time of the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, English had become pre-eminent<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConradRubal-Lopez1996261-139">[139]</a> and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichter201229-140">[140]</a> It is one of six official languages of the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations2010-141">[141]</a> Many other worldwide international organisations, including the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a>, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation. Many regional international organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">European Free Trade Association</a>, <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of Southeast Asian Nations">Association of Southeast Asian Nations</a> (ASEAN),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a-62">[62]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Economic_Cooperation" title="Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation">Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation</a> (APEC) set English as their organisation's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmmon2006321-142">[142]</a> Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a-62">[62]</a> In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEuropean_Commission201221,_19-143">[143]</a> A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlcaraz_ArizaNavarro2006-144">[144]</a> and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrutt-Griffler2006694–95-145">[145]</a> International communities such as international business people may use English as an <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary language</a>, with an emphasis on vocabulary suitable for their domain of interest. This has led some scholars to develop the study of English as an auxiliary language. The trademarked <a href="/wiki/Globish_(Nerri%C3%A8re)" title="Globish (Nerrière)">Globish</a> uses a relatively small subset of English vocabulary (about 1500 words, designed to represent the highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Other examples include <a href="/wiki/Simple_English_Wikipedia" title="Simple English Wikipedia">Simple English</a>. The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words <a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">being assimilated</a> into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">language death</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2000-147">[147]</a> and to claims of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic imperialism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJambor2007-148">[148]</a> and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech2006Chapter_12:_English_into_the_Future-149">[149]</a> Though some mention a possibility of divergence of English dialects into mutually unintelligible languages, most think a more likely outcome is that English will continue to function as a <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koineised</a> language, in which the standard form unifies speakers from around the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2006-150">[150]</a> English is used as the language for wider communication in countries around the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrutt-Griffler2006-151">[151]</a> Thus English has grown in worldwide use much more than any <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a> proposed as an <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">international auxiliary language</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2003-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeierkord2006163-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English phonology</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of the English language differ from one dialect to another, usually without interfering with mutual communication. Phonological variation affects the inventory of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> (i.e. speech sounds that distinguish meaning), and phonetic variation consists in differences in pronunciation of the phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram2006334–335-154">[154]</a> This overview mainly describes the <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard pronunciations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> (RP) and <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> (GA). (See <a href="#Dialects,_accents_and_varieties">§ Dialects, accents and varieties</a>, below.) The phonetic symbols used below are from the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrHoneybone2007-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBermúdez-OteroMcMahon2006-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMahon2006-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Consonants" title="English phonology">English phonology § Consonants</a></div> Most English dialects share the same 24 (or 26 if marginal /x/ and glottal stop (/ʔ/) included) consonant phonemes. The consonant inventory shown below is valid for <a href="/wiki/California_English" title="California English">California English</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199941–42-158">[158]</a> and for RP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994534-159">[159]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Consonant phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post- alveolar</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>* </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">(<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>)</td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>)</td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">Central</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>** </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> </tbody></table> * The sound /ŋ/ can only occur as a coda. ** Conventionally transcribed /r/ In the table, when <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> (stops, affricates, and fricatives) appear in pairs, such as /p b/, /tʃ dʒ/, and /s z/, the first is <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a> (strong) and the second is lenis (weak). Fortis obstruents, such as /p tʃ s/ are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants, such as /b dʒ z/, and are always <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>. Lenis consonants are partly <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> at the beginning and end of utterances, and fully voiced between vowels. Fortis stops such as /p/ have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects: they are <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> [pʰ] when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable, often unaspirated in other cases, and often <a href="/wiki/Unreleased_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreleased stop">unreleased</a> [p̚] or pre-glottalised [ʔp] at the end of a syllable. In a single-syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened: thus nip has a noticeably shorter vowel (phonetically, but not phonemically) than nib [nɪˑb̥] (<a href="#Vowels">see below</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees200347–53-160">[160]</a> <ul><li>lenis stops: bin [b̥ɪˑn], about [əˈbaʊt], nib [nɪˑb̥]</li> <li>fortis stops: pin [pʰɪn]; spin [spɪn]; happy [ˈhæpi]; nip [nɪp̚] or [nɪʔp]</li></ul> In RP, the lateral approximant /l/, has two main <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> (pronunciation variants): the clear or plain [l], as in light, and the dark or <a href="/wiki/Velarised_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarised alveolar lateral approximant">velarised</a> [ɫ], as in full.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200813-161">[161]</a> GA has dark l in most cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200841-162">[162]</a> <ul><li>clear l: RP light [laɪt]</li> <li>dark l: RP and GA full [fʊɫ], GA light [ɫaɪt]</li></ul> All <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> (liquids /l, r/ and nasals /m, n, ŋ/) devoice when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonBrinton201056–59-163">[163]</a> <ul><li>voiceless sonorants: clay [kl̥eɪ̯]; snow RP [sn̥əʊ̯], GA [sn̥oʊ̯]</li> <li>syllabic sonorants: paddle [ˈpad.l̩], button [ˈbʌt.n̩]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Vowels" title="English phonology">English phonology § Vowels</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Closing diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">RP</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">GA</a></th> <th>Word </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">eɪ</td> <td>bay </td></tr> <tr> <td>əʊ</td> <td>oʊ</td> <td>road </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">aɪ</td> <td>cry </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">aʊ</td> <td>cow </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɔɪ</td> <td>boy </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Centring diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">RP</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">GA</a></th> <th>Word </th></tr> <tr> <td>ɪə</td> <td>ɪɹ</td> <td>peer </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">eə</a></td> <td>ɛɹ</td> <td>pair </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʊə</td> <td>ʊɹ</td> <td>poor </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></div> <div style="float: right;"> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 1em;"> <caption>Monophthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">RP</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">GA</a></th> <th>Word </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></td> <td>need </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></td> <td>bid </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></td> <td>bed </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></td> <td>back </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></td> <td>bra </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a></td> <td>box </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></td> <td>cloth </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a></td> <td>paw </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></td> <td>food </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></td> <td>good </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ʌ</a></td> <td>but </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ɜː</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">ɜɹ</a></td> <td>bird </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></td> <td>comma </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker's accent. The table below lists the vowel <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American (GA), with examples of words in which they occur from <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical sets</a> compiled by linguists. The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In RP, vowel length is phonemic; <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long vowels</a> are marked with a <a href="/wiki/Triangular_colon" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular colon">triangular colon</a> ⟨ː⟩ in the table above, such as the vowel of need [niːd] as opposed to bid [bɪd]. In GA, vowel length is non-distinctive. In both RP and GA, vowels are phonetically <a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">shortened before fortis consonants</a> in the same <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>, like /t tʃ f/, but not before lenis consonants like /d dʒ v/ or in open syllables: thus, the vowels of rich [rɪtʃ], neat [nit], and safe [seɪ̯f] are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge [rɪˑdʒ], need [niˑd], and save [seˑɪ̯v], and the vowel of light [laɪ̯t] is shorter than that of lie [laˑɪ̯]. Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable, vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees200346–50-165">[165]</a> The vowel /ə/ only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem-final positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014138-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlemmingJohnson2007-167">[167]</a> Some dialects do not contrast /ɪ/ and /ə/ in unstressed positions, such that rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon are homophonous, a dialectal feature called the <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982167-168">[168]</a> GA /ɜr/ and /ər/ are realised as an <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">r-coloured vowel</a> [ɚ], as in further [ˈfɚðɚ] (phonemically /ˈfɜrðər/), which in RP is realised as [ˈfəːðə] (phonemically /ˈfɜːðə/).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982121-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3></div> An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda (start and end) are optional. A syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds, as in sprint /sprɪnt/, and end with up to five, as in (for some dialects) angsts /aŋksts/. This gives an English syllable the following structure, (CCC)V(CCCCC), where C represents a consonant and V a vowel; the word strengths /strɛŋkθs/ is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in English. The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approximant, as in play; a voiceless fricative and approximant, as in fly or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonBrinton201060-170">[170]</a> Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited. Several consonants have limited distributions: /h/ can only occur in syllable-initial position, and /ŋ/ only in syllable-final position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994537–538-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress,_rhythm_and_intonation">Stress, rhythm and intonation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and vowel reduction in English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)#English" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation (linguistics) § English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Prosody" class="mw-redirect" title="English Prosody">English Prosody</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a> plays an important role in English. Certain <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> are stressed, while others are unstressed. Stress is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality, and sometimes changes in pitch. Stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">reduced</a> while vowels in stressed syllables are not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199942-172">[172]</a> Some words, primarily short function words but also some modal verbs such as can, have <a href="/wiki/Weak_and_strong_forms_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak and strong forms in English">weak and strong forms</a> depending on whether they occur in stressed or non-stressed position within a sentence. Stress in English is <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a>, and some pairs of words are distinguished by stress. For instance, the word contract is stressed on the first syllable (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkɒntrækt/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">KON-trakt</a>) when used as a noun, but on the last syllable (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/kənˈtrækt/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">kən-TRAKT</a>) for most meanings (for example, "reduce in size") when used as a verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015Entry_"contract"-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerriam_Webster2015Entry_"contract"-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacquarie_Dictionary2015Entry_"contract"-175">[175]</a> Here stress is connected to <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a>: in the noun "contract" the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel /ɒ/, but in the verb "contract" the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. a burnout (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbɜːrnaʊt/</a>) versus to burn out (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbɜːrn ˈaʊt/</a>), and a hotdog (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈhɒtdɒɡ/</a>) versus a hot dog (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈhɒt ˈdɒɡ/</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonBrinton201066-176">[176]</a> In terms of <a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a>, English is generally described as a <a href="/wiki/Stress-timed" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress-timed">stress-timed</a> language, meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables (syllables between stresses) are shortened. Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel shortening causes changes in <a href="/wiki/Vowel_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel quality">vowel quality</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_variation">Regional variation</h3></div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Varieties of Standard English and their features<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20024–6-179">[179]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Phonological features</th> <th><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">United States</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canada</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Republic of Ireland</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Northern Ireland</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scotland</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">England</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Wales</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South Africa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australia</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Father-bother_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Father-bother merger">father–bother merger</a> </th> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ɒ/</a> is <a href="/wiki/Unrounded" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded">unrounded</a> </th> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ɜːr/</a> is pronounced [ɚ] </th> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot–caught merger</a> </th> <td>possibly</td> <td>yes</td> <td>possibly</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Full%E2%80%93fool_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Full–fool merger">fool–full merger</a> </th> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/t, d/</a> <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a> </th> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>possibly</td> <td>often</td> <td>rarely</td> <td>rarely</td> <td>rarely</td> <td>rarely</td> <td>yes</td> <td>often </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Trap-bath_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Trap-bath split">trap–bath split</a> </th> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>possibly</td> <td>possibly</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>often</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>often</td> <td>yes </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">non-rhotic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/r/</a>-dropping after vowels) </th> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes </td></tr> <tr> <th>close vowels for /æ, ɛ/ </th> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/l/</a> can always be pronounced [ɫ] </th> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes </td></tr> <tr> <th>/ɑː/ is <a href="/wiki/Fronted_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fronted (phonetics)">fronted</a> before /r/ </th> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>possibly</td> <td>possibly</td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td style="background:lightgrey;"></td> <td>yes</td> <td>yes </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Dialects and low vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">Lexical set</a></th> <th>RP</th> <th>GA</th> <th>Can</th> <th>Sound change </th></tr> <tr> <th><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>THOUGHT </th> <td>/ɔː/</td> <td rowspan="2">/ɔ/ or /ɑ/</td> <td rowspan="4">/ɑ/</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger">cot–caught merger</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CLOTH </th> <td rowspan="2">/ɒ/</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lot%E2%80%93cloth_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Lot–cloth split">lot–cloth split</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT </th> <td rowspan="2">/ɑ/</td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Father%E2%80%93bother_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Father–bother merger">father–bother merger</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">PALM </th> <td rowspan="2">/ɑː/ </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">BATH </th> <td rowspan="2">/æ/</td> <td rowspan="2">/æ/</td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trap%E2%80%93bath_split" title="Trap–bath split">trap–bath split</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">TRAP </th> <td>/æ/ </td></tr></tbody></table> Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. The best-known national varieties used as standards for education in non-English-speaking countries are British (BrE) and American (AmE). Countries such as <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South Africa</a> have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally. Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table "Varieties of Standard English and their features".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20024–6-179">[179]</a> English has undergone many <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">historical sound changes</a>, some of them affecting all varieties, and others affecting only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>, which changed the pronunciation of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cities_Vowel_Shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Cities Vowel Shift">Northern Cities Vowel Shift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Shift">Canadian Shift</a> have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass199290,_118,_610Lass200080,_656-180">[180]</a> Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> than the standard varieties. Some conservative varieties like Scottish English have a <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a>] sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced [w] in wine, but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced [w], a dialect feature called <a href="/wiki/Wine%E2%80%93whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine–whine merger">wine–whine merger</a>. The voiceless velar fricative sound /x/ is found in Scottish English, which distinguishes loch /lɔx/ from lock /lɔk/. Accents like <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a> with "<a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">h-dropping</a>" lack the glottal fricative /h/, and dialects with <a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">th-stopping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">th-fronting</a> like <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estuary_English" title="Estuary English">Estuary English</a> do not have the dental fricatives /θ, ð/, but replace them with dental or alveolar stops /t, d/ or labiodental fricatives /f, v/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200953-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich199236-182">[182]</a> Other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yod-coalescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-coalescence">yod-coalescence</a>, and reduction of consonant clusters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982-183">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> vary in their pronunciation of historical /r/ after a vowel at the end of a syllable (in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a>). GA is a <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">rhotic dialect</a>, meaning that it pronounces /r/ at the end of a syllable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses /r/ in that position. English dialects are classified as rhotic or non-rhotic depending on whether they elide /r/ like RP or keep it like GA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass2000114-184">[184]</a> There is complex dialectal variation in words with the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_short_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English short A">open front</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_low_back_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English low back vowels">open back vowels</a> /æ ɑː ɒ ɔː/. These four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge to three /æ ɑ ɔ/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982xviii–xix-185">[185]</a> and in Canadian English, they merge to two /æ ɑ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982493-186">[186]</a> In addition, the words that have each vowel vary by dialect. The table "Dialects and open vowels" shows this variation with <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical sets</a> in which these sounds occur. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English grammar</a></div> As is typical of an Indo-European language, English follows <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_alignment" title="Nominative–accusative alignment">accusative</a> <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">morphosyntactic alignment</a>. Unlike other Indo-European languages though, English has largely abandoned the inflectional <a href="/wiki/Case_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Case system">case system</a> in favour of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> constructions. Only the <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> retain morphological case more strongly than any other <a href="/wiki/Word_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Word class">word class</a>. English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners (including articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into <a href="/wiki/English_subordinators" title="English subordinators">subordinators</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_coordinators" title="English coordinators">coordinators</a>, and add the class of interjections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200222-187">[187]</a> English also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs, such as have and do, expressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are marked by <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support">do-support</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wh-movement" title="Wh-movement">wh-movement</a> (fronting of question words beginning with wh-) and word order <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">inversion</a> with some verbs.<a href="#cite_note-EGT-188">[188]</a> Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected <a href="/wiki/Strong_inflection" title="Strong inflection">strong</a> stems inflected through <a href="/wiki/Ablaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablaut">ablaut</a> (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs speak/spoke and foot/feet) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as love/loved, hand/hands).<a href="#cite_note-HOEL-189">[189]</a> Vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system (he/him, who/whom) and in the inflection of the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> verb to be.<a href="#cite_note-HOEL-189">[189]</a> The seven word-classes are exemplified in this sample sentence:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAartsHaegeman2006118-190">[190]</a> <table style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>The</td> <td>chairman</td> <td>of</td> <td>the</td> <td>committee</td> <td>and</td> <td>the</td> <td>loquacious</td> <td>politician</td> <td>clashed</td> <td>violently</td> <td>when</td> <td>the</td> <td>meeting</td> <td>started. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Det.</td> <td>Noun</td> <td>Prep.</td> <td>Det.</td> <td>Noun</td> <td>Conj.</td> <td>Det.</td> <td>Adj.</td> <td>Noun</td> <td>Verb</td> <td>Advb.</td> <td>Conj.</td> <td>Det.</td> <td>Noun</td> <td>Verb </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns_and_noun_phrases">Nouns and noun phrases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_nouns" title="English nouns">English nouns</a></div> English nouns are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding. They are semantically divided into <a href="/wiki/Proper_noun" title="Proper noun">proper nouns</a> (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and grammatically into <a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">count nouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">mass nouns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayneHuddleston2002-191">[191]</a> Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> -s, but a few nouns have irregular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e.g. one loaf of bread, two loaves of bread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200256–57-192">[192]</a> Regular plural formation: <ul><li>Singular: cat, dog</li> <li>Plural: cats, dogs</li></ul> Irregular plural formation: <ul><li>Singular: man, woman, foot, fish, ox, knife, mouse</li> <li>Plural: men, women, feet, fish, oxen, knives, mice</li></ul> Possession can be expressed either by the possessive <a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> -s (also traditionally called a genitive suffix), or by the preposition of. Historically the -s possessive has been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this distinction is less clear, and many speakers use -s also with inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -s is separated from a singular noun with an apostrophe. If the noun is plural formed with -s the apostrophe follows the -s.