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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Melanin_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melanin_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Melanin types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Melanin_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Melanin types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Melanin_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eumelanin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eumelanin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Eumelanin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eumelanin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pheomelanin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pheomelanin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Pheomelanin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pheomelanin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuromelanin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuromelanin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Neuromelanin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuromelanin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_forms_of_melanins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_forms_of_melanins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Other forms of melanins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_forms_of_melanins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peptidomelanin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peptidomelanin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Peptidomelanin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peptidomelanin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selenomelanin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selenomelanin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Selenomelanin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selenomelanin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trichochromes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trichochromes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Trichochromes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trichochromes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Other organisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other organisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation_as_a_single_monomer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation_as_a_single_monomer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Interpretation as a single monomer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation_as_a_single_monomer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biosynthetic_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosynthetic_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Biosynthetic pathways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosynthetic_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopic_appearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopic_appearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Microscopic appearance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopic_appearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_disorders_and_disease_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_disorders_and_disease_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Genetic disorders and disease states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_disorders_and_disease_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Human adaptations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_adaptations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human adaptations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Evolutionary origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_properties_and_technological_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_properties_and_technological_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Physical properties and technological applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_properties_and_technological_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physical properties and technological applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_properties_and_technological_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_in_melanoma_metastasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_melanoma_metastasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Role in melanoma metastasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_melanoma_metastasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="ميلانين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ميلانين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="মেলানিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেলানিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Мэлянін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэлянін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Меланин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Меланин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanine" title="Melanine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Melanine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaniin" title="Melaniin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Melaniin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Μελανίνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μελανίνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanino" title="Melanino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Melanino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ملانین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ملانین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanine" title="Mélanine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mélanine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanine" title="Melanine – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Melanine" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meilinin" title="Meilinin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Meilinin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%9C%EB%9D%BC%EB%8B%8C" title="멜라닌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="멜라닌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Մելանիններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մելանիններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="मेलानिन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मेलानिन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9F" title="מלנין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלנין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_(%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF)" title="ಮೆಲನಿನ್ (ಚರ್ಮದ ವರ್ಣದ್ರವ್ಯ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೆಲನಿನ್ (ಚರ್ಮದ ವರ್ಣದ್ರವ್ಯ)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanini" title="Melanini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Melanini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melan%C4%ABni" title="Melanīni – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Melanīni" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaninas" title="Melaninas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Melaninas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Меланин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Меланин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanine" title="Melanine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Melanine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A1%E3%83%A9%E3%83%8B%E3%83%B3" title="メラニン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="メラニン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaniny" title="Melaniny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Melaniny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin%C4%83" title="Melanină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Melanină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Меланины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Меланины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Melanina" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melan%C3%ADn" title="Melanín – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Melanín" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Меланин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Меланин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaniini" title="Melaniini – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Melaniini" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaniner" title="Melaniner – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Melaniner" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="மெலானின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெலானின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="మెలనిన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మెలనిన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="เมลานิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เมลานิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Melanin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Меланіни – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Меланіни" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اسودین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسودین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BA%AFc_t%E1%BB%91" title="Hắc tố – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hắc tố" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0" title="黑色素 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="黑色素" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0" title="黑色素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="黑色素" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of natural pigments found in most organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">Melamine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Melanin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Eumelanine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="One possible structure of Eumelanin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/250px-Eumelanine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/330px-Eumelanine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/440px-Eumelanine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="549" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">One possible structure of Eumelanin</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Material type</th><td class="infobox-data">Heterogeneous <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymer</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg/220px-Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg/330px-Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg/440px-Pigmented_melanoma_-_cytology.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3584" /></a><figcaption>Micrograph of Melanin pigment (light refracting granular material—center of image) in a pigmented <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrograph_of_keratinocytes,_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg/250px-Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg/330px-Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg/500px-Micrograph_of_keratinocytes%2C_basal_cells_and_melanocytes_in_the_epidermis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Micrograph of the epidermis, with melanin labeled at left.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Melanin</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/ef\/Melanin-pronunciation.ogg\/Melanin-pronunciation.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Melanin-pronunciation.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ef/Melanin-pronunciation.ogg/Melanin-pronunciation.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Melanin-pronunciation.ogg" title="File:Melanin-pronunciation.