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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Warrant_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warrant_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Warrant requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warrant_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptions_to_the_warrant_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptions_to_the_warrant_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Exceptions to the warrant requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptions_to_the_warrant_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violation_of_the_warrant_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violation_of_the_warrant_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Violation of the warrant requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violation_of_the_warrant_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exclusionary_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exclusionary_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Exclusionary rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exclusionary_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_searches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_searches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Administrative searches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_searches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domovn%C3%AD_prohl%C3%ADdka" title="Domovní prohlídka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Domovní prohlídka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransagning" title="Ransagning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ransagning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durchsuchung_(Recht)" title="Durchsuchung (Recht) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Durchsuchung (Recht)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%27_%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD" title="Έρευνα κατ' οίκον – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έρευνα κατ' οίκον" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allanamiento" title="Allanamiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Allanamiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%95%EC%88%98%EC%88%98%EC%83%89" title="압수수색 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="압수수색" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խուզարկություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խուզարկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%94" title="חיפוש ותפיסה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חיפוש ותפיסה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83" title="Тінту – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тінту" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huiszoeking" title="Huiszoeking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Huiszoeking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransaking" title="Ransaking – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ransaking" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busca_e_apreens%C3%A3o" title="Busca e apreensão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Busca e apreensão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perchezi%C8%9Bie" title="Percheziție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Percheziție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BA" title="Обыск – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Обыск" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Search and seizure" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotietsint%C3%A4" title="Kotietsintä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kotietsintä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husrannsakan" title="Husrannsakan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Husrannsakan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%88%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Обшук – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Обшук" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Police powers</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg/260px-Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg/390px-Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg/520px-Vehicle_drug_search_australia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dareton,_New_South_Wales" title="Dareton, New South Wales">Dareton</a> police search the vehicle of a suspected drug smuggler in Wentworth, in the state of New South Wales, Australia, near the border with Victoria.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Search and seizure</b> is a procedure used in many <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> legal systems by which <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> or other authorities and their agents, who, suspecting that a <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> has been committed, commence a search of a person's property and <a href="/wiki/Confiscation" title="Confiscation">confiscate</a> any relevant evidence found in connection to the crime. </p><p>Some countries have certain provisions in their <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutions</a> that provide the public with the right to be free from "unreasonable searches and seizures". This right is generally based on the premise that everyone is entitled to a reasonable <a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">right to privacy</a>. </p><p>Though specific interpretation may vary, this right can often require <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> to obtain a <a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">search warrant</a> or consent of the owner before engaging in any form of search and seizure. In cases where evidence is seized in a search, that evidence might be rejected by court procedures, such as with a <a href="/wiki/Motion_to_suppress" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion to suppress">motion to suppress</a> the evidence under the <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Italy">Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> protection from search and seizure is enshrined in Article 14 of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Constitution">Constitution</a>, which states:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The home is inviolable. Home inspections, searches, or seizures shall not be admissible save in the cases and manners complying with measures to safeguard personal liberty. Controls and inspections for reason of public health and safety, or for economic and fiscal purposes, shall be regulated by appropriate laws." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unreasonable_search_and_seizure_in_New_Zealand" title="Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand">Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand</a></div> <p>Section 21 of the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Bill_of_Rights_Act_1990" title="New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990">New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990</a> (NZBoRA 1990) incorporates this right into <a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand" title="Law of New Zealand">New Zealand law</a>, stating that: "Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure, whether of the person, property, or correspondence or otherwise." </p><p>While the NZBORA 1990 establishes the overall right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure the <a href="/wiki/Search_and_Surveillance_Act_2012" title="Search and Surveillance Act 2012">Search and Surveillance Act 2012</a> provides the statutory framework for the practical application of the law in this area in New Zealand. The right to protection from unreasonable search and seizure is routinely ignored by the State,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is able to exercise unlimited powers of search and seizure against private individuals. The only remedy is to seek to have whatever evidence may have been unreasonably obtained omitted from proceedings under the Evidence Act procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that in practice there is only limited protection against the use of unreasonably obtained evidence, but no protection against actual unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English common law</a> made use of a number of different types of legal <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writs</a> to effect seizures for various reasons. For example, a writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Arrestandis_bonis_ne_dissipentur" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrestandis bonis ne dissipentur">arrestandis bonis ne dissipentur</a></i> provided for the seizure of goods when it was found likely they would not be properly cared for during a court case to settle ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Attachiamenta_bonorum" title="Attachiamenta bonorum">attachiamenta bonorum</a></i> allowed for the seizure of <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal property</a> to recover a debt.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In relation to criminal investigations, the police have a range of powers to search people and places without first making an <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a>, often described as "stop and search". The United Kingdom has several different legal systems and the powers and procedure for stop and search varies depending on the jurisdiction: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_police_in_England_and_Wales#Search_without_arrest" title="Powers of the police in England and Wales">Powers of the police in England and Wales § Search without arrest</a> in <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_police_in_Scotland#Search_without_a_warrant" title="Powers of the police in Scotland">Powers of the police in Scotland § Search without a warrant</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>The Fourth Amendment of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> states that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search and seizure is found in court rulings. The brief definitions of the terms "search" and "seizure" was concisely summarized in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Jacobsen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Jacobsen (page does not exist)">United States v. Jacobsen</a></i>, which said that the Fourth Amendment: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>protects two types of expectations, one involving "searches", the other "seizures". A <i>search</i> occurs when an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to consider reasonable is infringed. A <i>seizure</i> of property occurs where there is some meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interests in that property.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warrant_requirement">Warrant requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Warrant requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general rule under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> is that a valid warrant is required for a search. There are, however, several exceptions to this rule, based on the language of the fourth amendment that the people are to be "secure ... against unreasonable searches and seizures". </p><p>For instance, the owner of the property in question may <a href="/wiki/Consent_searches" class="mw-redirect" title="Consent searches">consent to the search</a>. The consent must be voluntary, but there is no clear test to determine whether or not it is; rather, a court will consider the "<a href="/wiki/Totality_of_the_circumstances" title="Totality of the circumstances">totality of the circumstances</a>" in assessing whether consent was voluntary. Police officers are <i>not</i> technically required to advise a suspect that he may refuse, however this policy depends on the specific rules of the department. There are also some circumstances in which a third party who has equal control, i.e. common authority, over the property may consent to a search. Another example of unreasonable search and seizure is in the court case <i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When an individual does not possess a "<a href="/wiki/Reasonable_expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasonable expectation of privacy">reasonable expectation of privacy</a>" that society is willing to acknowledge in a particular piece of property, any interference by the government with regard to that property is not considered a search for Fourth Amendment purposes, and a warrant is never required. For example, courts have found that a person does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy in information transferred to a third party, such as writing on the outside of an envelope sent through the mail or left for pick-up in an area where others might view it. While that does not mean that the person has no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of that envelope, the Court has held that one does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy that society is willing to acknowledge in the contents of garbage left outside the <a href="/wiki/Curtilage" title="Curtilage">curtilage</a> of a home.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DEA_Operation_Reciprocity_-_money_seizure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DEA_Operation_Reciprocity_-_money_seizure.png/220px-DEA_Operation_Reciprocity_-_money_seizure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/DEA_Operation_Reciprocity_-_money_seizure.png 1.5x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a> investigators found $5.6 million hidden in a ceiling compartment of a truck during a seizure (Operations Reciprocity, 1997).</figcaption></figure> <p>There is also a lowered expectation of privacy inside of motor vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <i><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_v._New_Hampshire" title="Coolidge v. New Hampshire">Coolidge v. New Hampshire</a></i> dictates that "the word 'automobile' is not a talisman in whose presence the Fourth Amendment fades away and disappears."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptions_to_the_warrant_requirement">Exceptions to the warrant requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Exceptions to the warrant requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Courts have also established an "<a href="/wiki/Exigent_circumstances" class="mw-redirect" title="Exigent circumstances">exigent circumstances</a>" exception to the warrant requirement. "Exigent circumstances" simply means that the officers must act quickly. Typically, this is because police have a reasonable belief that evidence is in imminent danger of being removed or destroyed, but there is still a <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a> requirement. Exigent circumstances may also exist where there is a continuing danger, or where officers have a reasonable belief that people in need of assistance are present. This includes when the police are in "hot pursuit of a fleeing felon." In this circumstance, so long as there is <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a>, police may follow the suspect into a residence and seize any evidence in plain view. </p><p>Certain limited searches are also allowed during an investigatory stop or incident to an arrest. These searches may be referenced as refined searches.