<a href="#cite_note-EGT-188">[188]</a> Possessive constructions: <ul><li>With -s: The woman's husband's child</li> <li>With of: The child of the husband of the woman</li></ul> Nouns can form <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrases</a> (NPs) where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200255-193">[193]</a> Noun phrases can be short, such as the man, composed only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives (e.g. red, tall, all) and specifiers such as determiners (e.g. the, that). But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, using conjunctions such as and, or prepositions such as with, e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles (this NP uses conjunctions, prepositions, specifiers, and modifiers). Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit.<a href="#cite_note-EGT-188">[188]</a> For example, the possessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambiguity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President of India's wife, where the enclitic follows India and not President. The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</a>, where the marks a definite noun and a or an an indefinite one. A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include one, many, some and all, are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e.g. one man (sg.) but all men (pl.). Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200254–5-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_adjectives" title="English adjectives">English adjectives</a></div> English adjectives are words such as good, big, interesting, and Canadian that most typically modify nouns, <a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">denoting</a> characteristics of their <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referents</a> (e.g., a red car). As modifiers, they come before the nouns they modify and after determiners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200257-195">[195]</a> English adjectives also function as predicative complements (e.g., the child is happy). In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected so as to <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agree</a> in form with the noun they modify, as adjectives in most other Indo-European languages do. For example, in the phrases the slender boy, and many slender girls, the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun. Some adjectives are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">degree of comparison</a>, with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix -er marking the comparative, and -est marking the superlative: a small boy, the boy is smaller than the girl, that boy is the smallest. Some adjectives have irregular <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a> comparative and superlative forms, such as good, better, and best. Other adjectives have comparatives formed by <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic constructions</a>, with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most marking the superlative: happier or more happy, the happiest or most happy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994540-196">[196]</a> There is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2006148–49-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Determiners">Determiners</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_determiners" title="English determiners">English determiners</a></div> English determiners are words such as the, each, many, some, and which, occurring most typically in noun phrases before the head nouns and any modifiers and marking the noun phrase as <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definite</a> or indefinite.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> They often agree with the noun in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>. They do not typically inflect for degree of comparison. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pronouns,_case,_and_person">Pronouns, case, and person</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_pronouns" title="English pronouns">English pronouns</a></div> English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection. The personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons (I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them) as well as an animateness distinction in the third person singular (distinguishing it from the three sets of animate third person singular pronouns) and an optional gender distinction in the animate third person singular (distinguishing between <a href="/wiki/She/her" class="mw-redirect" title="She/her">she/her</a> [feminine], <a href="/wiki/They/them" class="mw-redirect" title="They/them">they/them</a> [<a href="/wiki/Epicene" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicene">epicene</a>], and <a href="/wiki/He/him" class="mw-redirect" title="He/him">he/him</a> [masculine]).<a href="#cite_note-oedthey-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Subjective_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective case">subjective case</a> corresponds to the Old English <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Objective_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective case">objective case</a> is used in the sense both of the previous <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a> (for a patient, or direct object of a transitive verb), and of the Old English dative case (for a recipient or <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a> of a transitive verb).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeech200669-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Dwyer2006-202">[202]</a> The subjective is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause, otherwise the objective is used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenbaumNelson2002-203">[203]</a> While grammarians such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Henry Sweet</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet201452-204">[204]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersen2007173–185-205">[205]</a> noted that the English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin-based system, some contemporary grammars, for example <a href="#CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002">Huddleston & Pullum (2002)</a>, retain traditional labels for the cases, calling them nominative and accusative cases respectively. Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun (as in my chair), while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. the chair is mine).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002425–26-206">[206]</a> The English system of grammatical person no longer has a distinction between formal and informal pronouns of address (the old second person singular familiar pronoun <a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">thou</a> acquired a pejorative or inferior tinge of meaning and was abandoned). Both the second and third persons share pronouns between the plural and singular: <ul><li>Plural and singular are always identical (you, your, yours) in the second person (except in the reflexive form: yourself/yourselves) in most dialects. Some dialects have introduced innovative second person plural pronouns, such as y'all (found in <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern American English</a> and <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American (Vernacular) English</a>), youse (found in <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a>), or ye (in <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>).</li> <li>In the third person, the they/them series of pronouns (they, them, their, theirs, themselves) are used in both plural and singular, and are the only pronouns available for the plural. In the singular, the <a href="/wiki/They/them" class="mw-redirect" title="They/them">they/them</a> series (sometimes with the addition of the singular-specific reflexive form themself) serve as a <a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">gender-neutral</a> set of pronouns. These pronouns are becoming more accepted, especially as part of the <a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">LGBTQ culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oedthey-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>English personal pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Person</th> <th scope="col">Subjective case</th> <th scope="col">Objective case</th> <th scope="col">Dependent possessive</th> <th scope="col">Independent possessive</th> <th scope="col">Reflexive </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1st, singular </th> <td>I</td> <td>me</td> <td>my</td> <td>mine</td> <td>myself </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2nd, singular </th> <td>you</td> <td>you</td> <td>your</td> <td>yours</td> <td>yourself </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3rd, singular </th> <td>he/she/it/<a href="/wiki/Singular_they" title="Singular they">they</a></td> <td>him/her/it/them</td> <td>his/her/its/their</td> <td>his/hers/its/theirs</td> <td>himself/herself/itself/themself/themselves </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1st, plural </th> <td>we</td> <td>us</td> <td>our</td> <td>ours</td> <td>ourselves </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2nd, plural </th> <td>you</td> <td>you</td> <td>your</td> <td>yours</td> <td>yourselves </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3rd, plural </th> <td>they</td> <td>them</td> <td>their</td> <td>theirs</td> <td>themselves </td></tr></tbody></table> Pronouns are used to refer to entities <a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">deictically</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anaphoric_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaphoric reference">anaphorically</a>. A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation—for example, the pronoun I identifies the speaker, and the pronoun you, the addressee. Anaphoric pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for example in the sentence I already told you that. The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. "he sent it to himself" or "she braced herself for impact").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002426-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">English prepositions</a></div> Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. with the dog, for my friend, to school, in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200258-210">[210]</a> Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe movement, place, and other relations between different entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200258-210">[210]</a> For example, in the phrase I gave it to him, the preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of the verb to give. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her", "to me", "for us". But some contemporary grammars no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions, rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002598–600-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs_and_verb_phrases">Verbs and verb phrases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a></div> English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with present-tense third-person singular subject. Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994540-196">[196]</a> Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive, past, or progressive forms. They form <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">complex</a> tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200251-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994541-213">[213]</a> Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third-person singular present, and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund-participle and a past participle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200250-214">[214]</a> The copula verb to be is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject. The first-person present-tense form is am, the third person singular form is is, and the form are is used in the second-person singular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle is been and its gerund-participle is being. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>English inflectional forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Inflection</th> <th scope="col">Strong</th> <th scope="col">Regular </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Plain present </th> <td>take</td> <td>love </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3rd person sg. present </th> <td>takes</td> <td>loves </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Preterite </th> <td>took</td> <td>loved </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Plain (infinitive) </th> <td>take</td> <td>love </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Gerund–participle </th> <td>taking</td> <td>loving </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Past participle </th> <td>taken</td> <td>loved </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense,_aspect_and_mood">Tense, aspect and mood</h4></div> English has two primary tenses, past (preterite) and non-past. The preterite is inflected by using the preterite form of the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix -ed, and for the strong verbs either the suffix -t or a change in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except in the third person singular, which takes the suffix -s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200251-212">[212]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col"></th> <th scope="col">Present</th> <th scope="col">Preterite </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">First person </th> <td>I run</td> <td>I ran </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Second person </th> <td>You run</td> <td>You ran </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Third person </th> <td>John runs</td> <td>John ran </td></tr></tbody></table> English does not have future verb forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002208–210-215">[215]</a> The future tense is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200251–52-216">[216]</a> Many varieties also use a <a href="/wiki/Near_future_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Near future tense">near future</a> constructed with the <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verb</a> be going to ("<a href="/wiki/Going-to_future" title="Going-to future">going-to future</a>").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002210–11-217">[217]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col"></th> <th scope="col">Future </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">First person </th> <td>I will run </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Second person </th> <td>You will run </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Third person </th> <td>John will run </td></tr></tbody></table> Further aspectual distinctions are shown by auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be, which show the contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense (I have run vs. I was running), and compound tenses such as preterite perfect (I had been running) and present perfect (I have been running).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200250–51-218">[218]</a> For the expression of mood, English uses a number of modal auxiliaries, such as can, may, will, shall and the past tense forms could, might, would, should. There are also <a href="/wiki/English_subjunctive" title="English subjunctive">subjunctive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative moods</a>, both based on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third person singular -s), for use in subordinate clauses (e.g. subjunctive: It is important that he run every day; imperative Run!).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum200251–52-216">[216]</a> An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to, is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs, they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> For example, he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive, or in a complement clause such as I saw him leave, where the main verb is see, which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the infinitive. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrasal_verbs">Phrasal verbs</h4></div> English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verbs</a>, verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word. Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up, to ask out, to back up, to give up, to get together, to hang out, to put up with, etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly <a href="/wiki/English-language_idioms" title="English-language idioms">idiomatic</a> meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement (e.g. lay off meaning terminate someone's employment).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1982-220">[220]</a> In spite of the idiomatic meaning, some grammarians, including <a href="#CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002">Huddleston & Pullum (2002</a>:274), do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term "phrasal verb". Instead, they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i.e. he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_adverbs" title="English adverbs">English adverbs</a></div> The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs.<a href="#cite_note-EGT-188">[188]</a> Many adverbs are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix -ly. For example, in the phrase the woman walked quickly, the adverb quickly is derived in this way from the adjective quick. Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms, such as good, which has the adverbial form well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/220px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/330px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/440px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>In the English sentence The cat sat on the mat, the subject is the cat (a noun phrase), the verb is "sat", and "on the mat" is a prepositional phrase composed of a noun phrase "the mat", headed by the preposition "on".</figcaption></figure> Modern English syntax language is moderately <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">analytic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcArthur199264,_610–611-221">[221]</a> It has developed features such as <a href="/wiki/English_modal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verb">modal verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> as resources for conveying meaning. <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary verbs</a> mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">passive voice</a> and progressive <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basic_constituent_order">Basic constituent order</h4></div> English word order has moved from the Germanic <a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">verb-second (V2) word order</a> to being almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994553-222">[222]</a> The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as he had hoped to try to open it. In most sentences, English only marks grammatical relations through word order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994550-223">[223]</a> The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb: <table style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>The dog</td> <td>bites</td> <td>the man </td></tr> <tr> <td>S</td> <td>V</td> <td>O </td></tr> <tr> <td>The man</td> <td>bites</td> <td>the dog </td></tr> <tr> <td>S</td> <td>V</td> <td>O </td></tr></tbody></table> An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject are represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun: <table style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>He</td> <td>hit</td> <td>him </td></tr> <tr> <td>S</td> <td>V</td> <td>O </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">Indirect objects</a> (IO) of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction (S V IO O), such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional phrase, such as I gave the book to Jane.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994551-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clause_syntax">Clause syntax</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax" title="English clause syntax">English clause syntax</a></div> In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Prepositional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, there is always at least one main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase I think (that) you are lying, the main clause is headed by the verb think, the subject is I, but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause (that) you are lying. The subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller200260–69-226">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative clauses</a> are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today, the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter, the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who, whose, whom, and which as well as by that (which can also be omitted.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994545-227">[227]</a> In contrast to many other Germanic languages there are no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönig1994557-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Auxiliary_verb_constructions">Auxiliary verb constructions</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support">Do-support</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_auxiliary_verbs" title="English auxiliary verbs">English auxiliary verbs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">Subject–auxiliary inversion</a></div> English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense, aspect, and mood. Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not find its bone, the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not. <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">Subject–auxiliary inversion</a> is used in many constructions, including focus, negation, and interrogative constructions. The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add emphasis, as in "I did shut the fridge." However, in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used because the rules of English <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present. <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite</a> lexical verb, as in *I know not—it can only be added to an auxiliary (or <a href="/wiki/Copular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Copular verb">copular</a>) verb, hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required, the auxiliary do is used, to produce a form like I do not (don't) know. The same applies in clauses requiring inversion, including most questions—inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not possible to say *Know you him?; grammatical rules require Do you know him?<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002114-229">[229]</a> Negation is done with the adverb not, which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted form of not -n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with questions, many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do-support, thus in Modern English I don't know him is the correct answer to the question Do you know him?, but not *I know him not, although this construction may be found in older English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002786–790-230">[230]</a> Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get, although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with get. For example, putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen (by her), or he gets seen (by her).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller200226–27-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Questions">Questions</h4></div> Both <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no questions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wh-question" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-question">wh-questions</a> in English are mostly formed using <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">subject–auxiliary inversion</a> (Am I going tomorrow?, Where can we eat?), which may require <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support">do-support</a> (Do you like her?, Where did he go?). In most cases, <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative words</a> (wh-words; e.g. what, who, where, when, why, how) appear in a <a href="/wiki/Wh-movement" title="Wh-movement">fronted position</a>. For example, in the question What did you see?, the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical object">grammatical object</a> of the sentence. (When the wh-word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inversion occurs: Who saw the cat?.) <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrases" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrases">Prepositional phrases</a> can also be fronted when they are the questions theme, e.g. To whose house did you go last night?. The personal interrogative pronoun <a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)">who</a> is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case, with the variant whom serving as the objective case form, although this form may be going out of use in many contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum20027–8-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discourse_level_syntax">Discourse level syntax</h4></div> While English is a subject-prominent language, at the discourse level it tends to use a <a href="/wiki/Topic_and_comment" title="Topic and comment">topic-comment</a> structure, where the known information (topic) precedes the new information (comment). Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, it is often promoted to subject position through syntactic means. One way of doing this is through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the bee. Another way is through a <a href="/wiki/Cleft_sentence" title="Cleft sentence">cleft sentence</a> where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Dummy subject">dummy subject</a> such as it or there, e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung, there was a girl who was stung by a bee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum20021365–70-233">[233]</a> Dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs (e.g., it is raining) or in existential clauses (there are many cars on the street). Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic-comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax. <a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus constructions</a> emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence, generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent. For example, the girl was stung by a bee (emphasising it was a bee and not, for example, a wasp that stung her), or The girl was stung by a bee (contrasting with another possibility, for example that it was the boy).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum20021370-234">[234]</a> Topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee, emphasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that girl over there, where reference to the girl is established as an "afterthought".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum20021366-235">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(linguistics)" title="Cohesion (linguistics)">Cohesion</a> between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">anaphora</a> (e.g. that is exactly what I mean where that refers to some fact known to both interlocutors, or then used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallidayHasan1976-236">[236]</a> <a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse markers</a> such as oh, so, or well, also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for <a href="/wiki/Stance_(linguistics)" title="Stance (linguistics)">stance taking</a> in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, no way is that true! (the idiomatic marker no way! expressing disbelief), or boy! I'm hungry (the marker boy expressing emphasis). While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffrin1988-237">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div> It is generally stated that English has around 170,000 words, or 220,000 if <a href="/wiki/Obsolete_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsolete word">obsolete words</a> are counted; this estimate is based on the last full edition of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1989.