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μέλας">μέλας</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>mélas</i></span>)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">black, dark</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is a family of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> organized as <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, which among other functions provide the <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigments</a> of many <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Casadevall_2018_pp._319–320_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casadevall_2018_pp._319–320-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as <a href="/wiki/Melanocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanocytes">melanocytes</a>. </p><p>There are five basic types of melanin: <a href="#Eumelanin">eumelanin</a>, <a href="#Pheomelanin">pheomelanin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuromelanin" title="Neuromelanin">neuromelanin</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Allomelanin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allomelanin (page does not exist)">allomelanin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyomelanin" title="Pyomelanin">pyomelanin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cao_2021_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cao_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as <a href="/wiki/Melanogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanogenesis">melanogenesis</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a> is followed by <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a>. Pheomelanin is a <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteinated</a> form containing poly<a href="/wiki/Benzothiazine" title="Benzothiazine">benzothiazine</a> portions that are largely responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">yellow</a> tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkinson's">Parkinson's</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen-free melanin. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypic</a> color variation observed in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> is primarily determined by the levels of eumelanin and pheomelanin in the examined tissue. In an average human individual, eumelanin is more abundant in tissues requiring <a href="/wiki/Photoprotection" title="Photoprotection">photoprotection</a>, such as the epidermis and the <a href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In healthy subjects, epidermal melanin is correlated with UV exposure, while <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retinal</a> melanin has been found to correlate with age, with levels diminishing 2.5-fold between the first and ninth decades of life,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has been attributed to <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidative</a> degradation mediated by <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> generated via <a href="/wiki/Lipofuscin" title="Lipofuscin">lipofuscin</a>-dependent pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the absence of <a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">albinism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">hyperpigmentation</a>, the human epidermis contains approximately 74% eumelanin and 26% pheomelanin, largely irrespective of skin tone, with eumelanin content ranging between 71.8–78.9%, and pheomelanin varying between 21.1–28.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Total melanin content in the epidermis ranges from around 0 μg/mg in <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a> epidermal tissue<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to >10 μg/mg in darker tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a>, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Meredith_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meredith-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Malignant_melanoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant melanoma">malignant melanoma</a>, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker <a href="/wiki/Skin_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin tone">skin tone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Electrodial_Crocodile_Style_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Electrodial_Crocodile_Style-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Melanin_types">Melanin types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Melanin types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eumelanin">Eumelanin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Eumelanin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eumelanine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/250px-Eumelanine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/330px-Eumelanine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Eumelanine.svg/440px-Eumelanine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>Part of the structural formula of eumelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other <a href="/wiki/Substituent" title="Substituent">substituents</a>. The arrow denotes where the polymer continues.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eumelanin (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">true melanin</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) has two forms linked to <a href="/wiki/5,6-dihydroxyindole" class="mw-redirect" title="5,6-dihydroxyindole">5,6-dihydroxyindole</a> (DHI) and <a href="/wiki/DHICA" title="DHICA">5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid</a> (DHICA). DHI-derived eumelanin is dark brown or black and insoluble, and DHICA -derived eumelanin which is lighter and soluble in alkali. Both eumelanins arise from the oxidation of tyrosine in specialized organelles called <a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">melanosomes</a>. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Tyrosinase" title="Tyrosinase">tyrosinase</a>. The initial product, <a href="/wiki/L-Dopaquinone" title="L-Dopaquinone">dopaquinone</a> can transform into either 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) or 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). DHI and DHICA are oxidized and then polymerize to form the two eumelanins.<sup id="cite_ref-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In natural conditions, DHI and DHICA often co-polymerize, resulting in a range of eumelanin polymers. These polymers contribute to the variety of melanin components in human skin and hair, ranging from light yellow/red pheomelanin to light brown DHICA-enriched eumelanin and dark brown or black DHI-enriched eumelanin. These final polymers differ in solubility and color.<sup id="cite_ref-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysis of highly pigmented (<a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_scale" title="Fitzpatrick scale">Fitzpatrick type</a> V and VI) skin finds that DHI-eumelanin comprises the largest portion, approximately 60–70%, followed by DHICA-eumelanin at 25–35%, and pheomelanin only 2–8%. Notably, while an enrichment of DHI-eumelanin occurs in during <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">sun tanning</a>, it is accompanied by a decrease in DHICA-eumelanin and pheomelanin.<sup id="cite_ref-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small amount of black eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes grey hair. A small amount of eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes blond hair.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eumelanin is present in the skin and hair, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pheomelanin">Pheomelanin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pheomelanin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pheomelanine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pheomelanine.svg/220px-Pheomelanine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pheomelanine.svg/330px-Pheomelanine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pheomelanine.svg/440px-Pheomelanine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Part of the structural formula of pheomelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other <a href="/wiki/Substituent" title="Substituent">substituents</a>. The arrows denote where the polymer continues.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pheomelanins (or phaeomelanins, from Greek φαιός <i>phaios</i>, "grey") impart a range of yellowish to reddish colors.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pheomelanins are particularly concentrated in the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a small amount of eumelanin in hair (which would otherwise cause blond hair) is mixed with pheomelanin, the result is orange hair, which is typically called <a href="/wiki/Red_hair" title="Red hair">"red" or "ginger" hair</a>. Pheomelanin is also present in the skin, and redheads consequently often have a more pinkish hue to their skin as well. Exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light increases pheomelanin content, as it does for eumelanin; but rather than absorbing light, pheomelanin within the hair and skin reflect yellow to red light, which may increase damage from UV radiation exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pheomelanin production is highly dependent on <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a> availability, which is transported into the melanosome, reacting with dopaquinone to form cys-dopa. Cys-dopa then undergoes several transformations before forming pheomelanin.<sup id="cite_ref-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alaluf_Heath_Carter_Atkins_2001_pp._337–3472-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In chemical terms, pheomelanins differ from eumelanins in that the oligomer structure incorporates <a href="/wiki/Benzothiazine" title="Benzothiazine">benzothiazine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzothiazole" title="Benzothiazole">benzothiazole</a> units that are produced,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> instead of DHI and <a href="/wiki/DHICA" title="DHICA">DHICA</a>, when the amino acid <a href="/wiki/L-cysteine" class="mw-redirect" title="L-cysteine">L-cysteine</a> is present. </p><p>Pheomelanins, unlike euemanins, are rare in lower organisms<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with claims they are an "evolutionary innovation in the tetrapod lineage"<sup id="cite_ref-eumelanin_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eumelanin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but recent research finds them also in some fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Xuetal_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xuetal-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuromelanin">Neuromelanin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neuromelanin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuromelanin" title="Neuromelanin">Neuromelanin</a></div> <p>Neuromelanin (NM) is an insoluble polymer pigment produced in specific populations of <a href="/wiki/Catecholaminergic" title="Catecholaminergic">catecholaminergic neurons</a> in the brain. Humans have the largest amount of NM, which is present in lesser amounts in other primates, and totally absent in many other species.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biological function remains unknown, although human NM has been shown to efficiently bind <a href="/wiki/Transition_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition metals">transition metals</a> such as iron, as well as other potentially toxic molecules. Therefore, it may play crucial roles in <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> and the related <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_forms_of_melanins">Other forms of melanins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other forms of melanins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Up until the 1960s, melanin was classified into eumelanin and pheomelanin. However, in 1955, a melanin associated with nerve cells was discovered, neuromelanin. In 1972 a water-soluble form, pyomelanin, was discovered. In 1976, allomelanin, the fifth form of the melanins, was found in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Cao_2021_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cao_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peptidomelanin">Peptidomelanin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Peptidomelanin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_niger_melanoliber.