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> are binding on all federal courts interpreting the U.S. Constitution, there is some variance in the specifics from state to state, for two reasons. First, if an issue has not been decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, then a lower court makes a ruling of "first impression" on the issue, and sometimes two different lower courts will reach different interpretations. Second, virtually all state constitutions also contain provisions regarding search and seizure. Those provisions cannot reduce the protections offered by the U.S. Constitution, but they can provide additional protections such that a search deemed "reasonable" under the U.S. Constitution might nonetheless be unreasonable under the law of a particular state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violation_of_the_warrant_requirement">Violation of the warrant requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Violation of the warrant requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several areas of analysis that courts use to determine whether a search has encroached upon constitutional protections. Only those searches that meet with certainty each of the minimal measured requirements of the following four doctrines are likely to stand unchallenged in court.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those qualifying doctrines are reasonableness,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> probable cause,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> judicial authority,<sup id="cite_ref-uscourts.gov_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uscourts.gov-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and particularity.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While police judgment just before or during the course of a search or arrest usually provides the factors that determine reasonableness, matters of probable cause, judicial authority, and particularity requirements are commonly met through police procedures that are overseen by a court judge or magistrate prior to any search or arrest being conducted. Probable cause requires an acceptable degree of justified suspicion. Particularity requirements are spelled out in the constitution text itself. Law enforcement compliance with those requirements is scrutinized prior to the issuance of a warrant being granted or denied by an officiating judicial authority.<sup id="cite_ref-uscourts.gov_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uscourts.gov-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exclusionary_rule">Exclusionary rule</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Exclusionary rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary remedy in illegal search cases is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that any evidence obtained through an illegal search is excluded and cannot be used against the defendant at his or her trial. There are some narrow exceptions to this rule. For instance, if police officers acted in good faith—perhaps pursuant to a warrant that turned out to be invalid, but that the officers had believed valid at the time of the search—evidence may be admitted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_searches">Administrative searches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Administrative searches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In corporate and <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>, there has been an evolution of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> interpretation in favor of stronger government in regards to investigatory power.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Federal Trade Commission v. American Tobacco Co.</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> ruled that the FTC, while having been granted a broad subpoena power, did not have the right to a general "<a href="/wiki/Fishing_expedition" title="Fishing expedition">fishing expedition</a>" into the private papers, to search both relevant and irrelevant, hoping that something would come up. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Justice Holmes</a> ruled that this would go against "the spirit and the letter" of the Fourth Amendment. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Figurative_or_constructive_searches"></span> In the 1946 case of <i>Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was a distinction made between a "figurative or constructive search" and an actual search and seizure. The court held that constructive searches are limited by the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>, where actual search and seizure requires a <a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">warrant</a> based on “<a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a>”. In the case of a <a href="/wiki/Constructive_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive search">constructive search</a> where the records and papers sought are of corporate character, the court held that the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> does not apply, since <a href="/wiki/Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporations">corporations</a> are not entitled to all the constitutional protections created in order to protect the rights of private individuals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frisking" title="Frisking">Frisking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INTERPOL" class="mw-redirect" title="INTERPOL">INTERPOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proactive_policing" title="Proactive policing">Proactive policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_of_persons" title="Search of persons">Search of persons</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">Search warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_search" title="Strip search">Strip search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unreasonable_search_and_seizure_in_New_Zealand" title="Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand">Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand</a></li></ul> <p><b>US specific:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms,_and_Explosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives">Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives</a> (ATF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_forfeiture_in_the_United_States" title="Civil forfeiture in the United States">Civil forfeiture in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration and Customs Enforcement">Immigration and Customs Enforcement</a> (ICE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally_intrusive_warrantless_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally intrusive warrantless search">Minimally intrusive warrantless search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-knock_warrant" title="No-knock warrant">No-knock warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure_law_in_Pennsylvania" title="Search and seizure law in Pennsylvania">Search and seizure law in Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol" title="United States Border Patrol">United States Border Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Customs_and_Border_Protection" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Customs and Border Protection">United States Customs and Border Protection</a> (CBP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">United