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Over half of these words are nouns, a quarter adjectives, and a seventh verbs. There is one count that puts the English vocabulary at about 1 million words—but that count presumably includes words such as Latin <a href="/wiki/Species_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Species name">species names</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_terminology" title="Scientific terminology">scientific terminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botanical_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanical terms">botanical terms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixed</a> words, <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a>, foreign words of extremely limited English use, and technical <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronyms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo1999-239">[239]</a> Due to its status as an international language, English adopts foreign words quickly and borrows vocabulary from many other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicographers</a>, the scholars who formally study vocabulary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good-quality <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">linguistic corpora</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeechHundtMairSmith200924–50-240">[240]</a> collections of actual written texts and spoken passages. Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analyses of linguistic corpus data become available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo1999-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKastovsky2006-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word-formation_processes">Word-formation processes</h3></div> English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the most productive processes in English is conversion,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b129-242">[242]</a> using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word-formation process is nominal compounding,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo1999-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKastovsky2006-241">[241]</a> producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b129-242">[242]</a> A process more common in Old English than in Modern English, but still productive in Modern English, is the use of derivational suffixes (-hood, -ness, -ing, -ility) to derive new words from existing words (especially those of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_words_with_English_derivatives" title="List of Latin words with English derivatives">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/English_words_of_Greek_origin" title="English words of Greek origin">Greek origin</a>). Formation of new words, called <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_and_Latin_roots_in_English" title="List of Greek and Latin roots in English">Greek and/or Latin roots</a> (for example television or optometry) is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, American lexicographer <a href="/wiki/Philip_Gove" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Gove">Philip Gove</a> attributed many such words to the "<a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">international scientific vocabulary</a>" (ISV) when compiling <a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Third_New_International_Dictionary" title="Webster's Third New International Dictionary">Webster's Third New International Dictionary</a> (1961). Another active word-formation process in English is the creation of <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronyms</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b120–121-243">[243]</a> words formed by pronouncing abbreviations of longer phrases as single words, e.g. <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">scuba</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_origins">Word origins</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Foreign-language_influences_in_English" title="Foreign-language influences in English">Foreign-language influences in English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_by_country_or_language_of_origin" title="Lists of English words by country or language of origin">Lists of English words by country or language of origin</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism_in_English" title="Linguistic purism in English">Linguistic purism in English</a></div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 260.6720753431px; border-left-color:yellow"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:yellow"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:yellow"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 155.19341916339px; border-left-color:purple"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:purple"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:purple"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 92.264418956858px; border-left-color:orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:orange"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 43.572581406027px; border-left-color:green"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:green"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:green"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:39.945320285744px 91.675358669979px 0 0; border-top-color:red"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:red"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 21.036851205653px 100px 0; border-right-color:blue"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:blue"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> Source languages of the English vocabulary<a href="#cite_note-Wolff-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  French, including Anglo-Norman (28.30%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin (28.24%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Germanic languages (Old English, Old Norse, Dutch) (25%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Greek (5.32%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No etymology given (4.03%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Derived from proper names (3.28%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Other (5.83%)</div> </div> </div></div> English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages. This borrowing is commonplace in many world languages, but English has been especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenningKesslerLeben20077-245">[245]</a> Nevertheless, most of the core vocabulary and the most common words in English are still West Germanic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENation2001265-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The English words first learned by children as they learn to speak are mainly Germanic words from <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo1999-239">[239]</a> It is not possible to speak or write English without Germanic words, but it is possible to write or speak many sentences in English without foreign loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of "Latinate" words (derived from French, especially, and also from other Romance languages and Latin). French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one-third of the vocabulary of English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006196-249">[249]</a> Linguist Anthony Lacoudre estimated that over 40,000 English words are of French origin and may be understood without <a href="/wiki/Orthographical" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthographical">orthographical</a> change by French speakers.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language primarily from the contact between Old Norse and Old English during colonisation of eastern and <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a>. Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as egg and knife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenningKesslerLeben2007-251">[251]</a> English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all stages of its development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKastovsky2006-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo1999-239">[239]</a> Many of these words had earlier been borrowed into Latin from Greek. Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19994-252">[252]</a> English continues to gain new loanwords and <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> ("loan translations") from languages all over the world, and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo-Saxon language make up about 60% of the vocabulary of English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFasoldConnor-Linton2014302-253">[253]</a> English has formal and informal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">speech registers</a>; informal registers, including child-directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the percentage of vocabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, scientific, and academic texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b124–127-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgeo199980–81-255">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_loanwords_and_calques_in_other_languages">English loanwords and calques in other languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">Englishisation</a></div> English has had a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006196-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrutt-Griffler2006692-256">[256]</a> The influence of English comes from such factors as opinion leaders in other countries knowing the English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006197-257">[257]</a> That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006198-258">[258]</a> Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a>, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006202-259">[259]</a> Dubbed films and television programmes are an especially fruitful source of English influence on languages in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006202-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">English alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English Braille</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a></div> Since the ninth century, English has been written in a <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> (also called Roman alphabet). Earlier Old English texts in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon runes</a> are only short inscriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGneuss201323-38">[38]</a> The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>: <a href="/wiki/A" title="A">a</a>, <a href="/wiki/B" title="B">b</a>, <a href="/wiki/C" title="C">c</a>, <a href="/wiki/D" title="D">d</a>, <a href="/wiki/E" title="E">e</a>, <a href="/wiki/F" title="F">f</a>, <a href="/wiki/G" title="G">g</a>, <a href="/wiki/H" title="H">h</a>, <a href="/wiki/I" title="I">i</a>, <a href="/wiki/J" title="J">j</a>, <a href="/wiki/K" title="K">k</a>, <a href="/wiki/L" title="L">l</a>, <a href="/wiki/M" title="M">m</a>, <a href="/wiki/N" title="N">n</a>, <a href="/wiki/O" title="O">o</a>, <a href="/wiki/P" title="P">p</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">q</a>, <a href="/wiki/R" title="R">r</a>, <a href="/wiki/S" title="S">s</a>, <a href="/wiki/T" title="T">t</a>, <a href="/wiki/U" title="U">u</a>, <a href="/wiki/V" title="V">v</a>, <a href="/wiki/W" title="W">w</a>, <a href="/wiki/X" title="X">x</a>, <a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">y</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">z</a> (which also have <a href="/wiki/Letter_case" title="Letter case">capital</a> forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). The spelling system, or <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>, of English is multi-layered and complex, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwan2006149-260">[260]</a> Further complications have arisen through <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a> with which the orthography has not kept pace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass2000-53">[53]</a> Compared to European languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms, English has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation, and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountford2006-261">[261]</a> There are also systematic <a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">spelling differences between British and American English</a>. These situations have prompted <a href="/wiki/English-language_spelling_reform" title="English-language spelling reform">proposals for spelling reform in English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeijt2006-262">[262]</a> Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996653-263">[263]</a> Moreover, standard English spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling—for example, the words photograph, photography, and photographic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996653-263">[263]</a> or the words electricity and electrical. While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional English orthography is "near-optimal",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwan2006149-260">[260]</a> there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombieDaniels2006-264">[264]</a> The standard orthography of English is the most widely used writing system in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountford2006156-265">[265]</a> Standard English spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountford2006157–158-266">[266]</a> Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> used to spell consonant sounds. The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z represent, respectively, the phonemes /b, d, f, h, dʒ, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z/. The letters c and g normally represent /k/ and /ɡ/, but there is also a <a href="/wiki/Soft_c" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft c">soft c</a> pronounced /s/, and a <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G" title="Hard and soft G">soft g</a> pronounced /dʒ/. The differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for /tʃ/, sh for /ʃ/, th for /θ/ or /ð/, ng for /ŋ/, qu for /kw/, and ph for /f/ in Greek-derived words. The single letter x is generally pronounced as /z/ in word-initial position and as /ks/ otherwise. There are exceptions to these generalisations, often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996653-263">[263]</a> or residues of proposals by scholars in the early period of Modern English to follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996654-267">[267]</a> For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are single vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, w, y). As a result, some "<a href="/wiki/Vowel_length#Short_and_long_vowels_in_English" title="Vowel length">long vowels</a>" are often indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat, the ow in how, and the ay in stay), or the historically based <a href="/wiki/Silent_e" title="Silent e">silent e</a> (as in note and cake).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombieDaniels2006-264">[264]</a> The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read and write can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDehaene2009-268">[268]</a> Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound-symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996653-263">[263]</a> Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGuinness1997-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaywitz2003-270">[270]</a> Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountford2006159-271">[271]</a> English writing also includes a system of <a href="/wiki/Punctuation" title="Punctuation">punctuation</a> marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawler2006290-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects,_accents_and_varieties">Dialects, accents and varieties</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_English" title="List of dialects of English">List of dialects of English</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Englishes" title="World Englishes">World Englishes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">Regional accents of English</a></div> Dialectologists identify many <a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_English" title="List of dialects of English">English dialects</a>, which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate <a href="/wiki/Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">regional accents</a>. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the two extremely general categories of <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> (BrE) and <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a> (NAE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b107-273">[273]</a> There also exists a third common major grouping of English varieties: Southern Hemisphere English, the most prominent being <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain_and_Ireland">Britain and Ireland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language in England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estuary_English" title="Estuary English">Estuary English</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">English language in Northern England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Ulster English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac" title="File:Alain de Botton on Fear of Failure at Cannes Lions 2012.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac/Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac/Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Alain_de_Botton_on_Fear_of_Failure_at_Cannes_Lions_2012.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Received Pronunciation accent">Received Pronunciation accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Botton" title="Alain de Botton">Alain de Botton</a>).</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac" title="File:Danny Baker BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 31 Jul 2007 b012wcl4.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="39" data-mwtitle="Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac/Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac/Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Danny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ADanny_Baker_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_31_Jul_2007_b012wcl4.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/Cockney_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockney accent">Cockney accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Danny_Baker" title="Danny Baker">Danny Baker</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac" title="File:Russell brand bbc radio4 desert island discs 21 07 2013.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e4/Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac/Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e4/Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac/Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Russell_brand_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_21_07_2013.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of an <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a> man with a working-class <a href="/wiki/Estuary_English" title="Estuary English">Estuary English accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russell_Brand" title="Russell Brand">Russell Brand</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac" title="File:Damien hirst bbc radio4 desert island discs 13 05 2013 b01sd0hy.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="32" data-mwtitle="Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e7/Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac/Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e7/Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac/Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Damien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ADamien_hirst_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_13_05_2013_b01sd0hy.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a (<a href="/wiki/West_Yorkshire" title="West Yorkshire">West</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkshire accent">Yorkshire accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damien_Hirst" title="Damien Hirst">Damien Hirst</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac" title="File:John bishop bbc radio4 desert island discs 24 06 2012.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ef/John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac/John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ef/John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac/John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AJohn_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverpool accent">Liverpool accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_Bishop" title="John Bishop">John Bishop</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac" title="File:Rob Brydon BBC Radio4 Front Row 18 Mar 2012 b01dhl11.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="40" data-mwtitle="Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/30/Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac/Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/30/Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac/Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Rob_Brydon_BBC_Radio4_Front_Row_18_Mar_2012_b01dhl11.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a (<a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South</a>) <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Wales accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rob_Brydon" title="Rob Brydon">Rob Brydon</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac" title="File:Alex Salmond BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 16 January 2011 b00xgs41.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_6" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac/Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac/Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Alex_Salmond_BBC_Radio4_Desert_Island_Discs_16_January_2011_b00xgs41.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with one of the many <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">accents of Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alex_Salmond" title="Alex Salmond">Alex Salmond</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac" title="File:George Best - The New Elizabethans -20 Jul 2012 - b01kt7cs.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_7" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="21" data-mwtitle="George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac/George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac/George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/George_Best_-_The_New_Elizabethans_-20_Jul_2012_-_b01kt7cs.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Northern Irish accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/George_Best" title="George Best">George Best</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac" title="File:Mary Robinson - Desert Island Discs - 28 July 2013.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_8" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="37" data-mwtitle="Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/84/Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac/Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/84/Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac/Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Mary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMary_Robinson_-_Desert_Island_Discs_-_28_July_2013.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a woman with one of the many <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">accents of the Republic of Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson" title="Mary Robinson">Mary Robinson</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg/220px-Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg/330px-Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg/440px-Dialects_of_English_in_UK_and_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>A map showing the main dialect regions in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></figcaption></figure> The fact that English has been spoken in England for 1,500 years explains why England has a great wealth of regional dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill199910-274">[274]</a> Within the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> (RP), an educated accent associated originally with the <a href="/wiki/South_East_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="South East of England">South East of England</a>, has been traditionally used as a broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of British accents. The spread of RP (also known as BBC English) through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects. At the time of the 1950-61 <a href="/wiki/Survey_of_English_Dialects" title="Survey of English Dialects">Survey of English Dialects</a>, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill1999125-275">[275]</a> Nonetheless, this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary. In fact, only 3% of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking in regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughesTrudgill19963-276">[276]</a> There is also variability within RP, particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle-class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and speakers who adopt RP later in life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughesTrudgill199637-277">[277]</a> Within Britain, there is also considerable variation along lines of social class; some traits, though exceedingly common, are nonetheless considered "non-standard" and associated with lower-class speakers and identities. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">h-dropping</a>, which was historically a feature of lower-class London English, particularly Cockney, and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of England. However, it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughesTrudgill199640-278">[278]</a> <a href="/wiki/English_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="English in England">English in England</a> can be divided into four major dialect regions: South East English, South West English (also known as <a href="/wiki/West_Country_English" title="West Country English">West Country English</a>), Midlands English and <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">Northern English</a>. Within each of these regions, several local dialects exist: within the Northern region, there is a division between the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_dialect" title="Yorkshire dialect">Yorkshire</a> dialects, the <a href="/wiki/Geordie" title="Geordie">Geordie</a> dialect (spoken around <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Northumbria_(modern)" title="Northumbria (modern)">Northumbria</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Lancashire_dialect" title="Lancashire dialect">Lancashire</a> dialects, which include the urban subdialects of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manchester_dialect" title="Manchester dialect">Mancunian</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Scouse</a>). Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking invasions of England, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughesTrudgill199631-279">[279]</a> Since the 15th century, South East England varieties have centred on London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In London, the <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a> dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised variety. The spread of Cockney features across the South East led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had been influencing neighbouring regions throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20094-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill199980-282">[282]</a> Traits that have spread from London in recent decades include the use of <a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">intrusive R</a> (drawing is pronounced drawring /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/), <a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">t-glottalisation</a> (Potter is pronounced with a glottal stop as Po'er /ˈpɒʔə/) and <a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">th-fronting</a>, or the pronunciation of th- as /f/ (thanks pronounced fanks) or /v/ (bother pronounced bover).