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/A_niger_melanoliber.png/250px-A_niger_melanoliber.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/A_niger_melanoliber.png/330px-A_niger_melanoliber.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/A_niger_melanoliber.png/500px-A_niger_melanoliber.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>SEM micrograph of <i>Aspergillus niger</i> (strain: melanoliber) conodiophore possessing a large number of small conidospores (colorized). These spores release peptidomelanin into the surrounding medium during germination.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peptidomelanin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Peptidomelanin.jpg/220px-Peptidomelanin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Peptidomelanin.jpg/330px-Peptidomelanin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Peptidomelanin.jpg/440px-Peptidomelanin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>The biochemical composition of peptidomelanin</figcaption></figure> <p>Peptidomelanin is another water-soluble form of melanin.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was found to be secreted into the surrounding medium by germinating <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_niger" title="Aspergillus niger">Aspergillus niger</a></i> (strain: melanoliber) spores. Peptidomelanin is formed as a copolymer between L-DOPA eumelanin and short <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> that form a 'corona', that are responsible for the substance's solubility. The peptide chains are linked to the L-DOPA core polymer via peptide bonds. This lead to a proposed biosynthetic process involving the hydroxylation of tyrosinylated peptides formed via proteases during sporogenesis, which are then incorporated autoxidatively into a growing L-DOPA core polymer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selenomelanin">Selenomelanin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Selenomelanin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is possible to enrich melanin with <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">sulphur</a>. This selenium analogue of pheomelanin has been successfully synthesized through chemical and biosynthetic routes using selenocystine as a feedstock.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to selenium's higher atomic number, the obtained selenomelanin can be expected to provide better protection against ionising radiation as compared to the other known forms of melanin. This protection has been demonstrated with radiation experiments on human cells and bacteria, opening up the possibility of applications in space travel.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trichochromes">Trichochromes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trichochromes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trichochromes (formerly called trichosiderins) are pigments produced from the same <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathway</a> as the eumelanins and pheomelanins, but unlike those molecules they have low molecular weight. They occur in some red human hair.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Humans">Humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg/250px-Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg/330px-Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Albinistic_girl_papua_new_guinea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">Albinism</a> occurs when melanocytes produce little melanin. This albino girl is from <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">skin color</a>. It is also found in hair, the pigmented tissue underlying the <a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">iris</a> of the eye, and the <a href="/wiki/Stria_vascularis_of_cochlear_duct" title="Stria vascularis of cochlear duct">stria vascularis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>. In the brain, tissues with melanin include the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">medulla</a> and pigment-bearing neurons within areas of the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a>. It also occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Zona_reticularis" title="Zona reticularis">zona reticularis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal gland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The melanin in the skin is produced by <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a>, which are found in the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_germinativum" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratum germinativum">basal layer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a>. Although, in general, human beings possess a similar concentration of melanocytes in their skin, the melanocytes in some individuals and ethnic groups produce variable amounts of melanin. The ratio of eumelanin (74%) and pheomelanin (26%) in the epidermis is constant regardless of the degree of pigmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-i034_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-i034-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some humans have very little or no melanin synthesis in their bodies, a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">albinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because melanin is an aggregate of smaller component molecules, there are many different types of melanin with different proportions and bonding patterns of these component molecules. Both pheomelanin and eumelanin are found in human skin and hair, but eumelanin is the most abundant melanin in humans, as well as the form most likely to be deficient in albinism.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_organisms">Other organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Melanins have very diverse roles and functions in various organisms. A form of melanin makes up the ink used by many <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_ink" title="Cephalopod ink">cephalopod ink</a>) as a defense mechanism against predators. Melanins also protect microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, against stresses that involve cell damage such as <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a> from the sun and <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a>. Melanin also protects against damage from high temperatures, chemical stresses (such as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing agents">oxidizing agents</a>), and biochemical threats (such as host defenses against invading microbes).<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_&_Gomez_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton_&_Gomez-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in many pathogenic microbes (for example, in <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></i>, a fungus) melanins appear to play important roles in <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">pathogenicity</a> by protecting the microbe against <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a> responses of its <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, a major aspect of the innate immune defense system against invading pathogens involves melanin. Within minutes after infection, the microbe is encapsulated within melanin (melanization), and the generation of <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radical</a> byproducts during the formation of this capsule is thought to aid in killing them.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some types of fungi, called <a href="/wiki/Radiotrophic_fungus" title="Radiotrophic fungus">radiotrophic fungi</a>, appear to be able to use melanin as a <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment" title="Photosynthetic pigment">photosynthetic pigment</a> that enables them to capture <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and harness this energy for growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Dadachova_et_al._32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dadachova_et_al.-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, melanin occurs not only in the skin but also in internal organs such as eyes. Most fish species use eumelanin,<sup id="cite_ref-FishChromatophores_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FishChromatophores-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eumelanin_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eumelanin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <i><a href="/wiki/Stegastes_apicalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stegastes apicalis">Stegastes apicalis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cyprinus_carpio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprinus carpio">Cyprinus carpio</a></i> use pheomelanin instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Xuetal_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xuetal-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FishInteguments_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FishInteguments-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The darker <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> of birds owe their color to melanin and are less readily degraded by bacteria than unpigmented ones or those containing <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoid</a> pigments.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feathers that contain melanin are also 39% more resistant to abrasion than those that do not because melanin granules help fill the space between the <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a> strands that form feathers.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pheomelanin synthesis in birds implies the consumption of cysteine, a semi‐essential amino acid that is necessary for the synthesis of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) but that may be toxic if in excess in the diet. Indeed, many carnivorous birds, which have a high protein content in their diet, exhibit pheomelanin‐based coloration.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Melanin is also important in <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> pigmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coat pattern of mammals is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Agouti_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Agouti gene">agouti gene</a> which regulates the distribution of melanin.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mechanisms of the gene have been extensively studied in mice to provide an insight into the diversity of mammalian coat patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Melanin in <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">arthropods</a> has been observed to be deposited in layers thus producing a <a href="/wiki/Bragg_reflector" class="mw-redirect" title="Bragg reflector">Bragg reflector</a> of alternating refractive index. When the scale of this pattern matches the wavelength of visible light, <a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">structural coloration</a> arises: giving a number of species an <a href="/wiki/Iridescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridescent">iridescent</a> color.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mouchet2021_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouchet2021-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">Arachnids</a> are one of the few groups in which melanin has not been easily detected, though researchers found data suggesting spiders do in fact produce melanin.