States Marshals Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">United States Secret Service</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Search_and_seizure&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quirinale.it/page/costituzione">"The Italian Constitution"</a>. The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Constitution&rft.pub=The+official+website+of+the+Presidency+of+the+Italian+Republic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quirinale.it%2Fpage%2Fcostituzione&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawcom.govt.nz/assets/Publications/IssuesPapers/NZLC-IP40.pdf"><i>Review of the Search and Surveillance Act 2012: Issues Paper</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Wellington: New Zealand Law Commission. November 2016. p. 29-39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-877569-77-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-877569-77-7"><bdi>978-1-877569-77-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Review+of+the+Search+and+Surveillance+Act+2012%3A+Issues+Paper&rft.place=Wellington&rft.pages=29-39&rft.pub=New+Zealand+Law+Commission&rft.date=2016-11&rft.isbn=978-1-877569-77-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawcom.govt.nz%2Fassets%2FPublications%2FIssuesPapers%2FNZLC-IP40.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evidence Act 2006, s30 (5).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia01.p0187&id=HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia01&isize=M">"History of Science: Cyclopædia, or, An universal dictionary of arts and sciences – Arboreus – artery"</a>. <i>digicoll.library.wisc.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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IV"</a>. <i>Official Bill of Rights in the National Archives</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">U.S. National Archives</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+Bill+of+Rights+in+the+National+Archives&rft.atitle=U.S.+Const.+amend.+IV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fbill_of_rights_transcript.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Jacobson v. United States</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_466" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 466">466</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/466/109/#113">109, 113</a> (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=589965672959279882">"<i>Mapp v. Ohio</i>, 367 US 643, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1081 (1961)"</a>. Google Scholar<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=Traffic+stops%2C+minority+motorists%2C+and+the+future+of+the+Fourth+Amendment&rft.volume=1997&rft.pages=271&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fscr.1997.3109744&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142595666%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sklansky&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawcat.berkeley.edu%3A443%2Frecord%2F1116089%2Ffiles%2Ffulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/443/case.html">"<i>Coolidge v. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brigham+Young+University+Education+and+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Search+and+Seizure+Law+in+Public+Schools&rft.volume=1999&rft.pages=71&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Heder&rft.aufirst=Bill+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fbyuelj1999%26div%3D16%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitebread2000" class="citation book cs1">Whitebread, Charles H. 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MN: Foundation Press/ West Academic. p. 1019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Procedure%3A+An+Analysis+of+Cases+and+Concepts.+%2F+Edition+5&rft.place=MN&rft.pages=1019&rft.pub=Foundation+Press%2F+West+Academic&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Whitebread&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.barnesandnoble.com%2Fw%2Fcriminal-procedure-charles-h-whitebread%2F1101184310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Regina v Smith</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldjudgmt/jd000727/smith-1.htm">4 AER 289</a> (2000) ("[sub-citing Camplin and Bedder:] the concept of the 'reasonable man' has never been more than a way of explaining the law to a jury; an anthropomorphic image to convey to them, with a suitable degree of vividness, the legal principle that even under provocation, people must conform to an objective standard of behaviour that society is entitled to expect").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Brinegar_v._United_States" title="Brinegar v. 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Uscourts.gov.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGryzlo2016" class="citation book cs1">Gryzlo, Joseph P. (2016). <i>A Balancing Act: Fourth Amendment Protections and the Reasonable Scope of Government Investigatory Access to E-Mail Accounts</i>. John's L. p. 495.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Balancing+Act%3A+Fourth+Amendment+Protections+and+the+Reasonable+Scope+of+Government+Investigatory+Access+to+E-Mail+Accounts&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=John%27s+L&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Gryzlo&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewenthal1980" class="citation journal cs1">Loewenthal, Milton A. (October 1, 1980). "Evaluating the Exclusionary Rule in Search and Seizure". <i>Anglo-American Law Review</i>. <b>9</b> (4): 238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147377958000900403">10.1177/147377958000900403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157351521">157351521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-American+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Evaluating+the+Exclusionary+Rule+in+Search+and+Seizure&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=238&rft.date=1980-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F147377958000900403&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157351521%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Loewenthal&rft.aufirst=Milton+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2011" class="citation journal cs1">Primus, Eve B. (March 2011). "Disentangling Administrative Searches". <i>Columbia Law Review</i>. <b>111</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">254–</span>312. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29777196">29777196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Disentangling+Administrative+Searches&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E254-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29777196%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Primus&rft.aufirst=Eve+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASearch+and+seizure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry, Donald D., and Howard R. Whitcomb, <i>The legal foundations of public administration</i> (Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers), 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Federal Trade Commission v. American Tobacco Co.</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_264" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 264">264</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/264/298/">298</a> (1924)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_327" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 327">327</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/327/186/">186</a> (1946)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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