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill199980–81-283">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> is today considered a separate language from English, but it has <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scots_language" title="History of the Scots language">its origins</a> in early Northern Middle English<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAitkenMcArthur197981-284">[284]</a> and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, particularly <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scots Gaelic</a> and Old Norse. Scots itself has a number of regional dialects. In addition to Scots, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a> comprises the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland; most varieties are Northern English accents, with some influence from Scots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine1982-285">[285]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, various forms of English have been spoken since the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasions</a> of the 11th century. In <a href="/wiki/County_Wexford" title="County Wexford">County Wexford</a> and in the area surrounding <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, two extinct dialects known as <a href="/wiki/Forth_and_Bargy_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Forth and Bargy dialect">Forth and Bargy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a> developed as offshoots from Early Middle English and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Irish English</a>, however, has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century. Today Irish English is divided into <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Ulster English</a>, the Northern Ireland dialect with strong influence from Scots, and various dialects of the Republic of Ireland. Like Scottish and most North American accents, almost all Irish accents preserve the <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">rhoticity</a> which has been lost in the dialects influenced by RP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry198286–87-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2007-286">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern American English</a>, <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canadian_English" title="Atlantic Canadian English">Atlantic Canadian English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Emery_Emery_Voice.ogg" title="File:Emery Emery Voice.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_9" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="57" data-mwtitle="Emery_Emery_Voice.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Emery_Emery_Voice.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5b/Emery_Emery_Voice.ogg/Emery_Emery_Voice.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEmery_Emery_Voice.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwestern America">Midwestern American</a> man with a <a href="/wiki/General_American_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="General American accent">General American accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emery_Emery" title="Emery Emery">Emery Emery</a>).</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac" title="File:Rep. Martha Roby's "Roller Coaster" Speech Sound Bite.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_10" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="36" data-mwtitle="Rep._Martha_Roby's_"Roller_Coaster"_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac/Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac/Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Rep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARep._Martha_Roby%27s_%22Roller_Coaster%22_Speech_Sound_Bite.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of an <a href="/wiki/Alabamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabamian">Alabamian</a> woman with a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern American accent">Southern American accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Martha_Roby" title="Martha Roby">Martha Roby</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac" title="File:Chuck Zito on Becoming a Hells Angel.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_11" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac/Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac/Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Chuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AChuck_Zito_on_Becoming_a_Hells_Angel.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="New York City accent">New York City accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chuck_Zito" title="Chuck Zito">Chuck Zito</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac" title="File:Sec. Walsh on Construction Jobs in Infrastructure Bill v2.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_12" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="40" data-mwtitle="Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac/Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac/Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Sec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASec._Walsh_on_Construction_Jobs_in_Infrastructure_Bill_v2.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/Boston_accent" title="Boston accent">Boston accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marty_Walsh" title="Marty Walsh">Marty Walsh</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:On_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg" title="File:On the phone- Russell Gage.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_13" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="102" data-mwtitle="On_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/On_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/On_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg/On_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AOn_the_phone-_Russell_Gage.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of two men with <a href="/wiki/AAVE_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="AAVE accents">AAVE accents</a>, the interviewer from <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> (<a href="/wiki/D._J._Shockley" title="D. J. Shockley">D. J. Shockley</a>) and the interviewee from <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russell_Gage" title="Russell Gage">Russell Gage</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac" title="File:Margaret atwood bbc radio4 front row 27 07 2007 b007tjpb.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_14" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="27" data-mwtitle="Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac/Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac/Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Margaret_atwood_bbc_radio4_front_row_27_07_2007_b007tjpb.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of an <a href="/wiki/Ontarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontarian">Ontarian</a> woman with a <a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Canadian accent">Standard Canadian accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Margaret_Atwood" title="Margaret Atwood">Margaret Atwood</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/220px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/330px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/440px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of Americans aged 5+ speaking English at home in each public usage microdata area (PUMA) of the 50 states, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. according to the 2016–2021 five-year <a href="/wiki/American_Community_Survey" title="American Community Survey">American Community Survey</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Non-RhoticityUSA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Non-RhoticityUSA.png/220px-Non-RhoticityUSA.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Non-RhoticityUSA.png/330px-Non-RhoticityUSA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Non-RhoticityUSA.png 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a> dominates in <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a>, but <a href="/wiki/The_Atlas_of_North_American_English" title="The Atlas of North American English">The Atlas of North American English</a> found over 50% non-rhoticity with at least one local speaker in each US metropolitan area (designated with a red dot) and non-rhotic <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a> pronunciations found primarily among <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> regardless of location.</figcaption></figure> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <div role="img" class="noresize" style="width: 350px; line-height: 1; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; position: relative;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_map_of_Canada.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blank_map_of_Canada.svg/350px-Blank_map_of_Canada.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blank_map_of_Canada.svg/525px-Blank_map_of_Canada.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blank_map_of_Canada.svg/700px-Blank_map_of_Canada.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="921" /></a> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:46.5px; top:230px"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">STANDARD CANADIAN</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:1px; top:207.25px"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_English" title="Pacific Northwest English">Pacific Northwest</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:67.5px; top:132px"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_English_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal English in Canada">Aboriginal Canadian</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:232px; top:245.75px"><a href="/wiki/Quebec_English" title="Quebec English">Quebec</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:228.5px; top:256.25px"><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_Valley_English" title="Ottawa Valley English">Ottawa</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:218px; top:268.5px"><a href="/wiki/Multicultural_Toronto_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicultural Toronto English">MTE</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:267px; top:198.5px"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Maritime_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Maritime English">ATLANTIC CANADIAN</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:281px; top:244px"><a href="/wiki/Lunenburg_English" title="Lunenburg English">Lunenburg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:260px; top:184.5px"><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland</a></div> </div></div></div></div> Due to the relatively strong degree of mixing, mutual accommodation, and koinéization that occurred during the colonial period, <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a> has traditionally been perceived as relatively homogeneous, at least in comparison with British dialects. However, modern scholars have strongly opposed this notion, arguing that North American English shows a great deal of phonetic, lexical, and geographic variability. This becomes all the more apparent considering social, ethnolinguistic, and regional varieties such as <a href="/wiki/African_American_English" class="mw-redirect" title="African American English">African American English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicano_English" title="Chicano English">Chicano English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cajun_English" title="Cajun English">Cajun English</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> American accent variation is increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov2012-288">[288]</a> though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198234-289">[289]</a> known collectively as <a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American English</a> (GA), with differences hardly noticed even among Americans themselves, including <a href="/wiki/Midland_American_English" title="Midland American English">Midland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_American_English" title="Western American English">Western American English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowicka2006-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToon1982-291">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassidy1982-292">[292]</a> In most American and Canadian English dialects, <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">rhoticity</a> (or r-fullness) is dominant, with non-rhoticity (or r-dropping) being associated with lower prestige and social class, especially since the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. This contrasts with the situation in England, where non-rhoticity has become the standard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1972-293">[293]</a> Separate from General American English are American dialects with clearly distinct sound systems that have developed over time, including <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern American English</a>, the English of the coastal <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a>—including <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_English" title="New York City English">New York City English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_New_England_English" title="Eastern New England English">Eastern New England English</a>—and <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a>; all of these, aside from certain subdialects of the American South, were historically non-rhotic. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian English</a> varieties, except for those of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic provinces">Atlantic provinces</a> and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, are generally considered to fall under the General American English continuum, although they often show <a href="/wiki/Canadian_raising" title="Canadian raising">raising</a> of the vowels <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/aɪ/</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/aʊ/</a> before <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonants">voiceless consonants</a> and have distinct norms for writing and pronunciation as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoberg2010-294">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canadian_English" title="Atlantic Canadian English">Atlantic Canadian English</a>, notably distinct from <a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian English</a>,<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> comprises <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canadian_English#Maritimes" title="Atlantic Canadian English">Maritime English</a> (or Maritimer English) and <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland English</a>. It was mostly influenced by <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish English">Irish English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Gaelic">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian French</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Regions such as <a href="/wiki/Miramichi" title="Miramichi">Miramichi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> have a wide variety of phrases and words not spoken outside of their respective regions. In <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern American English</a>, the most populous American "accent group" outside of General American English,<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> rhoticity now strongly prevails, replacing the region's <a href="/wiki/Older_Southern_American_English" title="Older Southern American English">historical non-rhotic prestige</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevineCrockett1966-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchönweitz2001-300">[300]</a> Southern accents are colloquially described as a "drawl" or "twang",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontgomery1993-301">[301]</a> being recognised most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift initiated by <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">glide-deleting</a> in the /aɪ/ vowel (e.g. pronouncing spy almost like spa), the "Southern breaking" of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables (e.g. pronouncing the word "press" almost like "pray-us"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas200895–96-302">[302]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Pin%E2%80%93pen_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pin–pen merger">pin–pen merger</a>, and other distinctive phonological, grammatical, and lexical features, many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey1997-303">[303]</a> Spoken primarily by working- and middle-class <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a> (AAVE) is also largely non-rhotic and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non-rhotic, non-standard <a href="/wiki/Older_Southern_American_English" title="Older Southern American English">older Southern dialects</a>. A minority of linguists,<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Creole_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole English">Creole English</a> to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2001-305">[305]</a> AAVE's important commonalities with Southern accents suggest it developed into a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century. AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken" or "uneducated" English, as are white Southern accents, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by large speech communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2002-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick2006b-307">[307]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia_and_New_Zealand">Australia and New Zealand</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:AustraliaPart2.ogg" title="File:AustraliaPart2.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_15" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="1056" data-mwtitle="AustraliaPart2.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/AustraliaPart2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/AustraliaPart2.ogg/AustraliaPart2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">general Australian accent</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac" title="File:Prime Minister Gillard of Australia at News Conference with President Obama.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_16" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="39" data-mwtitle="Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac/Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac/Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Prime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APrime_Minister_Gillard_of_Australia_at_News_Conference_with_President_Obama.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australian</a> woman with a <a href="/wiki/Broad_Australian_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad Australian accent">broad Australian accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Julia_Gillard" title="Julia Gillard">Julia Gillard</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac" title="File:Geoffrey Rush bbc radio4 front row 01 05 2013.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_17" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="35" data-mwtitle="Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8b/Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac/Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8b/Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac/Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Geoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGeoffrey_Rush_bbc_radio4_front_row_01_05_2013.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> man with a cultivated Australian accent (<a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Rush" title="Geoffrey Rush">Geoffrey Rush</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac" title="File:Eleanor catton bbc radio4 womans hour 09 09 2013.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_18" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="19" data-mwtitle="Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac/Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac/Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a woman with a <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand accent">New Zealand accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Catton" title="Eleanor Catton">Eleanor Catton</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:H.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister,_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg" title="File:H.E. Mr. John Key Prime Minister, New Zealand - speech at Connect Asia-Pacific 2013 Summit.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_19" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="518" data-mwtitle="H.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister,_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3c/H.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister%2C_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg/H.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister%2C_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/H.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister%2C_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AH.E._Mr._John_Key_Prime_Minister%2C_New_Zealand_-_speech_at_Connect_Asia-Pacific_2013_Summit.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand accent">New Zealand accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_Key" title="John Key">John Key</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Since 1788, English has been spoken in <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a> has developed as the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, its standard accent being <a href="/wiki/General_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="General Australian">General Australian</a>. The <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">English of neighbouring New Zealand</a> has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEagleson1982-308">[308]</a> Australian and New Zealand English are each other's closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics, followed by <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a> and the English of South East England, all of which have similarly non-rhotic accents, aside from some accents in the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a> of New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand English stand out for their innovative vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised, whereas many long vowels have diphthongised. Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian English grammar aligns closely with British and American English; like American English, collective plural subjects take on a singular verb (as in the government is rather than are).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200216–21-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurridge2010-310">[310]</a> New Zealand English uses front vowels that are often even higher than in Australian English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200224–26-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaclagan2010-312">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordonCampbellHay_et_al.2004-313">[313]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_English" title="Southeast Asian English">Southeast Asian English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore_English" title="Singapore English">Singapore English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippine_English" title="Philippine English">Philippine English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_English" title="Malaysian English">Malaysian English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brunei_English" title="Brunei English">Brunei English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_Part_1.ogg" title="File:Declaration of Independence Part 1.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_20" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="1175" data-mwtitle="Declaration_of_Independence_Part_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Declaration_of_Independence_Part_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/87/Declaration_of_Independence_Part_1.ogg/Declaration_of_Independence_Part_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a male teenager with a <a href="/wiki/Singaporean_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Singaporean English">Singaporean accent</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac" title="File:Dr. Villaverde on Conflicts of Interest in Medicine and Dr. Dans on Evidence-Based Medicine in INCLEN.flac">Speech examples</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_21" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="59" data-mwtitle="Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac/Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac/Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Dr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ADr._Villaverde_on_Conflicts_of_Interest_in_Medicine_and_Dr._Dans_on_Evidence-Based_Medicine_in_INCLEN.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Examples of a man and woman with <a href="/wiki/Philippine_English" title="Philippine English">Filipino accents</a>.</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> The first significant exposure of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> to the English language occurred in 1762 when the <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_Manila" title="British occupation of Manila">British occupied Manila</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread during American rule between 1898 and 1946 and remains an official language of the Philippines. Today, the use of English is ubiquitous in the Philippines, being found on <a href="/wiki/Road_signs_in_the_Philippines" title="Road signs in the Philippines">street signs</a> and marquees, in government documents and forms, in courtrooms, in the media and entertainment industries, in the business sector, and in various other aspects of daily life.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> One particularly prominent form of English usage in the country is found in everyday speech: most <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipinos</a> from <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> use or, at the very least, have been exposed to <a href="/wiki/Taglish" title="Taglish">Taglish</a>, a form of code-switching between <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> and English.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> A similar code-switching method is used by urban native speakers of <a href="/wiki/Bisayan_languages" title="Bisayan languages">Bisayan languages</a> under the name of <a href="/wiki/Bislish" title="Bislish">Bislish</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa,_the_Caribbean,_and_South_Asia">Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_English" title="Nigerian English">Nigerian English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_English" title="Caribbean English">Caribbean English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">South Asian English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:South_African_English.ogg" title="File:South African English.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_22" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="57" data-mwtitle="South_African_English.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/South_African_English.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/South_African_English.ogg/South_African_English.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASouth_African_English.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a man with a <a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">South African accent</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac" title="File:Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie bbc radio4 front row 03 05 2013.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_23" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="38" data-mwtitle="Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie_bbc_radio4_front_row_03_05_2013.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a woman with an educated <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_English" title="Nigerian English">Nigerian accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie" title="Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie">Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac" title="File:Sylbourne Sydial with Nordia Teape on Integrated Diaspora Services.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_24" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="102" data-mwtitle="Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac/Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac/Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Sylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASylbourne_Sydial_with_Nordia_Teape_on_Integrated_Diaspora_Services.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a woman and man with <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_English" title="Jamaican English">Jamaican accents</a>.</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac" title="File:Arundhati Roy BBC Radio4 Bookclub 2 Oct 2011 b015brn8.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_25" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="40" data-mwtitle="Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac/Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac/Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Arundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArundhati_Roy_BBC_Radio4_Bookclub_2_Oct_2011_b015brn8.