<sup id="cite_ref-HsiungBlackledge2015_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HsiungBlackledge2015-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some moth species, including the <a href="/wiki/Parasemia_plantaginis" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasemia plantaginis">wood tiger moth</a>, convert resources to melanin to enhance their thermoregulation. As the wood tiger moth has populations over a large range of latitudes, it has been observed that more northern populations showed higher rates of melanization. In both yellow and white male phenotypes of the wood tiger moth, individuals with more melanin had a heightened ability to trap heat but an increased predation rate due to a weaker and less effective <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematic</a> signal.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Melanin may protect <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></i> flies and <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">mice</a> against DNA damage from non-UV radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Mosse-et-al-2001_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mosse-et-al-2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indol-5,6-chinon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg/220px-Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg/330px-Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg/440px-Indol-5%2C6-chinon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="173" data-file-height="109" /></a><figcaption>Chemical structure of indole-5,6-quinone</figcaption></figure> <p>Melanin produced by plants are sometimes referred to as 'catechol melanins' as they can yield <a href="/wiki/Catechol" title="Catechol">catechol</a> on alkali fusion. It is commonly seen in the <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic_browning" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic browning">enzymatic browning</a> of fruits such as bananas. Chestnut shell melanin can be used as an antioxidant and coloring agent.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biosynthesis involves the oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Indole-5,6-quinone" title="Indole-5,6-quinone">indole-5,6-quinone</a> by the tyrosinase type <a href="/wiki/Polyphenol_oxidase" title="Polyphenol oxidase">polyphenol oxidase</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catecholamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Catecholamines">catecholamines</a> leading to the formation of catechol melanin. Despite this many plants contain compounds which inhibit the production of melanins.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretation_as_a_single_monomer">Interpretation as a single monomer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interpretation as a single monomer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is now understood that melanins do not have a single structure or stoichiometry. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Nonetheless, chemical databases such as PubChem include structural and empirical formulae; typically <i>3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2,3-</i>cd<i>:4,5,6-</i>c<i>′</i>d<i>′]diindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone</i>. This can be thought of as a single monomer that accounts for the measured elemental composition and some properties of melanin, but is unlikely to be found in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Melanins:_Skin_Pigments_and_Much_Mo_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Melanins:_Skin_Pigments_and_Much_Mo-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Solano<sup id="cite_ref-Melanins:_Skin_Pigments_and_Much_Mo_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Melanins:_Skin_Pigments_and_Much_Mo-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claims that this misleading trend stems from a report of an empirical formula in 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but provides no other historical detail. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1268415487">.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox{border-collapse:collapse;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td,.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:40%}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td+td{width:60%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}</style> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2,3-<i>cd</i>:4,5,6-<i>c</i>′<i>d</i>′]diindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Melanin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2,3-cd:4,5,6-c′d′]diindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Melanin.svg/240px-Melanin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Melanin.svg/360px-Melanin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Melanin.svg/480px-Melanin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Melanin_ball_and_stick.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2,3-cd:4,5,6-c′d′]diindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone ball and stick model" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Melanin_ball_and_stick.png/250px-Melanin_ball_and_stick.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Melanin_ball_and_stick.png/500px-Melanin_ball_and_stick.png 1.5x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1062" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Names </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Preferred_IUPAC_name" title="Preferred IUPAC name">Preferred IUPAC name</a> <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; max-width:22em;">3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2,3-<i>cd</i>:4,5,6-<i>c</i>′<i>d</i>′]diindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Identifiers </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></div> </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=8049-97-6">8049-97-6</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.chemspider.com"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.4884931.html">4884931</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/PubChem" title="PubChem">PubChem</a> <abbr title="Compound ID">CID</abbr></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6325610">6325610</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Properties </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a></div> </td> <td><span title="Carbon">C</span><sub>18</sub><span title="Hydrogen">H</span><sub>10</sub><span title="Nitrogen">N</span><sub>2</sub><span title="Oxygen">O</span><sub>4</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002318288000000000♠"></span>318.288</span> g·mol<sup>−1</sup>   </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> </td> <td>1.6 to 1.8 g/cm<sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a> </td> <td>< −20 °C (−4 °F; 253 K) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a> </td> <td>450 to 550 °C (842 to 1,022 °F; 723 to 823 K) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba; color:inherit; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their <a href="/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state">standard state</a> (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).</div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em;"></div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References" title="Wikipedia:Chemical infobox">Infobox references</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosynthetic_pathways">Biosynthetic pathways</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Biosynthetic pathways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first step of the biosynthetic pathway for both eumelanins and pheomelanins is <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">catalysed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tyrosinase" title="Tyrosinase">tyrosinase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyrosine</a> → <a href="/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA">DOPA</a> → <a href="/wiki/Dopaquinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopaquinone">dopaquinone</a></dd></dl> <p>Dopaquinone can combine with <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a> by two pathways to benzothiazines and pheomelanins </p> <dl><dd>dopaquinone + cysteine → 5-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin</dd></dl> <dl><dd>dopaquinone + cysteine → 2-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin</dd></dl> <p>Also, dopaquinone can be converted to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leucodopachrome&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leucodopachrome (page does not exist)">leucodopachrome</a> and follow two more pathways to the eumelanins </p> <dl><dd>dopaquinone → leucodopachrome → <a href="/wiki/Dopachrome" title="Dopachrome">dopachrome</a> → 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid → quinone → eumelanin</dd></dl> <dl><dd>dopaquinone → leucodopachrome → dopachrome → 5,6-dihydroxyindole → <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">quinone</a> → eumelanin</dd></dl> <p>Detailed metabolic pathways can be found in the <a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a> database (see <a href="#External_links">External links</a>). </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L-Tyrosin_phys.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L-tyrosine"><img alt="L-tyrosine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/L-Tyrosin_phys.svg/200px-L-Tyrosin_phys.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/L-Tyrosin_phys.svg/300px-L-Tyrosin_phys.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/L-Tyrosin_phys.svg/400px-L-Tyrosin_phys.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">L-tyrosine</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:3,4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_(Levodopa).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L-DOPA"><img alt="L-DOPA" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg/159px-3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="159" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg/239px-3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg/318px-3%2C4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanin_%28Levodopa%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="258" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">L-DOPA</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L-Dopachinon.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L-dopaquinone"><img alt="L-dopaquinone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/L-Dopachinon.svg/200px-L-Dopachinon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/L-Dopachinon.svg/300px-L-Dopachinon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/L-Dopachinon.svg/400px-L-Dopachinon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="99" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">L-dopaquinone</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L-Leucodopachrom.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L-leucodopachrome"><img alt="L-leucodopachrome" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/L-Leucodopachrom.svg/200px-L-Leucodopachrom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/L-Leucodopachrom.svg/300px-L-Leucodopachrom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/L-Leucodopachrom.svg/400px-L-Leucodopachrom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="109" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">L-leucodopachrome</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L-Dopachrom.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L-dopachrome"><img alt="L-dopachrome" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/L-Dopachrom.svg/194px-L-Dopachrom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="194" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/L-Dopachrom.svg/291px-L-Dopachrom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/L-Dopachrom.svg/388px-L-Dopachrom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="109" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">L-dopachrome</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microscopic_appearance">Microscopic appearance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Microscopic appearance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Melanin is brown, non-refractile, and finely granular with individual granules having a diameter of less than 800 nanometers. This differentiates melanin from common <a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin" title="Hemosiderin">blood breakdown pigments</a>, which are larger, chunky, and refractile, and range in color from green to yellow or red-brown. In heavily pigmented lesions, dense aggregates of melanin can obscure histologic detail. A dilute solution of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a> is an effective melanin bleach.