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a <a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast Indian</a> woman with an <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian accent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arundhati_Roy" title="Arundhati Roy">Arundhati Roy</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> English is spoken widely in southern Africa and is an official or co-official language in several of the region's countries. In <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, English has been spoken since 1820, co-existing with <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> and various African languages such as the <a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>. Today, about nine percent of the South African population speaks <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a> (SAE) as a first language. SAE is a non-rhotic variety that tends to follow RP as a norm. It is one of the few non-rhotic English varieties that lack intrusive R. The second-language varieties of South Africa differ based on the native languages of their speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanham1982-316">[316]</a> Most phonological differences from RP are in the vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass2002-317">[317]</a> Consonant differences include the tendency to pronounce /p, t, t͡ʃ, k/ without aspiration (e.g. pin pronounced [pɪn] rather than as [pʰɪn] as in most other varieties), while r is often pronounced as a flap [ɾ] instead of as the more common fricative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200230–31-318">[318]</a> Nigerian English is a variety of English spoken in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> It has traditionally been based on British English, but in recent years, because of influence from the United States, some words of American English origin have made it into Nigerian English. Additionally, some new words and collocations have emerged from the variety out of a need to express concepts specific to the culture of the nation (e.g. senior wife). Over 150 million Nigerians speak English.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> Several varieties of English are also spoken in the Caribbean islands that were colonial possessions of Britain, including Jamaica, the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windward_Islands" title="Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>. Each of these areas is home both to a local variety of English and a local English-based creole, combining English and African languages. The most prominent varieties are <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_English" title="Jamaican English">Jamaican English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_English_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamaican English Creole">Jamaican Creole</a>. In Central America, English-based creoles are spoken on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Panama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawton1982-321">[321]</a> Locals are often fluent in both the local English variety and the local creole languages, and <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a> between them is frequent. Indeed, a way to conceptualise the relationship between such creole and standard varieties is to view them as a spectrum of language registers in which the most creole-like forms serve as the "basilect" and the most RP-like forms serve as the "acrolect", the most formal register.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah2002115-322">[322]</a> Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently, most are non-rhotic, except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory, which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English. The diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ are monophthongs [eː] and [oː] or even the reverse diphthongs [ie] and [uo] (e.g. bay and boat pronounced [bʲeː] and [bʷoːt]). Often word-final consonant clusters are simplified so that "child" is pronounced [t͡ʃail] and "wind" [win].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah2002117–18-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawton1982256–60-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah2002115–16-325">[325]</a> As a historical legacy, <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian English</a> tends to take RP as its ideal, and how well this ideal is realised in an individual's speech reflects class distinctions among Indian English speakers. Indian English accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as /t/ and /d/ (often pronounced with retroflex articulation as [ʈ] and [ɖ]) and the replacement of /θ/ and /ð/ with dentals [t̪] and [d̪]. Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling-based pronunciations where the silent ⟨h⟩ found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an Indian <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">voiced aspirated</a> stop [ɡʱ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESailaja200919–24-326">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-native_varieties">Non-native varieties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English" title="Non-native pronunciations of English">Non-native pronunciations of English</a></div> <table style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Non-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg" title="File:Non-native English reading by Spanish native speaker 001.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_26" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="18" data-mwtitle="Non-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a9/Non-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg/Non-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Non-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANon-native_English_reading_by_Spanish_native_speaker_001.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a <a href="/wiki/Hispanophone" title="Hispanophone">Hispanophone</a> man speaking English.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Japan_PM_Shinzo_Abe_addressing_US_Congress_2015.ogg" title="File:Japan PM Shinzo Abe addressing US Congress 2015.ogg">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_27" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Japan_PM_Shinzo_Abe_addressing_US_Congress_2015.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Japan_PM_Shinzo_Abe_addressing_US_Congress_2015.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bf/Japan_PM_Shinzo_Abe_addressing_US_Congress_2015.ogg/Japan_PM_Shinzo_Abe_addressing_US_Congress_2015.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a Japanese man speaking English (<a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Shinzo Abe</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint listen-noimage"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac" title="File:Werner Herzog BBC Radio4 Start the Week 26 March 2012 b01dtjcj.flac">Speech example</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_28" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="36" data-mwtitle="Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f5/Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac/Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f5/Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac/Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Werner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWerner_Herzog_BBC_Radio4_Start_the_Week_26_March_2012_b01dtjcj.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An example of a German man speaking English (<a href="/wiki/Werner_Herzog" title="Werner Herzog">Werner Herzog</a>).</div></div></div></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="English as a second or foreign language">Non-native English speakers</a> may pronounce words differently due to having not fully mastered <a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English pronunciation</a>. This can happen either because they apply the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">speech rules</a> of their mother tongue to English ("interference") or through implementing strategies similar to those used in <a href="/wiki/First_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="First language acquisition">first language acquisition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-327">[327]</a> They may create innovative pronunciations for English sounds, not found in the speaker's first language.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-327">[327]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism_in_English" title="Linguistic purism in English">Linguistic purism in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-only_movement" title="English-only movement">English-only movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">List of countries and territories where English is an official language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015Entry:_[httpwwwoxfordlearnersdictionariescomuspronunciationenglishenglish_1_English_–_Pronunciation]-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015Entry:_[httpwwwoxfordlearnersdictionariescomuspronunciationenglishenglish_1_English_–_Pronunciation]_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015">Oxford Learner's Dictionary 2015</a>, Entry: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/pronunciation/english/english_1">English – Pronunciation</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/">"What are the top 200 most spoken languages?"</a>. 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Retrieved 3 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=What+are+the+top+200+most+spoken+languages%3F&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Finsights%2Fethnologue200%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnologue-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_3-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/eng">English</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (26th ed., 2023) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English_4-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Routes_of_English">The Routes of English</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a6-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a6_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2003a">Crystal 2003a</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardhaugh201055-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardhaugh201055_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWardhaugh2010">Wardhaugh 2010</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Salome, Rosemary (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_gNREAAAQBAJ&dq=%22its+global+spread+began+with+the+british+empire,+which+at+its+height%22&pg=PA6">The Rise of English as a Global Language</a>. 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"Lexis and Semantics". In Blake, Norman (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language. pp. 409–499. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521264754.006">10.1017/chol9780521264754.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05553-6"><bdi>978-1-139-05553-6</bdi></a>. <q>Latin and French each account for a little more than 28 per cent of the lexis recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Shorter_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Shorter Oxford English Dictionary">Shorter Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Finkenstaedt & Wolff 1973)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lexis+and+Semantics&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=409-499&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521264754.006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05553-6&rft.aulast=Burnley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBammesberger199229–30-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBammesberger199229–30_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBammesberger1992">Bammesberger 1992</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1992-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson1992_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson1992">Robinson 1992</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine198256–65-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine198256–65_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomaine1982">Romaine 1982</a>, pp. 56–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry198286–87-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry198286–87_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry198286–87_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarry1982">Barry 1982</a>, pp. 86–87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarbert2006-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarbert2006_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarbert2006">Harbert 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasonKaufman1988264–265-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomasonKaufman1988264–265_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988">Thomason & Kaufman 1988</a>, pp. 264–265. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2011Chapter_4-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatts2011Chapter_4_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatts2011">Watts 2011</a>, Chapter 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurrell2006-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurrell2006_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurrell2006">Durrell 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKönigvan_der_Auwera1994-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKönigvan_der_Auwera1994_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKönigvan_der_Auwera1994">König & van der Auwera 1994</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ian_Short_2007-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ian_Short_2007_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ian_Short_2007_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShort2002" class="citation book cs1">Short, Ian (1 January 2002). 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Retrieved 24 November 2019. <q>The only appearances of their and them in Chaucer's works are in the Reeve's Tale, where they form part of the Northern dialect spoken by the two Cambridge students, Aleyn and John, demonstrating that at this time they were still perceived to be Northernisms</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Open+Access+Companion+to+the+Canterbury+Tales&rft.atitle=Chaucer%27s+Middle+English&rft.aulast=Horobin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu%2Frefmideng%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELass2000-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELass2000_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELass2000_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLass2000">Lass 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGörlach199166–70-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGörlach199166–70_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGörlach1991">Görlach 1991</a>, pp. 66–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENevalainenTieken-Boon_van_Ostade2006274–79-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENevalainenTieken-Boon_van_Ostade2006274–79_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNevalainenTieken-Boon_van_Ostade2006">Nevalainen & Tieken-Boon van Ostade 2006</a>, pp. 274–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECercignani1981-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECercignani1981_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCercignani1981">Cercignani 1981</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine2006586-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine2006586_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomaine2006">Romaine 2006</a>, p. 586. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMufwene2006614-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMufwene2006614_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMufwene2006614_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMufwene2006">Mufwene 2006</a>, p. 614. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthrup201381–86-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthrup201381–86_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthrup201381–86_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthrup2013">Northrup 2013</a>, pp. 81–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1998" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Colin (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC&pg=PA311">Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education</a>. Multilingual Matters. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85359-362-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85359-362-8"><bdi>978-1-85359-362-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231106204829/https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC&pg=PA311">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Bilingualism+and+Bilingual+Education&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-85359-362-8&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYgtSqB9oqDIC%26pg%3DPA311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraddol2006_61-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGraddol2006">Graddol 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a_62-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2003a">Crystal 2003a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCrumMacNeilCran20039–10-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCrumMacNeilCran20039–10_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCrumMacNeilCran2003">McCrum, MacNeil & Cran 2003</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19991–56-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine19991–56_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine19991–56_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomaine1999">Romaine 1999</a>, pp. 1–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine19992-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine19992_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomaine1999">Romaine 1999</a>, p. 2: "Other changes such as the spread and regularisation of do support began in the thirteenth century and were more or less complete in the nineteenth. Although do coexisted with the simple verb forms in negative statements from the early ninth century, obligatoriness was not complete until the nineteenth. The increasing use of do periphrasis coincides with the fixing of SVO word order. Not surprisingly, do is first widely used in interrogatives, where the word order is disrupted, and then later spread to negatives." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeechHundtMairSmith200918–19-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeechHundtMairSmith200918–19_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeechHundtMairSmith2009">Leech et al. 2009</a>, pp. 18–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMairLeech2006-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMairLeech2006_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMairLeech2006">Mair & Leech 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2006-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2006_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair2006">Mair 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-b783-69"><a href="#cite_ref-b783_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ef.com/assetscdn/WIBIwq6RdJvcD9bc8RMd/cefcom-epi-site/reports/2019/ef-epi-2019-english.pdf">"EF English Proficiency Index 2019"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EF+English+Proficiency+Index+2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ef.com%2Fassetscdn%2FWIBIwq6RdJvcD9bc8RMd%2Fcefcom-epi-site%2Freports%2F2019%2Fef-epi-2019-english.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> (pp. 6–7). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreene2019" class="citation web cs1">Breene, Keith (15 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b">"Which countries are best at English as a second language?"</a>. World Economic Forum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161125144549/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Which+countries+are+best+at+English+as+a+second+language%3F&rft.pub=World+Economic+Forum&rft.date=2019-11-15&rft.aulast=Breene&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weforum.org%2Fagenda%2F2016%2F11%2Fwhich-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b106-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003b106_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2003b">Crystal 2003b</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20062-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20062_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech20062_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvartvikLeech2006">Svartvik & Leech 2006</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006196-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKachru2006196_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKachru2006196_73-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKachru2006">Kachru 2006</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2013Table_1-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2013Table_1_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2013Table_1_74-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRyan2013">Ryan 2013</a>, Table 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOffice_for_National_Statistics2013Key_Points-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOffice_for_National_Statistics2013Key_Points_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOffice_for_National_Statistics2013">Office for National Statistics 2013</a>, Key Points. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Records_of_Scotland2013-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Records_of_Scotland2013_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNational_Records_of_Scotland2013">National Records of Scotland 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthern_Ireland_Statistics_and_Research_Agency2012Table_KS207NI:_Main_Language-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthern_Ireland_Statistics_and_Research_Agency2012Table_KS207NI:_Main_Language_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthern_Ireland_Statistics_and_Research_Agency2012">Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency 2012</a>, Table KS207NI: Main Language. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_Canada2014-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStatistics_Canada2014_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStatistics_Canada2014">Statistics Canada 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Bureau_of_Statistics2013-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Bureau_of_Statistics2013_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralian_Bureau_of_Statistics2013">Australian Bureau of Statistics 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_South_Africa2012Table_2.5_Population_by_first_language_spoken_and_province_(number)-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStatistics_South_Africa2012Table_2.5_Population_by_first_language_spoken_and_province_(number)_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStatistics_South_Africa2012">Statistics South Africa 2012</a>, Table 2.5 Population by first language spoken and province (number). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatistics_New_Zealand2014-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStatistics_New_Zealand2014_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStatistics_New_Zealand2014">Statistics New Zealand 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006377-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao2006377_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao2006377_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao2006377_82-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao2006377_82-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBao2006">Bao 2006</a>, p. 377. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a69-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2003a69_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2003a">Crystal 2003a</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubino2006-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubino2006_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRubino2006">Rubino 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick2006a-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrick2006a_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatrick2006a">Patrick 2006a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELimAnsaldo2006-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELimAnsaldo2006_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLimAnsaldo2006">Lim & Ansaldo 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnell2006-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnell2006_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnell2006">Connell 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider2007-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider2007_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchneider2007">Schneider 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085_89-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20084-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20084_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEuropean_Commission2012-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEuropean_Commission2012_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEuropean_Commission2012">European Commission 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006197-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKachru2006197_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKachru2006">Kachru 2006</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKachru2006198-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKachru2006198_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKachru2006">Kachru 2006</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao2006-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao2006_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBao2006">Bao 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20087-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20087_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20082-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20082_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomaine1999-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomaine1999_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomaine1999">Romaine 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaughCable2002-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaughCable2002_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaughCable2002">Baugh & Cable 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20088–9-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20088–9_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgill2006-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgill2006_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgill2006">Trudgill 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmmon20081537–1539-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmmon20081537–1539_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmmon2008">Ammon 2008</a>, pp. 1537–1539. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech2006122-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvartvikLeech2006122_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvartvikLeech2006">Svartvik & Leech 2006</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085–6-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah20085–6_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah 2008</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006130-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006130_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeumert2006">Deumert 2006</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006131-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeumert2006131_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeumert2006">Deumert 2006</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, Rowena (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5130%2Fpjmis.v16i1-2.6510">"'National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific"</a>. Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies. 16 (1/2): 83–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5130%2Fpjmis.v16i1-2.6510">10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510</a>. <q>The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Multidisciplinary+International+Studies&rft.atitle=%27National%27+and+%27Official%27+Languages+Across+the+Independent+Asia-Pacific&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=83-4&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5130%2Fpjmis.v16i1-2.6510&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Rowena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5130%252Fpjmis.v16i1-2.6510&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.gc.ca/web/article-eng.do?m=/index&nid=480459">"40 Years of the Official Languages Act"</a>. 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Retrieved 5 June 2024. <q>Note: data represent the language spoken at home; the US has no official national language, but English has acquired official status in 32 of the 50 states; Hawaiian is an official language in the state of Hawaii, and 20 indigenous languages are official in Alaska.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=United+States&rft.date=2024-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Funited-states%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/global-english-education/countries-in-which-english-is-mandatory-or-optional-subject.html">"Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject"</a>. 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The Times of India. 14 March 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160422224021/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms?referral=PM">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2016. 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Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51464-1"><bdi>978-1-316-51464-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+student%27s+introduction+to+English+grammar&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=124-126&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-316-51464-1&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Rodney+D.&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Brett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oedthey-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oedthey_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oedthey_199-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-they" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/200700">"they"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=they&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F200700&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/singular-they">"Singular "They""</a>. APA Style. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021234745/https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/singular-they">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=APA+Style&rft.atitle=Singular+%22They%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapastyle.apa.org%2Fstyle-grammar-guidelines%2Fgrammar%2Fsingular-they&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeech200669-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeech200669_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeech2006">Leech 2006</a>, p. 69: "Nominative is a traditional name for the subjective case" </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Dwyer2006-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Dwyer2006_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Dwyer2006">O'Dwyer 2006</a>: "English has subjective, objective and possessive cases." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenbaumNelson2002-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenbaumNelson2002_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenbaumNelson2002">Greenbaum & Nelson 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet201452-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweet201452_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSweet2014">Sweet 2014</a>, p. 52: "But in that special class of nouns called personal pronouns we find a totally different system of case-inflection, namely, a nominative case (he) and an objective case (him)" </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersen2007173–185-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJespersen2007173–185_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJespersen2007">Jespersen 2007</a>, pp. 173–185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002425–26-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuddlestonPullum2002425–26_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002">Huddleston & Pullum 2002</a>, p. 425–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2019" class="citation web cs1">Lee, Chelsea (31 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/singular-they">"Welcome, singular "they""</a>. American Psychological Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214220442/https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/singular-they">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome%2C+singular+%22they%22&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=2019-10-31&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Chelsea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapastyle.apa.org%2Fblog%2Fsingular-they&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamm2015" class="citation web cs1">Kamm, Oliver (12 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-pedant-the-sheer-usefulness-of-singular-they-is-obvious-3qs05ngflkj">"The Pedant: The sheer usefulness of singular 'they' is obvious"</a>. The Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190619175236/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-pedant-the-sheer-usefulness-of-singular-they-is-obvious-3qs05ngflkj">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2019. 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Retrieved 14 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%27s+works+and+Elizabethan+pronunciation&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3728688%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-19-811937-1&rft.aulast=Cercignani&rft.aufirst=Fausto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_JBlAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollingwoodMyres1936" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood, Robin George</a>; Myres, J. N. L. (1936). "Chapter XX. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent". Roman Britain and the English Settlements. Vol. Book V: The English Settlements. 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Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 635–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01655-2">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01655-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nigeria+%3A+Language+Situation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=635-637&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01655-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Connell&rft.aufirst=B.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConradRubal-Lopez1996" class="citation book cs1">Conrad, Andrew W.; Rubal-Lopez, Alma (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492">Post-Imperial English: Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940–1990</a>. de Gruyter. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-087218-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-087218-7"><bdi>978-3-11-087218-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924071825/http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Imperial+English%3A+Status+Change+in+Former+British+and+American+Colonies%2C+1940%E2%80%931990&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-3-11-087218-7&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Andrew+W.&rft.au=Rubal-Lopez%2C+Alma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fviewbooktoc%2Fproduct%2F143492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruttenden2014" class="citation book cs1">Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). 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Cambridge University Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53032-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53032-3"><bdi>978-0-521-53032-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200407/https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+as+a+Global+Language&rft.pages=69&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53032-3&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd6jPAKxTHRYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2003b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (2003b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ">The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53033-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53033-0"><bdi>978-0-521-53033-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53033-0&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA3b3ngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2004" class="citation news cs1">Crystal, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html">"Subcontinent Raises Its Voice"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080417171455/http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Subcontinent+Raises+Its+Voice&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feducation.guardian.co.uk%2Ftefl%2Fstory%2F0%2C%2C1355064%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2006" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (2006). "Chapter 9: English worldwide". In Denison, David; Hogg, Richard M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg">A History of the English Language</a>. 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Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02110-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02110-9"><bdi>978-0-670-02110-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200401/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-10895-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-10895-9"><bdi>978-0-521-10895-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+English%3A+its+origins+and+evolution&rft.series=Studies+in+English+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-10895-9&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Lyle&rft.au=Hay%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Maclagan%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Sudbury%2C+Angela&rft.au=Trudgill%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottlieb2006" class="citation book cs1">Gottlieb, H. (2006). "Linguistic Influence". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 196–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04455-2">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04455-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linguistic+Influence&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=196-206&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04455-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Gottlieb&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraddol2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Graddol" title="David Graddol">Graddol, David</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042939/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf">English Next: Why global English may mean the end of 'English as a Foreign Language'</a> (PDF). 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The British Council. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86355-627-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86355-627-2"><bdi>978-0-86355-627-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 February 2015. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37679-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37679-2"><bdi>978-0-415-37679-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+English&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-37679-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%2F9780415376792%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2002" class="citation book cs1">Green, Lisa J. 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Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-43741-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-43741-8"><bdi>978-0-582-43741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+English+grammar&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-582-43741-8&rft.aulast=Greenbaum&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallidayHasan1976" class="citation book cs1">Halliday, M. A. K.; Hasan, Ruqaiya (1976). Cohesion in English. Pearson Education ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-55041-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-55041-4"><bdi>978-0-582-55041-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cohesion+in+English&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+ltd.&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-582-55041-4&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+K.&rft.au=Hasan%2C+Ruqaiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarbert2006" class="citation book cs1">Harbert, Wayne (2006). 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85299-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85299-9"><bdi>978-0-521-85299-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+English%3A+History+and+present-day+forms&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85299-9&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hogg, Richard M. (1992). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". In Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521264747">10.1017/CHOL9780521264747</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26474-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26474-7"><bdi>978-0-521-26474-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161881054">161881054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=67-168&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161881054%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521264747&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26474-7&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg2006" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Richard M. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43146-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43146-0"><bdi>978-0-521-43146-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2015. 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Arnold Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780340614457" title="Special:BookSources/9780340614457"><bdi>9780340614457</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Accents+and+Dialects&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Arnold+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780340614457&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Trudgill%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Civil_Aviation_Organization2011" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14">"Personnel Licensing FAQ"</a>. International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau. 2011. 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Retrieved 16 December 2014. <q>Controllers working on stations serving designated airports and routes used by international air services shall demonstrate language proficiency in English as well as in any other language(s) used by the station on the ground.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Personnel+Licensing+FAQ&rft.pages=In+which+languages+does+a+licence+holder+need+to+demonstrate+proficiency%3F&rft.pub=International+Civil+Aviation+Organization+%E2%80%93+Air+Navigation+Bureau&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icao.int%2Fsafety%2Fairnavigation%2Fpages%2Fpeltrgfaq.aspx%23anchor14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Maritime_Organization2011" class="citation web cs1">International Maritime Organization (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx">"IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx">the original</a> on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 16 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IMO+Standard+Marine+Communication+Phrases&rft.date=2011&rft.au=International+Maritime+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imo.org%2FOurWork%2FSafety%2FNavigation%2FPages%2FStandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0"><bdi>978-0-521-65236-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association%3A+A+guide+to+the+use+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65236-0&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJambor2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jambor, Paul Z. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eilj.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2-december%202007.pdf#page=103">"English Language Imperialism: Points of View"</a> (PDF). Journal of English as an International Language. 2: 103–123. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211184023/https://www.eilj.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2-december%202007.pdf#page=103">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2023. Retrieved 11 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+English+as+an+International+Language&rft.atitle=English+Language+Imperialism%3A+Points+of+View&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=103-123&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Jambor&rft.aufirst=Paul+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eilj.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F12%2F2-december%25202007.pdf%23page%3D103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen2007" class="citation book cs1">Jespersen, Otto (2007) [1924]. "Case: The number of English cases". The Philosophy of Grammar. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Case%3A+The+number+of+English+cases&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Grammar&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKachru2006" class="citation book cs1">Kachru, B. (2006). "English: World Englishes". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 195–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00645-3">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00645-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English%3A+World+Englishes&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=195-202&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00645-3&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Kachru&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKastovsky2006" class="citation book cs1">Kastovsky, Dieter (2006). "Chapter 4: Vocabulary". In Denison, David; Hogg, Richard M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg">A History of the English language</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n214">199</a>–270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71799-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71799-1"><bdi>978-0-521-71799-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Vocabulary&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+language&rft.pages=199-270&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-71799-1&rft.aulast=Kastovsky&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryenglishla00hogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKönigvan_der_Auwera1994" class="citation book cs1">König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/">The Germanic Languages</a>. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28079-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28079-2"><bdi>978-0-415-28079-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176538">4176538</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.series=Routledge+Language+Family+Descriptions&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4176538%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28079-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%2F9780415280792%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"> The survey of the Germanic branch languages includes chapters by Winfred P. Lehmann, <a href="/wiki/Ans_van_Kemenade" title="Ans van Kemenade">Ans van Kemenade</a>, John Ole Askedal, Erik Andersson, Neil Jacobs, Silke Van Ness, and Suzanne Romaine.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKönig1994" class="citation book cs1">König, Ekkehard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/">"17. English"</a>. In König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Germanic Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. Routledge. pp. 532–562. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28079-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28079-2"><bdi>978-0-415-28079-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176538">4176538</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17.+English&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.series=Routledge+Language+Family+Descriptions&rft.pages=532-562&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4176538%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28079-2&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6nig&rft.aufirst=Ekkehard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%2F9780415280792%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabov1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Labov" title="William Labov">Labov, W.</a> (1972). "The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores". Sociolinguistic patterns. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 168–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-25582-5_14">10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-61180-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-61180-7"><bdi>978-0-333-61180-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:107967883">107967883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Social+Stratification+of+%28r%29+in+New+York+City+Department+Stores&rft.btitle=Sociolinguistic+patterns&rft.pages=168-178&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A107967883%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-25582-5_14&rft.isbn=978-0-333-61180-7&rft.aulast=Labov&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabov2012" class="citation book cs1">Labov, W. (2012). "1. About Language and Language Change". Dialect Diversity in America: The Politics of Language Change. University of Virginia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813933276" title="Special:BookSources/9780813933276"><bdi>9780813933276</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+About+Language+and+Language+Change&rft.btitle=Dialect+Diversity+in+America%3A+The+Politics+of+Language+Change&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780813933276&rft.aulast=Labov&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanham1982" class="citation book cs1">Lanham, L. W. (1982). "English in South Africa". In Bailey, Richard W.; Görlach, Manfred (eds.). English as a World Language. University of Michigan Press. pp. 324–352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2"><bdi>978-3-12-533872-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+in+South+Africa&rft.btitle=English+as+a+World+Language&rft.pages=324-352&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-3-12-533872-2&rft.aulast=Lanham&rft.aufirst=L.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLass1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lass, Roger (1992). "2. Phonology and Morphology". In Blake, Norman (ed.). Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. II: 1066–1476. Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521264754.003">10.1017/CHOL9780521264754.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05553-6"><bdi>978-1-139-05553-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=23-154&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521264754.003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05553-6&rft.aulast=Lass&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLass2000" class="citation book cs1">Lass, Roger (2000). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". In Lass, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776. 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"Chapter 2: Phonology and Morphology". In Denison, David; Hogg, Richard M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg">A History of the English language</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n61">46</a>–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71799-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71799-1"><bdi>978-0-521-71799-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+language&rft.pages=46-47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-71799-1&rft.aulast=Lass&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryenglishla00hogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawler2006" class="citation book cs1">Lawler, J. (2006). "Punctuation". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 290–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04573-9">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04573-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Punctuation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=290-291&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04573-9&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Lawler&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawton1982" class="citation book cs1">Lawton, David L. (1982). "English in the Caribbean". In Bailey, Richard W.; Görlach, Manfred (eds.). English as a World Language. University of Michigan Press. pp. 251–280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2"><bdi>978-3-12-533872-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+in+the+Caribbean&rft.btitle=English+as+a+World+Language&rft.pages=251-280&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-3-12-533872-2&rft.aulast=Lawton&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeech2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Leech" title="Geoffrey Leech">Leech, G. N.</a> (2006). A glossary of English grammar. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86722-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86722-1"><bdi>978-0-521-86722-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402140536/http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. 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S. P.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC">Learning Vocabulary in Another Language</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 477. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80498-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80498-1"><bdi>978-0-521-80498-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200409/https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learning+Vocabulary+in+Another+Language&rft.pages=477&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80498-1&rft.aulast=Nation&rft.aufirst=I.+S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsKqx8k8gYTkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Records_of_Scotland2013" class="citation web cs1">National Records of Scotland (26 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a">"Census 2011: Release 2A"</a>. 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Statistics Bulletin. Table KS207NI: Main Language. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 December 2012. 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Retrieved 25 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+English+Became+the+Global+Language&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-137-30306-6&rft.aulast=Northrup&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYPAlPeB6IvQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Dwyer2006" class="citation book cs1">O'Dwyer, Bernard (2006). Modern English Structures: Form, Function, and Position (2nd ed.). Canada: Broadview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1763-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1763-8"><bdi>978-1-5511-1763-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+English+Structures%3A+Form%2C+Function%2C+and+Position&rft.place=Canada&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-5511-1763-8&rft.aulast=O%27Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOffice_for_National_Statistics2013" class="citation web cs1">Office for National Statistics (4 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html">"Language in England and Wales, 2011"</a>. 2011 Census Analysis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115009/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=2011+Census+Analysis&rft.atitle=Language+in+England+and+Wales%2C+2011&rft.date=2013-03-04&rft.au=Office+for+National+Statistics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ons.gov.uk%2Fons%2Frel%2Fcensus%2F2011-census-analysis%2Flanguage-in-england-and-wales-2011%2Frpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxford_Learner's_Dictionary2015" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/">"Oxford Learner's Dictionaries"</a>. Oxford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150209040312/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2015. 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Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 88–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01760-0">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01760-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jamaica%3A+Language+Situation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=88-90&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01760-0&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Patrick&rft.aufirst=P.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick2006b" class="citation book cs1">Patrick, P.L. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-44349-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-44349-9"><bdi>978-1-134-44349-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200434/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. 