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_disorders_and_disease_states">Genetic disorders and disease states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Genetic disorders and disease states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are approximately nine types of <a href="/wiki/Oculocutaneous_albinism" title="Oculocutaneous albinism">oculocutaneous albinism</a>, which is mostly an autosomal recessive disorder. Certain ethnicities have higher incidences of different forms. For example, the most common type, called oculocutaneous albinism type 2 (OCA2), is especially frequent among people of black African descent and white Europeans. People with OCA2 usually have fair skin, but are often not as pale as OCA1. They (OCA2 or OCA1? see comments in History) have pale blonde to golden, strawberry blonde, or even brown hair, and most commonly blue eyes. 98.7–100% of modern Europeans are carriers of the derived allele <a href="/wiki/SLC24A5" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC24A5">SLC24A5</a>, a known cause of nonsyndromic oculocutaneous albinism. It is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a> reduction or absence of melanin pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. The estimated frequency of OCA2 among African-Americans is 1 in 10,000, which contrasts with a frequency of 1 in 36,000 in white Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some African nations, the frequency of the disorder is even higher, ranging from 1 in 2,000 to 1 in 5,000.<sup id="cite_ref-emedicine_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emedicine-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another form of Albinism, the "yellow oculocutaneous albinism", appears to be more prevalent among the <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>, who are of primarily Swiss and German ancestry. People with this IB variant of the disorder commonly have white hair and skin at birth, but rapidly develop normal skin pigmentation in infancy.<sup id="cite_ref-emedicine_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emedicine-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ocular albinism affects not only eye pigmentation but visual acuity, as well. People with albinism typically test poorly, within the 20/60 to 20/400 range. In addition, two forms of albinism, with approximately 1 in 2,700 most prevalent among people of Puerto Rican origin, are associated with mortality beyond melanoma-related deaths. </p><p>The connection between albinism and <a href="/wiki/Deafness" title="Deafness">deafness</a> is well known, though poorly understood. In his 1859 treatise <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> observed that "cats which are entirely white and have blue eyes are generally deaf".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, hypopigmentation and deafness occur together in the rare <a href="/wiki/Waardenburg%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Waardenburg's syndrome">Waardenburg's syndrome</a>, predominantly observed among the <a href="/wiki/Hopi" title="Hopi">Hopi</a> in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incidence of albinism in Hopi Indians has been estimated as approximately 1 in 200 individuals. Similar patterns of albinism and deafness have been found in other mammals, including dogs and rodents. However, a lack of melanin <i>per se</i> does not appear to be directly responsible for deafness associated with hypopigmentation, as most individuals lacking the enzymes required to synthesize melanin have normal auditory function.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the absence of <a href="/wiki/Melanocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanocytes">melanocytes</a> in the stria vascularis of the inner ear results in <a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlear</a> impairment,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the reasons for this are not fully understood. </p><p>In Parkinson's disease, a disorder that affects <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">neuromotor</a> functioning, there is decreased neuromelanin in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus as a consequence of specific dropping out of dopaminergic and noradrenergic pigmented neurons. This results in diminished <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> synthesis. While no correlation between race and the level of neuromelanin in the substantia nigra has been reported, the significantly lower incidence of Parkinson's in blacks than in whites has "prompt[ed] some to suggest that cutaneous melanin might somehow serve to protect the neuromelanin in substantia nigra from external toxins."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to melanin deficiency, the molecular weight of the melanin polymer may be decreased by various factors such as oxidative stress, exposure to light, perturbation in its association with melanosomal <a href="/wiki/Matrix_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix protein">matrix proteins</a>, changes in <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, or in local concentrations of metal ions. A decreased molecular weight or a decrease in the degree of polymerization of <b>ocular melanin</b> has been proposed to turn the normally anti-oxidant polymer into a <a href="/wiki/Pro-oxidant" title="Pro-oxidant">pro-oxidant</a>. In its pro-oxidant state, melanin has been suggested to be involved in the causation and progression of <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rasagiline" title="Rasagiline">Rasagiline</a>, an important monotherapy drug in Parkinson's disease, has melanin binding properties, and melanoma tumor reducing properties.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Higher eumelanin levels also can be a disadvantage, however, beyond a higher disposition toward vitamin D deficiency. Dark skin is a complicating factor in the laser removal of <a href="/wiki/Port-wine_stain" title="Port-wine stain">port-wine stains</a>. Effective in treating white skin, in general, lasers are less successful in removing port-wine stains in people of Asian or African descent. Higher concentrations of melanin in darker-skinned individuals simply diffuse and absorb the laser radiation, inhibiting light absorption by the targeted tissue. In a similar manner, melanin can complicate laser treatment of other dermatological conditions in people with darker skin. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Freckles" class="mw-redirect" title="Freckles">Freckles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mole_(skin_marking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mole (skin marking)">moles</a> are formed where there is a localized concentration of melanin in the skin. They are highly associated with pale skin. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a> has an affinity for melanin-containing tissues because of its precursor function in melanin synthesis or its irreversible binding of melanin. This has been suggested to underlie the increased <a href="/wiki/Nicotine#Dependence" title="Nicotine">nicotine dependence</a> and lower <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a> rates in darker pigmented individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_adaptations">Human adaptations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human adaptations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiology">Physiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Melanocytes insert granules of melanin into specialized cellular <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a> called <a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">melanosomes</a>. These are then transferred into the <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocyte</a> cells of the human <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a>. The melanosomes in each recipient cell accumulate atop the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a>, where they protect the nuclear <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> from mutations caused by the <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> of the sun's <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> rays. In general, people whose ancestors lived for long periods in the regions of the globe near the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> have larger quantities of eumelanin in their skins. This makes their skins brown or black and protects them against high levels of exposure to the sun, which more frequently result in <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanomas</a> in lighter-skinned people.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all the effects of pigmentation are advantageous. Pigmentation increases the heat load in hot climates, and dark-skinned people absorb 30% more heat from sunlight than do very light-skinned people, although this factor may be offset by more profuse sweating. In cold climates dark skin entails more heat loss by radiation. Pigmentation also hinders synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>. Since pigmentation appears to be not entirely advantageous to life in the tropics, other hypotheses about its biological significance have been advanced; for example a secondary phenomenon induced by adaptation to parasites and tropical diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_origins">Evolutionary origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Evolutionary origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Early_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Early humans">Early humans</a> evolved dark skin color, as an adaptation to a loss of body hair that increased the effects of UV radiation. Before the development of hairlessness, early humans might have had light skin underneath their fur, similar to that found in other <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">Anatomically modern humans</a> evolved in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then populated the rest of the world through migration between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, in some areas <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human_admixture_with_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human admixture with modern humans">interbreeding</a> with certain <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human">archaic human</a> species (<a href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denisovans" class="mw-redirect" title="Denisovans">Denisovans</a>, and possibly others).<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first modern humans had darker skin as the indigenous people of Africa today. Following migration and settlement in Asia and Europe, the selective pressure dark UV-radiation protecting skin decreased where radiation from the sun was less intense. This resulted in the current range of human skin color. Of the two common gene variants known to be associated with pale human skin, <i><a href="/wiki/Mc1r" class="mw-redirect" title="Mc1r">Mc1r</a></i> does not appear to have undergone positive selection,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i><a href="/wiki/SLC24A5" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC24A5">SLC24A5</a></i> has undergone positive selection.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects">Effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with peoples having migrated northward, those with light skin migrating toward the equator acclimatize to the much stronger solar radiation. Nature selects for less melanin when ultraviolet radiation is weak. Most people's skin darkens when exposed to UV light, giving them more protection when it is needed. This is the physiological purpose of <a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">sun tanning</a>. Dark-skinned people, who produce more skin-protecting eumelanin, have a greater protection against <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a> and the development of melanoma, a potentially deadly form of skin cancer, as well as other health problems related to exposure to strong <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Photodegradation" title="Photodegradation">photodegradation</a> of certain <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">riboflavins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tocopherol" title="Tocopherol">tocopherol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">folate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Melanin in the eyes, in the <a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">iris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</a>, helps protect from <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/High-energy_visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="High-energy visible light">high-frequency visible light</a>; people with <a href="/wiki/Eye_color" title="Eye color"> blue, green, and grey eyes</a> are more at risk of sun-related eye problems. Furthermore, the ocular lens yellows with age, providing added protection. However, the lens also becomes more rigid with age, losing most of its <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">accommodation</a>—the ability to change shape to focus from far to near—a detriment due probably to <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> crosslinking caused by UV exposure. </p><p>Recent research suggests that melanin may serve a protective role other than photoprotection.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melanin is able to effectively <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelate</a> metal ions through its carboxylate and phenolic hydroxyl groups, often much more efficiently than the powerful chelating ligand ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). Thus, it may serve to sequester potentially toxic metal ions, protecting the rest of the cell. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the loss of neuromelanin, observed in Parkinson's disease, is accompanied by an increase in iron levels in the brain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties_and_technological_applications">Physical properties and technological applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Physical properties and technological applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence exists for a highly cross-linked <a href="/wiki/Heteropolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteropolymer">heteropolymer</a> bound <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalently</a> to matrix scaffolding <a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanoprotein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melanoprotein (page does not exist)">melanoproteins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been proposed that the ability of melanin to act as an <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> is directly proportional to its degree of polymerization or <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suboptimal conditions for the effective polymerization of melanin <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomers</a> may lead to formation of pro-oxidant melanin with lower-molecular-weight, implicated in the causation and progression of <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">Signaling pathways</a> that <a href="/wiki/Upregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Upregulation">upregulate</a> melanization in the <a href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a> (RPE) also may be implicated in the <a href="/wiki/Downregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Downregulation">downregulation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod</a> outer segment <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a> by the RPE. This phenomenon has been attributed in part to <a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">foveal</a> sparing in <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_in_melanoma_metastasis">Role in melanoma metastasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Role in melanoma metastasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Heavily pigmented melanoma cells have a <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> of about 4.93 kPa, compared to non-pigmented cells, with a value of 0.98 kPa.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarna_2019_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarna_2019-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a> of melanoma cells is crucial to metastasis and growth; non-pigmented tumors were larger than pigmented tumors, and spread far more easily. Pigmented and non-pigmented cells are both present in melanoma <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumors</a>, so that they can both be <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">drug-resistant</a> and metastatic.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarna_2019_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarna_2019-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">Albino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albinism in biology">Albinism in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome" title="Griscelli syndrome">Griscelli syndrome</a>, a syndrome characterised by hypopigmentation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">Human skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanism" title="Melanism">Melanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanogenesis">Melanogenesis</a>, melanin production</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risks_and_benefits_of_sun_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Risks and benefits of sun exposure">Risks and benefits of sun exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening" title="Skin whitening">Skin whitening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Casadevall_2018_pp._319–320-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Casadevall_2018_pp._319–320_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCasadevall2018" 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href="#cite_ref-Sarna_2019_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarnaKrzykawska-SerdaJakubowskaZadlo2019" class="citation journal cs1">Sarna M, Krzykawska-Serda M, Jakubowska M, Zadlo A, Urbanska K (26 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6594928">"Melanin presence inhibits melanoma cell spread in mice in a unique mechanical fashion"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 9280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...9.9280S">2019NatSR...9.9280S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-45643-9">10.1038/s41598-019-45643-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6594928">6594928</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31243305">31243305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Melanin+presence+inhibits+melanoma+cell+spread+in+mice+in+a+unique+mechanical+fashion&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9280&rft.date=2019-06-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6594928%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...9.9280S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31243305&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-45643-9&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Sarna&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft.au=Krzykawska-Serda%2C+Martyna&rft.au=Jakubowska%2C+Monika&rft.au=Zadlo%2C+Andrzej&rft.au=Urbanska%2C+Krystyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6594928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMelanin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leuco_form" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:leuco form">leuco form</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/jgd1000/melanin.html">"Absorption spectrum of melanin"</a>. Department of Computer Science and Technology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Absorption+spectrum+of+melanin.&rft.pub=Department+of+Computer+Science+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cl.cam.ac.uk%2Fusers%2Fjgd1000%2Fmelanin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMelanin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kegg.jp/entry/map00400">"Tyrosine metabolism—Reference pathway"</a>. <i>Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kyoto+Encyclopedia+of+Genes+and+Genomes&rft.atitle=Tyrosine+metabolism%E2%80%94Reference+pathway&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kegg.jp%2Fentry%2Fmap00400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMelanin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kegg.jp/entry/map04916">"Melanogenesis"</a>. <i>Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kyoto+Encyclopedia+of+Genes+and+Genomes&rft.atitle=Melanogenesis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kegg.jp%2Fentry%2Fmap04916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMelanin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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metabolism enzymes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Amino_acid_metabolism_enzymes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Amino acid metabolism enzymes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metabolism:_Protein_metabolism,_synthesis_and_catabolism_enzymes216" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protein_metabolism" title="Protein metabolism">Protein metabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_synthesis" title="Amino acid synthesis">synthesis</a> and catabolism <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i><a href="/wiki/Essential_amino_acid" title="Essential amino acid">Essential amino acids</a> are in Capitals</i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_amino_acid" title="Ketogenic amino acid">K</a>→<a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" title="Acetyl-CoA">acetyl-CoA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">LYSINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saccharopine_dehydrogenase" title="Saccharopine dehydrogenase">Saccharopine dehydrogenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutaryl-CoA_dehydrogenase" title="Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase">Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">LEUCINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA_dehydrogenase" title="3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase">3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_amino_acid_aminotransferase" title="Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase">Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_alpha-keto_acid_dehydrogenase_complex" title="Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex">Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoyl-CoA_hydratase" title="Enoyl-CoA hydratase">Enoyl-CoA hydratase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA_lyase" class="mw-redirect" title="3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase">HMG-CoA lyase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMG-CoA_reductase" title="HMG-CoA reductase">HMG-CoA reductase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isovaleryl_coenzyme_A_dehydrogenase" class="mw-redirect" title="Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase">Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%91-ketoisocaproate_dioxygenase" class="mw-redirect" title="Α-ketoisocaproate dioxygenase">α-Ketoisocaproate dioxygenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucine_2,3-aminomutase" title="Leucine 2,3-aminomutase">Leucine 