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BWV Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8305-2809-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8305-2809-8"><bdi>978-3-8305-2809-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200439/https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Language+Rights+Revisited%3A+The+challenge+of+global+migration+and+communication&rft.pub=BWV+Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-8305-2809-8&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=Ingo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3u9kBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2009" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Peter (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology (4th ed.). Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Phonetics+and+Phonology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orrin_W._Robinson_(philologist)" title="Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)">Robinson, Orrin</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi">Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages</a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2221-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2221-6"><bdi>978-0-8047-2221-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+and+Its+Closest+Relatives%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Earliest+Germanic+Languages&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2221-6&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Orrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldenglishitsclo0000robi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomaine1982" class="citation book cs1">Romaine, Suzanne (1982). "English in Scotland". In Bailey, Richard W.; Görlach, Manfred (eds.). English as a World Language. 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Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 584–596. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00646-5">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+Policy+in+Multilingual+Educational+Contexts&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=584-596&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00646-5&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Romaine&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Routes_of_English" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml">"The Routes of English"</a>. 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Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 194–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01848-4">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01848-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Canada%3A+Language+Situation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=194-195&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01848-4&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Rowicka&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubino2006" class="citation book cs1">Rubino, C. 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Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 323–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01736-3">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01736-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philippines%3A+Language+Situation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=323-326&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01736-3&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Rubino&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2013" class="citation web cs1">Ryan, Camille (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf">"Language Use in the United States: 2011"</a> (PDF). American Community Survey Reports. p. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Community+Survey+Reports&rft.atitle=Language+Use+in+the+United+States%3A+2011&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2013-08&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=Camille&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2F2013pubs%2Facs-22.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSailaja2009" class="citation book cs1">Sailaja, Pingali (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC">Indian English</a>. Dialects of English. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35718-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35718-0"><bdi>978-0-521-35718-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53901-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53901-2"><bdi>978-0-521-53901-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200423/https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postcolonial+English%3A+Varieties+Around+the+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53901-2&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQIE6zGSd8okC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchönweitz2001" class="citation journal cs1">Schönweitz, Thomas (2001). "Gender and Postvocalic /r/ in the American South: A Detailed Socioregional Analysis". American Speech. 76 (3): 259–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00031283-76-3-259">10.1215/00031283-76-3-259</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144403823">144403823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Speech&rft.atitle=Gender+and+Postvocalic+%2Fr%2F+in+the+American+South%3A+A+Detailed+Socioregional+Analysis&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=259-285&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00031283-76-3-259&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144403823%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%B6nweitz&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaywitz2003" class="citation book cs1">Shaywitz, Sally E. 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Retrieved 3 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Overcoming+Dyslexia%3A+A+New+and+Complete+Science-based+Program+for+Reading+Problems+at+Any+Level&rft.pub=A.A.+Knopf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-375-40012-4&rft.aulast=Shaywitz&rft.aufirst=Sally+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhXbZ1QInSF0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2009" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jeremy J. (2009). Old English: A Linguistic Introduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86677-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86677-4"><bdi>978-0-521-86677-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86677-4&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatistics_Canada2014" class="citation web cs1">Statistics Canada (22 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary">"Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180726032921/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Population+by+mother+tongue+and+age+groups+%28total%29%2C+2011+counts%2C+for+Canada%2C+provinces+and+territories&rft.date=2014-08-22&rft.au=Statistics+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww12.statcan.gc.ca%2Fcensus-recensement%2F2011%2Fdp-pd%2Fhlt-fst%2Flang%2FPages%2Fhighlight.cfm%3FTabID%3D1%26Lang%3DE%26Asc%3D0%26PRCode%3D01%26OrderBy%3D2%26View%3D1%26tableID%3D401%26queryID%3D1%26Age%3D1%23TableSummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatistics_New_Zealand2014" class="citation web cs1">Statistics New Zealand (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150115195639/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf">"2013 QuickStats About Culture and Identity"</a> (PDF). p. 23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 January 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2013+QuickStats+About+Culture+and+Identity&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2014-04&rft.au=Statistics+New+Zealand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stats.govt.nz%2F~%2Fmedia%2FStatistics%2FCensus%2F2013%2520Census%2Fprofile-and-summary-reports%2Fquickstats-culture-identity%2Fquickstats-culture-identity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatistics_South_Africa2012" class="citation book cs1">Lehohla, Pali, ed. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf#page=28">"Population by first language spoken and province"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf">Census 2011: Census in Brief</a> (PDF). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-621-41388-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-621-41388-5"><bdi>978-0-621-41388-5</bdi></a>. Report No. 03‑01‑41. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151113164744/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Population+by+first+language+spoken+and+province&rft.btitle=Census+2011%3A+Census+in+Brief&rft.place=Pretoria&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Statistics+South+Africa&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-621-41388-5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.statssa.gov.za%2Fcensus%2Fcensus_2011%2Fcensus_products%2FCensus_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf%23page%3D28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvartvikLeech2006" class="citation book cs1">Svartvik, Jan; Leech, Geoffrey (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishonetongue0000svar">English – One Tongue, Many Voices</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1830-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1830-7"><bdi>978-1-4039-1830-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+%E2%80%93+One+Tongue%2C+Many+Voices&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-1830-7&rft.aulast=Svartvik&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishonetongue0000svar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwan2006" class="citation book cs1">Swan, M. (2006). "English in the Present Day (Since ca. 1900)". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 149–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F05058-6">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05058-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+in+the+Present+Day+%28Since+ca.+1900%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=149-156&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F05058-6&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Swan&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweet2014" class="citation book cs1">Sweet, Henry (2014) [1892]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anewenglishgram01sweegoog">A new English grammar</a>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+new+English+grammar&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Sweet&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanewenglishgram01sweegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Thomas, Erik R. (2008). "Rural Southern white accents". In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.). Varieties of English. Vol. 2: The Americas and the Caribbean. de Gruyter. pp. 87–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110208405.1.87">10.1515/9783110208405.1.87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-020840-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-020840-5"><bdi>978-3-11-020840-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rural+Southern+white+accents&rft.btitle=Varieties+of+English&rft.pages=87-114&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110208405.1.87&rft.isbn=978-3-11-020840-5&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Erik+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Thomason" title="Sarah Thomason">Thomason, Sarah G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Kaufman" title="Terrence Kaufman">Kaufman, Terrence</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_afr_detail-2">Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91279-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91279-3"><bdi>978-0-520-91279-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact%2C+Creolization+and+Genetic+Linguistics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-91279-3&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=Sarah+G.&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+Terrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frosettaproject_afr_detail-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToon1982" class="citation book cs1">Toon, Thomas E. (1982). "Variation in Contemporary American English". In Bailey, Richard W.; Görlach, Manfred (eds.). English as a World Language. University of Michigan Press. pp. 210–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-12-533872-2"><bdi>978-3-12-533872-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variation+in+Contemporary+American+English&rft.btitle=English+as+a+World+Language&rft.pages=210-250&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-3-12-533872-2&rft.aulast=Toon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToon1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Toon, Thomas E. (1992). "Old English Dialects". In Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press. pp. 409–451. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26474-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26474-7"><bdi>978-0-521-26474-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+English+Dialects&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=409-451&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26474-7&rft.aulast=Toon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraskTrask2010" class="citation book cs1">Trask, Larry; Trask, Robert Lawrence (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC">Why Do Languages Change?</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83802-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83802-3"><bdi>978-0-521-83802-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200449/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Do+Languages+Change%3F&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83802-3&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Trask%2C+Robert+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9qoZzBgCmFMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgill1999" class="citation book cs1">Trudgill, Peter (1999). The Dialects of England (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21815-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21815-9"><bdi>978-0-631-21815-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dialects+of+England&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21815-9&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgill2006" class="citation book cs1">Trudgill, P. (2006). "Accent". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01506-6">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01506-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Accent&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F01506-6&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgillHannah2002" class="citation book cs1">Trudgill, Peter; Hannah, Jean (2002). 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London: Hodder Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-80834-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-80834-4"><bdi>978-0-340-80834-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+English%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Varieties+of+Standard+English&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Hodder+Education&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-340-80834-4&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Hannah%2C+Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008" class="citation book cs1">Trudgill, Peter; Hannah, Jean (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC">International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English</a> (5th ed.). London: Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-97161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-97161-1"><bdi>978-0-340-97161-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200442/https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+English%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Varieties+of+Standard+English&rft.place=London&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-340-97161-1&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Hannah%2C+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De8u8MR8MNaEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations2010" class="citation web cs1">United Nations (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/705254/files/everything_un.pdf?ln=en">"Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the United Nations"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200412/https://tind-customer-undl.s3.amazonaws.com/46855284-e7b4-4ef3-ad95-8b8252fc27bd?response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%2A%3DUTF-8%27%27everything_un.pdf&response-content-type=application%2Fpdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Expires=86400&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAXL7W7Q3XFWDGQKBB%2F20230317%2Feu-west-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Date=20230317T200411Z&X-Amz-Signature=e9f0f4293b0666c9f09c2350fff35bc0126c052b25512f4fad2cfa5fe9cdf260">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2022. <q>The working languages at the UN Secretariat are English and French.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everything+You+Always+Wanted+to+Know+About+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2010&rft.au=United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitallibrary.un.org%2Frecord%2F705254%2Ffiles%2Feverything_un.pdf%3Fln%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardhaugh2010" class="citation book cs1">Wardhaugh, Ronald (2010). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Blackwell textbooks in Linguistics; 4 (Sixth ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8668-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8668-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-8668-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Sociolinguistics&rft.series=Blackwell+textbooks+in+Linguistics%3B+4&rft.edition=Sixth&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8668-1&rft.aulast=Wardhaugh&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts2011" class="citation book cs1">Watts, Richard J. (2011). Language Myths and the History of English. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195327601.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532760-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532760-1"><bdi>978-0-19-532760-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Myths+and+the+History+of+English&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195327601.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532760-1&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2">0-52129719-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=1%3A+An+Introduction&rft.isbn=0-52129719-2"> , <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2">0-52128540-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> , <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0">0-52128541-0</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=3%3A+Beyond+the+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128541-0&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> .</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWojcik2006" class="citation book cs1">Wojcik, R.H. (2006). "Controlled Languages". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 139–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F05081-1">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Controlled+Languages&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=139-142&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F05081-1&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Wojcik&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfram2006" class="citation book cs1">Wolfram, W. (2006). "Variation and Language: Overview". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 333–341. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04256-5">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variation+and+Language%3A+Overview&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=333-341&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F04256-5&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Wolfram&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about English language <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=English+language">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=English+language&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/gsound/Eng/Database/Phonetics/Englishes/Home/HomeMainFrameHolder.htm">Accents of English from Around the World (University of Edinburgh)</a>. Sound files comparing how 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dialectsarchive.com/">International Dialects of English Archive – recordings of English dialects and international L2 accents</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Description_of_English" title="Template:Description of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Description_of_English" title="Template talk:Description of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Description_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Description of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Description_of_the_English_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Description of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">English language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and reduced vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_spelling_reform" title="English-language spelling reform">Spelling reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">Language history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic /l/</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic /r/</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩">Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">Th</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩">Wh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dialects_and_accents_of_Modern_English_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_dialects" title="Template:English dialects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_dialects" title="Template talk:English dialects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English dialects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dialects_and_accents_of_Modern_English_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_English" title="List of dialects of English">Dialects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">accents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> by continent</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Europe" title="English language in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">Great Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Northern_England" title="English language in Northern England">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheshire_dialect" title="Cheshire dialect">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbrian_dialect" title="Cumbrian dialect">Cumbria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrovian" title="Barrovian">Barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancashire_dialect" title="Lancashire dialect">Lancashire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_dialect" title="Manchester dialect">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_dialect" title="Northumbrian dialect">Northumbria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pitmatic" title="Pitmatic">Pitmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackem" title="Mackem">Sunderland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geordie" title="Geordie">Tyneside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoggie" title="Smoggie">Teesside</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_dialect" title="Yorkshire dialect">Yorkshire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Midlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_English" title="East Midlands English">East Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_English" title="West Midlands English">West Midlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brummie_dialect" title="Brummie dialect">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Country_dialect" title="Black Country dialect">Black Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potteries_dialect" title="Potteries dialect">Stoke-on-Trent</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Southern_England" title="English language in Southern England">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Anglian_English" title="East Anglian English">East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary_English" title="Estuary English">London & Thames Estuary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicultural_London_English" title="Multicultural London English">Multicultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Country_English" title="West Country English">West Country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_dialect" title="Cornish dialect">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorset_dialect" title="Dorset dialect">Dorset</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_dialect" title="Glasgow dialect">Glasgow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_English" title="Highland English">Highlands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abercraf_English" title="Abercraf English">Abercraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiff_English" title="Cardiff English">Cardiff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gower_dialect" title="Gower dialect">Gower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Talbot_English" title="Port Talbot English">Port Talbot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_English" title="Dublin English">Dublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Irish_English" title="South-West Irish English">South-West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Ulster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Island_English" title="Channel Island English">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltarian_English" title="Gibraltarian English">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_English" title="Manx English">Isle of Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="North_America" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_English_in_Canada" title="Indigenous English in Canada">Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canadian_English" title="Atlantic Canadian English">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunenburg_English" title="Lunenburg English">Lunenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_slang" title="Toronto slang">Multicultural Toronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_Valley_English" title="Ottawa Valley English">Ottawa Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_English" title="Quebec English">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midland_American_English" title="Midland American English">Midland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_English" title="New England English">New England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boston_accent" title="Boston accent">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_New_England_English" title="Eastern New England English">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_accent" title="Maine accent">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_New_England_English" title="Western New England English">West</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_English" title="New York City English">New York City</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_accent" title="New York accent">accent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_American_English" title="Northern American English">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inland_Northern_American_English" title="Inland Northern American English">Inland North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-Central_American_English" title="North-Central American English">North-Central</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_English" title="Philadelphia English">Philadelphia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_accent" title="Baltimore accent">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_English" title="Appalachian English">Appalachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Tider" title="High Tider">High Tider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_English" title="New Orleans English">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Older_Southern_American_English" title="Older Southern American English">Older</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texan_English" title="Texan English">Texas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_American_English" title="Western American English">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_English" title="California English">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_English" title="Pacific Northwest English">Pacific Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania_English" title="Western Pennsylvania English">Western Pennsylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social and ethno-cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cajun_English" title="Cajun English">Cajun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_English" title="Chicano English">Chicano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_accent" title="Miami accent">Miami Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Latino_English" title="New