2,3-aminomutase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylcrotonyl-CoA_carboxylase" title="Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase">Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylglutaconyl-CoA_hydratase" title="Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase">Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase</a></li></ul> <p>(See <a href="/wiki/Template:Leucine_metabolism_in_humans" title="Template:Leucine metabolism in humans">Template:Leucine metabolism in humans</a> – this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase) </p> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">TRYPTOPHAN</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoleamine_2,3-dioxygenase" title="Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase">Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan_2,3-dioxygenase" title="Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase">Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arylformamidase" title="Arylformamidase">Arylformamidase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynureninase" title="Kynureninase">Kynureninase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-hydroxyanthranilate_oxidase" title="3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase">3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde_decarboxylase" title="Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase">Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aminomuconate-semialdehyde_dehydrogenase" title="Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase">Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">PHENYLALANINE</a>→<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glucogenic_amino_acid" title="Glucogenic amino acid">G</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="G→pyruvate→citrate205" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G→<a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a><br />→<a href="/wiki/Citrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrate">citrate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>→<a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">serine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serine_hydroxymethyltransferase" title="Serine hydroxymethyltransferase">Serine hydroxymethyltransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine_dehydratase" title="Serine dehydratase">Serine dehydratase</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>→<a href="/wiki/Creatine" title="Creatine">creatine</a>: <a href="/wiki/Guanidinoacetate_N-methyltransferase" title="Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase">Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creatine_kinase" title="Creatine kinase">Creatine kinase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alanine_transaminase" title="Alanine transaminase">Alanine transaminase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D-cysteine_desulfhydrase" title="D-cysteine desulfhydrase">D-cysteine desulfhydrase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">threonine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L-threonine_dehydrogenase" class="mw-redirect" title="L-threonine dehydrogenase">L-threonine dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G→<a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>→<br /><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Ketoglutaric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Ketoglutaric acid">α-ketoglutarate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">HISTIDINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histidine_ammonia-lyase" title="Histidine ammonia-lyase">Histidine ammonia-lyase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urocanase" title="Urocanase">Urocanate hydratase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formiminotransferase_cyclodeaminase" class="mw-redirect" title="Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase">Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">proline</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proline_oxidase" title="Proline oxidase">Proline oxidase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrroline-5-carboxylate_reductase" title="Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase">Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate_dehydrogenase" title="1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase">1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aldehyde_dehydrogenase_4_family,_member_A1" title="Aldehyde dehydrogenase 4 family, member A1">ALDH4A1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PYCR1" title="PYCR1">PYCR1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ornithine_aminotransferase" title="Ornithine aminotransferase">Ornithine aminotransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithine_decarboxylase" title="Ornithine decarboxylase">Ornithine decarboxylase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agmatinase" title="Agmatinase">Agmatinase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">→<a href="/wiki/Alpha-ketoglutarate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-ketoglutarate">alpha-ketoglutarate</a>→TCA</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_dehydrogenase" title="Glutamate dehydrogenase">Glutamate dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>+<a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>→<a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">glutathione</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gamma-glutamylcysteine_synthetase" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase">Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione_synthetase" title="Glutathione synthetase">Glutathione synthetase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-glutamyl_transpeptidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase">Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>→<a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">glutamine</a>: <a href="/wiki/Glutamine_synthetase" title="Glutamine synthetase">Glutamine synthetase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutaminase" title="Glutaminase">Glutaminase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G→<a href="/wiki/Propionyl-CoA" title="Propionyl-CoA">propionyl-CoA</a>→<br /><a href="/wiki/Succinyl-CoA" title="Succinyl-CoA">succinyl-CoA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Valine" title="Valine">VALINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_amino_acid_aminotransferase" title="Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase">Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_alpha-keto_acid_dehydrogenase_complex" title="Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex">Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoyl-CoA_hydratase" title="Enoyl-CoA hydratase">Enoyl-CoA hydratase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA_hydrolase" title="3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase">3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-hydroxyisobutyrate_dehydrogenase" title="3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase">3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylmalonate-semialdehyde_dehydrogenase_(acylating)" title="Methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (acylating)">Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">ISOLEUCINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_amino_acid_aminotransferase" title="Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase">Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_alpha-keto_acid_dehydrogenase_complex" title="Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex">Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA_dehydrogenase" title="3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase">3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine">METHIONINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Methionine#Generation_of_homocysteine" title="Methionine">generation of homocysteine</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Methionine_adenosyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Methionine adenosyltransferase">Methionine adenosyltransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosylhomocysteinase" title="Adenosylhomocysteinase">Adenosylhomocysteinase</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Methionine#Regeneration_of_methionine" title="Methionine">regeneration of methionine</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Methionine_synthase" title="Methionine synthase">Methionine synthase</a>/<a href="/wiki/Methionine_synthase" title="Methionine synthase">Homocysteine methyltransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betaine-homocysteine_S-methyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase">Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Methionine#Conversion_to_cysteine" title="Methionine">conversion to cysteine</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Cystathionine_beta_synthase" title="Cystathionine beta synthase">Cystathionine beta synthase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystathionine_gamma-lyase" title="Cystathionine gamma-lyase">Cystathionine gamma-lyase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">THREONINE</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Threonine_aldolase" title="Threonine aldolase">Threonine aldolase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">→<a href="/wiki/Succinyl-CoA" title="Succinyl-CoA">succinyl-CoA</a>→TCA</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propionyl-CoA_carboxylase" title="Propionyl-CoA carboxylase">Propionyl-CoA carboxylase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylmalonyl_CoA_epimerase" title="Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase">Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylmalonyl-CoA_mutase" title="Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase">Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G→<a href="/wiki/Fumarate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumarate">fumarate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">PHENYLALANINE</a>→<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase" title="Phenylalanine hydroxylase">Phenylalanine hydroxylase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrosine_aminotransferase" title="Tyrosine aminotransferase">Tyrosine aminotransferase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate_dioxygenase" title="4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase">4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogentisate_1,2-dioxygenase" title="Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase">Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumarylacetoacetate_hydrolase" title="Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase">Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>→<a class="mw-selflink selflink">melanin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tyrosinase" title="Tyrosinase">Tyrosinase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">G→<a href="/wiki/Oxaloacetic_acid" title="Oxaloacetic acid">oxaloacetate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">asparagine</a>→<a href="/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">aspartate</a>→</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asparaginase" title="Asparaginase">Asparaginase</a>/<a href="/wiki/Asparagine_synthetase" title="Asparagine synthetase">Asparagine synthetase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartate_transaminase" title="Aspartate transaminase">Aspartate transaminase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pigmentation_disorders/Dyschromia135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Template:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Template talk:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pigmentation_disorders/Dyschromia135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pigmentation_disorder" title="Pigmentation disorder">Pigmentation disorders</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dyschromia" title="Dyschromia">Dyschromia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypopigmentation" title="Hypopigmentation">Hypo-</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Leucism" title="Leucism">leucism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loss of<br /><a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitiligo" title="Vitiligo">Vitiligo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quadrichrome_vitiligo" title="Quadrichrome vitiligo">Quadrichrome vitiligo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitiligo_ponctu%C3%A9" title="Vitiligo ponctué">Vitiligo ponctué</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syndromic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alezzandrini_syndrome" title="Alezzandrini syndrome">Alezzandrini syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt%E2%80%93Koyanagi%E2%80%93Harada_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome">Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Melanocyte<br />development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piebaldism" title="Piebaldism">Piebaldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waardenburg_syndrome" title="Waardenburg syndrome">Waardenburg syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tietz_syndrome" title="Tietz syndrome">Tietz syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loss of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">melanin</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Amelanism" title="Amelanism">amelanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculocutaneous_albinism" title="Oculocutaneous albinism">Oculocutaneous albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_albinism" title="Ocular albinism">Ocular albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">in humans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">Melanosome</a><br />transfer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermansky%E2%80%93Pudlak_syndrome" title="Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome">Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A9diak%E2%80%93Higashi_syndrome" title="Chédiak–Higashi syndrome">Chédiak–Higashi syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome" title="Griscelli syndrome">Griscelli syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elejalde_syndrome" title="Elejalde syndrome">Elejalde syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome_type_2" title="Griscelli syndrome type 2">Griscelli syndrome type 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome_type_3" title="Griscelli syndrome type 3">Griscelli syndrome type 3</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_syndrome" title="Cross syndrome">Cross syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABCD_syndrome" title="ABCD syndrome">ABCD syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinism%E2%80%93deafness_syndrome" title="Albinism–deafness syndrome">Albinism–deafness syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_guttate_hypomelanosis" title="Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis">Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylloid_hypomelanosis" title="Phylloid hypomelanosis">Phylloid hypomelanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_macular_hypomelanosis" title="Progressive macular hypomelanosis">Progressive macular hypomelanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leukoderma" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukoderma">Leukoderma</a> w/o<br />hypomelanosis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasospastic_macule" title="Vasospastic macule">Vasospastic macule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woronoff%27s_ring" title="Woronoff's ring">Woronoff's ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevus_anemicus" title="Nevus anemicus">Nevus anemicus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nevus_depigmentosus" title="Nevus depigmentosus">Nevus depigmentosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postinflammatory_hypopigmentation" title="Postinflammatory hypopigmentation">Postinflammatory hypopigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pityriasis_alba" title="Pityriasis alba">Pityriasis alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagabond%27s_leukomelanoderma" title="Vagabond's leukomelanoderma">Vagabond's leukomelanoderma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_deaf-blind_hypopigmentation_syndrome" title="Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome">Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wende%E2%80%93Bauckus_syndrome" title="Wende–Bauckus syndrome">Wende–Bauckus syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">Hyper-</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Melanin</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Melanosis" title="Melanosis">Melanosis</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Melanism" title="Melanism">Melanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reticulated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermatopathia_pigmentosa_reticularis" title="Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis">Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigmentatio_reticularis_faciei_et_colli" title="Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli">Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticulate_acropigmentation_of_Kitamura" title="Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura">Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_pigmented_anomaly_of_the_flexures" title="Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures">Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naegeli%E2%80%93Franceschetti%E2%80%93Jadassohn_syndrome" title="Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome">Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyskeratosis_congenita" title="Dyskeratosis congenita">Dyskeratosis congenita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_reticulate_pigmentary_disorder" title="X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder">X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galli%E2%80%93Galli_disease" title="Galli–Galli disease">Galli–Galli disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revesz_syndrome" title="Revesz syndrome">Revesz syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diffuse/<br />circumscribed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lentigo" title="Lentigo">Lentigo</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lentiginosis" title="Lentiginosis">Lentiginosis</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lentigo_simplex" title="Lentigo simplex">Lentigo simplex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_spot" title="Liver spot">Liver spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrofacial_lentiginosis" title="Centrofacial lentiginosis">Centrofacial lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_lentiginosis" title="Generalized lentiginosis">Generalized lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherited_patterned_lentiginosis_in_black_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons">Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_spot_lentigo" title="Ink spot lentigo">Ink spot lentigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentigo_maligna" title="Lentigo maligna">Lentigo maligna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucosal_lentigines" title="Mucosal lentigines">Mucosal lentigines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_unilateral_lentiginosis" title="Partial unilateral lentiginosis">Partial unilateral lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PUVA_lentigines" title="PUVA lentigines">PUVA lentigines</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melasma" title="Melasma">Melasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythema_dyschromicum_perstans" title="Erythema dyschromicum perstans">Erythema dyschromicum perstans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_planus_pigmentosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichen planus pigmentosus">Lichen planus pigmentosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_au_lait_spot" title="Café au lait spot">Café au lait spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma" title="Poikiloderma">Poikiloderma</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma_of_Civatte" title="Poikiloderma of Civatte">Poikiloderma of Civatte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma_vasculare_atrophicans" title="Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans">Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riehl_melanosis" title="Riehl melanosis">Riehl melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incontinentia_pigmenti" title="Incontinentia pigmenti">Incontinentia pigmenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_dermatitis" title="Scratch dermatitis">Scratch dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiitake_mushroom_dermatitis" title="Shiitake mushroom dermatitis">Shiitake mushroom dermatitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other/<br />ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanthosis_nigricans" title="Acanthosis nigricans">Acanthosis nigricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckle" title="Freckle">Freckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_progressive_hyperpigmentation" title="Familial progressive hyperpigmentation">Familial progressive hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallister%E2%80%93Killian_syndrome" title="Pallister–Killian syndrome">Pallister–Killian syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_hyperpigmentation" title="Periorbital hyperpigmentation">Periorbital hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoleukomelanodermatitis_of_Kobori" title="Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori">Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postinflammatory_hyperpigmentation" title="Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation">Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_neonatal_pustular_melanosis" title="Transient neonatal pustular melanosis">Transient neonatal pustular melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />pigments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_overload" title="Iron overload">Hemochromatosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallic_discoloration" title="Iron metallic discoloration">Iron metallic discoloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigmented_purpuric_dermatosis" title="Pigmented purpuric dermatosis">Pigmented purpuric dermatosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schamberg_disease" title="Schamberg disease">Schamberg disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majocchi%27s_disease" title="Majocchi's disease">Majocchi's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gougerot%E2%80%93Blum_syndrome" title="Gougerot–Blum syndrome">Gougerot–Blum syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doucas_and_Kapetanakis_pigmented_purpura" title="Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura">Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eczematid-like_purpura_of_Doucas_and_Kapetanakis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis">Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_aureus" title="Lichen 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style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carotenosis" title="Carotenosis">Carotenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar_melanosis" title="Tar melanosis">Tar melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dyschromia" title="Dyschromia">Dyschromia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyschromatosis_symmetrica_hereditaria" title="Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria">Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyschromatosis_universalis_hereditaria" title="Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria">Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>65 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> 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