York Latino English">New York Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_English" title="Pennsylvania Dutch English">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_English" title="Caribbean English">Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahamian_English" title="Bahamian English">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_in_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="English in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bequia_English" title="Bequia English">Bequia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands_English" title="Cayman Islands English">Cayman Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_English" title="Bay Islands English">Bay Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_English" title="Jamaican English">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saban_English" title="Saban English">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_English" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian English">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermudian_English" title="Bermudian English">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_English" title="Falkland Islands English">Falkland Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Australia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Variation_in_Australian_English" title="Variation in Australian English">variation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">accent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Australian_English" title="South Australian English">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_English" title="Torres Strait English">Torres Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_English" title="Western Australian English">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Fiji#Fiji_English" title="Culture of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology" title="New Zealand English phonology">accent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palauan_English" title="Palauan English">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_English" title="Solomon Islands English">Solomon Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_English" title="Cameroonian English">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_English" title="Gambian English">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_English" title="Ghanaian English">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_English" title="Kenyan English">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_English" title="Malawian English">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namlish" title="Namlish">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_English" title="Nigerian English">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_English" title="Sierra Leonean English">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Flats_English" title="Cape Flats English">Cape Flats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_English" title="South Atlantic English">South Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_English" title="Ugandan English">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_English" title="Zimbabwean English">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">Hong Kong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English" title="Bangladeshi English">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_differences_and_dialects_in_Indian_English" title="Regional differences and dialects in Indian English">regional and occupational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_English" title="Southeast Asian English">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brunei_English" title="Brunei English">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_English" title="Malaysian English">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_English" title="Myanmar English">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_English" title="Philippine English">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_English" title="Singapore English">Singapore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_English" title="Basic English">Basic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_and_general_accents" title="Broad and general accents">Broad and general accents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_American_and_British_English" title="Comparison of American and British English">Comparison of American and British English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-Prime" title="E-Prime">E-Prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engrish" title="Engrish">Engrish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_languages" title="English-based creole languages">English-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">Englishisation</a></li> <li>Globish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globish_(Gogate)" title="Globish (Gogate)">Gogate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globish_(Nerri%C3%A8re)" title="Globish (Nerrière)">Nerrière</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_English" title="International English">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_English_(version_of_English)" title="Learning English (version of English)">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism_in_English" title="Linguistic purism in English">Linguistic purism in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English-based_pidgins" title="List of English-based pidgins">List of English-based pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_accent" title="Mid-Atlantic accent">Mid-Atlantic accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English" title="Non-native pronunciations of English">Non-native pronunciations of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_English" title="Plain English">Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_English" title="Standard English">Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Irish Middle English <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weser <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li>Southern</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <ul><li>Old West Norse</li> <li>Old East Norse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dictionaries_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dictionaries_of_English" title="Template:Dictionaries of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dictionaries_of_English" title="Template talk:Dictionaries of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dictionaries_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dictionaries of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dictionaries_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:English_dictionaries" title="Category:English dictionaries">Dictionaries of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_Anglo-Saxon_Dictionary" title="An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary">An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Old_English" title="Dictionary of Old English">Dictionary of Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_Dictionary" title="Middle English Dictionary">Middle English Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholicon_Anglicum" title="Catholicon Anglicum">Catholicon Anglicum</a> (1483)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_English_Schoole-Master" title="The English Schoole-Master">The English Schoole-Master</a> (1596)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_World_of_English_Words" title="The New World of English Words">The New World of English Words</a> (1658)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_New_English_Dictionary" title="A New English Dictionary">A New English Dictionary</a> (1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Universal_Etymological_English_Dictionary" title="An Universal Etymological English Dictionary">An Universal Etymological English Dictionary</a> (1721)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language</a> (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary" title="Webster's Dictionary">Webster's Dictionary</a> (1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Emerson_Worcester" title="Joseph Emerson Worcester">Worcester's Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Richardson_(lexicographer)" title="Charles Richardson (lexicographer)">Richardson's New Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Imperial_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language">Imperial Dictionary</a> (1847–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_Dictionary" title="Century Dictionary">Century Dictionary</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Dictionary" title="World Book Dictionary">World Book Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_English" title="Dictionary of American English">Dictionary of American English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Dictionary" title="Chambers Dictionary">Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins</a></li> <li>Oxford <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">OED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_English" title="Oxford Dictionary of English">ODE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Oxford_English_Dictionary_of_Current_English" title="Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concise_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Concise Oxford English Dictionary">Concise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorter_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Shorter Oxford English Dictionary">Shorter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin_English_Dictionary" title="Penguin English Dictionary">Penguin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">American Heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Regional_English" title="Dictionary of American Regional English">American Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encarta_Webster%27s_Dictionary" title="Encarta Webster's Dictionary">Encarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Oxford_American_Dictionary" title="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_New_World_Dictionary" title="Webster's New World Dictionary">Webster's New World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Third_New_International_Dictionary" title="Webster's Third New International Dictionary">Webster's Third New International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Oxford_Dictionary" title="Canadian Oxford Dictionary">Canadian Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Canadianisms_on_Historical_Principles" title="A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles">Dictionary of Canadianisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Newfoundland_English" title="Dictionary of Newfoundland English">Dictionary of Newfoundland English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gage_Canadian_Dictionary" title="Gage Canadian Dictionary">Gage Canadian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Australian_National_Dictionary" title="The Australian National Dictionary">Australian National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Oxford_Dictionary" title="Australian Oxford Dictionary">Australian Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Dictionary" title="Macquarie Dictionary">Macquarie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">Online</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_International_Dictionary_of_English" title="Collaborative International Dictionary of English">Collaborative International Dictionary of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_Dictionary" title="Urban Dictionary">Urban Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wordnik" title="Wordnik">Wordnik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monolingual_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Monolingual learner's dictionary">Learners</a> / <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="English as a second or foreign language">ESL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Advanced_Learner%27s_Dictionary" title="Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary">Cambridge Advanced Learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collins_COBUILD_Advanced_Dictionary" title="Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary">Collins COBUILD Advanced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longman_Dictionary_of_Contemporary_English" title="Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English">Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macmillan_English_Dictionary_for_Advanced_Learners" title="Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners">Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster%27s_Advanced_Learner%27s_English_Dictionary" title="Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary">Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Advanced_Learner%27s_Dictionary" title="Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary">Oxford Advanced Learner's</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="English-speaking_world" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Template:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Template talk:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_official_language_clickable_map" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English official language clickable map"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="English-speaking_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Geographical_distribution">English-speaking world</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="English speaking countries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/600px-Anglophone_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/900px-Anglophone_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/1200px-Anglophone_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="974" resource="/wiki/File:Anglophone_World.svg" /><figcaption>English speaking countries</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_links" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further links</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">History of the English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="English in the Commonwealth of Nations">English in the Commonwealth of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;text-align:left;color:darkblue;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_population" title="List of countries by English-speaking population">List of countries by English-speaking population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_English_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where English is an official language">List of countries where English is an official language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:blue;"> </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Countries_and_territories_where_English_is_the_national_language_or_the_native_language_of_the_majority"> <ul><li>Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Americas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saba_(island)" title="Saba (island)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sint_Maarten" title="Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_Europe" title="English language in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightblue;"> </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language,_but_not_the_majority_first_language"> <ul><li>Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokelau" title="Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> shown in italics.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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.portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/26px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/34px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/19px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/29px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/38px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Writing" title="Portal:Writing">Writing</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">English language at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:English_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:English language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:English_language" class="extiw" title="c:Category:English language">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/English_language" class="extiw" title="q:English language">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" 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href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:English_Language" class="extiw" title="v:Portal:English Language">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1860" class="extiw" title="d:Q1860">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g7nzk","wgBackendResponseTime":271,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.786","walltime":"5.588","ppvisitednodes":{"value":44639,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1188330,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":169183,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":107,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":870155,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4491.747 1 -total"," 23.18% 1041.029 307 Template:Sfn"," 19.62% 881.310 143 Template:Cite_book"," 12.37% 555.539 1 Template:Reflist"," 9.26% 416.100 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 8.71% 391.104 1 Template:Infobox"," 6.66% 299.085 46 Template:Cite_web"," 3.56% 159.858 149 Template:IPA"," 3.18% 142.931 26 Template:Navbox"," 3.05% 136.902 337 Template:Main_other"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.908","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26971182,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAartsHaegeman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbercrombieDaniels2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdegbija1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAitkenMcArthur1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcaraz_ArizaNavarro2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlgeo1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmmon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmmon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnnamalai2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Bureau_of_Statistics2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBammesberger1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBao2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaughCable2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaughCable2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBautista2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBermúdez-OteroMcMahon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlenchSpriggs1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoberg2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBosworthToller1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreene2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrintonBrinton2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrutt-Griffler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnley1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurridge2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrHoneybone2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarterMcCartheyMarkO\u0026#039;Keeffe2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassidy1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCercignani1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChua2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollingwoodMyres1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsMees2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConradRubal-Lopez1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCruttenden2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2003a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2003b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanielsBright1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDayag2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDehaene2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenisonHogg2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenning2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenningKesslerLeben2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeumert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonoghue2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurrell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEagleson1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEthnologue2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEuropean_Commission2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaingold2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFasoldConnor-Linton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkenstaedtDieter_Wolff1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischervan_der_Wurff2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlemmingJohnson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuster-MárquezCalvo_García_de_Leonardo2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiegerich1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGneuss2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordonCampbellHay_et_al.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGottlieb2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraddol2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraddol2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraddolLeithSwann_et_al.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenbaumNelson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGörlach1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallidayHasan1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarbert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHickey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHogg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHogg2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorobin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHow_English_evolved_into_a_global_language2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddlestonPullumReynolds2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughesTrudgill1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuws2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Civil_Aviation_Organization2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Maritime_Organization2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJambor2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohannessonCooper2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKachru2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamm2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKastovsky2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKönig1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKönigvan_der_Auwera1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanham1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLass1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLass2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLass2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLass2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawton1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeech2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeechHundtMairSmith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevineCrockett1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLimAnsaldo2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaclagan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacquarie_Dictionary2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMairLeech2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMazruiMazrui1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcArthur1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCrumMacNeilCran2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGuinness1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcWhorter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeierkord2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriam_Webster2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMesthrie2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMountford2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMufwene2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNation2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Records_of_Scotland2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeijt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevalainenTieken-Boon_van_Ostade2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthern_Ireland_Statistics_and_Research_Agency2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthrup2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Dwyer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOffice_for_National_Statistics2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxford_Learner\u0026#039;s_Dictionary2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayneHuddleston2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillipson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomaine1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomaine1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomaine2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowicka2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubino2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSailaja2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffrin1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchönweitz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaywitz2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShort2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolodow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStatistics_Canada2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStatistics_New_Zealand2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStatistics_South_Africa2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvartvikLeech2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweet2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Routes_of_English\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToon1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToon1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraskTrask2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgill1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgill2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgillHannah2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUpwardDavidson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardhaugh2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWojcik2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfram2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWycliffe\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Accents of English\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 5,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Asof\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Britannica URL\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 143,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 46,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 4,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Description of English\"] = 1,\n [\"Dictionaries of English\"] = 1,\n [\"E26\"] = 1,\n [\"Emdash\"] = 1,\n [\"English dialects by continent\"] = 1,\n [\"English language\"] = 1,\n [\"English official language clickable map\"] = 1,\n [\"Enum\"] = 1,\n [\"Germanic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 8,\n [\"History of English\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 147,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 21,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 14,\n [\"IPAlink\"] = 25,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Image frame\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 13,\n [\"Legend\"] = 28,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 29,\n [\"Main\"] = 25,\n [\"Map of Canadian English\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 2,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 1,\n [\"OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Pie chart\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Pn\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Pronoun pair\"] = 11,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 2,\n [\"Sc\"] = 6,\n [\"Sc2\"] = 6,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfb\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 307,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 1,\n [\"Stack begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Stack end\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","520","16.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","380","12.0"],["?","320","10.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","280","8.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","180","5.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","3.8"],["mw.executeModule 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-14T18:25:26Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T16:44:51Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/df\/Anglospeak_%28subnational_version%29.svg","headline":"West Germanic language"}</script> </body> </html>