Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1740123754"> <meta name="title" content="Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD"> <meta name="description" content="Water circulation in storage tanks significantly impacts water quality in distribution networks since old water tends to have low residual chlorine concentrations that are insufficient to neutralize microbial regeneration. Their large capacity and long residence times result in uneven mixing, which can accelerate the disinfectant decay and the formation of potentially carcinogenic disinfection by-products. The phenomenon is strongly related to the tank inflow conditions, since there are no active mixing devices. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the flow dynamics in circular storage tanks using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model. The main motivation is that the inflow—which mixing processes rely on—strongly influences the circulations. The numerical analysis provided includes a thorough investigation of interest in understanding flow dynamics for two inflow configurations: (i) the plunging jet modelling and comparison with published experimental data and (ii) the submerged jet as an improvement measurement for these storage tanks." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/water-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Nuno M. C. Martins"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Dídia I. C. Covas"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Water 2022, Vol. 14, Page 1277"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2022-04-14"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/w14081277"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Water circulation in storage tanks significantly impacts water quality in distribution networks since old water tends to have low residual chlorine concentrations that are insufficient to neutralize microbial regeneration. Their large capacity and long residence times result in uneven mixing, which can accelerate the disinfectant decay and the formation of potentially carcinogenic disinfection by-products. The phenomenon is strongly related to the tank inflow conditions, since there are no active mixing devices. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the flow dynamics in circular storage tanks using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model. The main motivation is that the inflow—which mixing processes rely on—strongly influences the circulations. The numerical analysis provided includes a thorough investigation of interest in understanding flow dynamics for two inflow configurations: (i) the plunging jet modelling and comparison with published experimental data and (ii) the submerged jet as an improvement measurement for these storage tanks." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="computational fluid dynamics" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="water storage tank" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="plunging jet" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="submerged jet" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="mixing conditions" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2073-4441"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Water"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2022-04-14"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="14"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="8"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="1277" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2073-4441"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Water"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/1"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/04/14"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="14"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="8"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1277"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Martins, Nuno M. C."> <meta name="citation_author" content="Covas, Dídia I. 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Their large capacity and long residence times result in uneven mixing, which can accelerate the disinfectant decay and the formation of potentially carcinogenic disinfection by-products. The phenomenon is strongly related to the tank inflow conditions, since there are no active mixing devices. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the flow dynamics in circular storage tanks using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model. The main motivation is that the inflow—which mixing processes rely on—strongly influences the circulations. The numerical analysis provided includes a thorough investigation of interest in understanding flow dynamics for two inflow configurations: (i) the plunging jet modelling and comparison with published experimental data and (ii) the submerged jet as an improvement measurement for these storage tanks." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g001-550.jpg?1650010351" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="usercentrics-cmp" src="https://web.cmp.usercentrics.eu/ui/loader.js" data-ruleset-id="PbAnaGk92sB5Cc" async></script>  <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag() { dataLayer.push(arguments); } gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'analytics_storage': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 500, }); 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href="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/pdf?version=1650010194" data-name="Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD" data-journal="water"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> Download PDF </a> <div class='nav-btn'> <i class='material-icons'>settings</i> </div> <a href="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/reprints" id="js-button-reprints" class="button button--color-inversed"> Order Article Reprints </a> </div> <div class='html-article-menu'> <div class='html-first-step row'> <div class='html-font-family large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'> Font Type: </div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif'>Arial</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Georgia1, Georgia, serif;' 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medium-8 small-12 columns'> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-bright" data-bg="bright"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-dark" data-bg="dark"> <i class="fa fa-file-text-o"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-creme" data-bg="creme"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <article ><div class='html-article-content'> <span itemprop="publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"></span><span itemprop="url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277"></span> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <h1 class="title hypothesis_container" itemprop="name"> Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop7500393' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Nuno M. C. Martins</div><div id="profile-card-drop7500393" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Nuno M. C. Martins</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/690318?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Nuno%20M.%20C.%20Martins" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Nuno%20M.%20C.%20Martins&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Nuno%20M.%20C.%20Martins" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> *,†</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="7500393" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#48672b262c652b2f216724672d2529212465383a273c2d2b3c2127266b7878792a7e2d78787879787b787f7871792a782a787a787b782e792b7929787f7878792c7a2d7929782a782c7878787f782c78797c78792a787a787f792c782b7879782e7c78792d7929"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4994-673X" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740123754" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop7500394' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Dídia I. C. Covas</div><div id="profile-card-drop7500394" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Dídia I. C. Covas</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1644234?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=D%C3%ADdia%20I.%20C.%20Covas" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=D%C3%ADdia%20I.%20C.%20Covas&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=D%C3%ADdia%20I.%20C.%20Covas" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> †</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="7500394" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#ddf2beb3b9f0bebab4f2b1f2b8b0bcb4b1f0adafb2a9b8bea9b4b2b3feedededb9ebe9edededb9ede8e9bcedeaedbfecefede8eceaefe9ecededecedeaedbcedb9edeaedbfe9bcececede5edb9eceaedebedbfede8e9bcece9eced"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6901-4767" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740123754" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-name ">CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>†</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">These authors contributed equally to this work.</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Water</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>14</em>(8), 1277; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277">https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 7 March 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 7 April 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 12 April 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 14 April 2022</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/water/special_issues/water_supply_assessment_systems ">Water Supply Assessment Systems Developing</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-794369" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-794369" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-794369" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/pdf?version=1650010194" data-name="Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD" data-journal="water">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g001.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The plunging liquid jet when it: (<b>a</b>) maintains the cylindrical shape; (<b>b</b>) breaks into droplets.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Jet surface roughness—schematics.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Inlet–outlet configuration–schematics: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) plunging jet (P); and (<b>c</b>) submerged jet (S).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Mesh refinements: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) nozzle above the water level; (<b>c</b>) nozzle below the water level; and (<b>d</b>) outlet region.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Plunging jet.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Wave propagation at different time steps from the beginning of the flow: (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.50 s; (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.60 s; and (<b>c</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.70 s.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Water progression in the pool from the jet at (<b>a</b>) 9 s; (<b>b</b>) 12 s; (<b>c</b>) 15 s; (<b>d</b>) 50 s.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class="html-italic">H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class="html-italic">H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class="html-italic">H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math><math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> at (<b>a</b>) 50 s; and (<b>b</b>) 150 s.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class="html-italic">H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class="html-italic">H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class="html-italic">H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Flow pattern establishment and velocity fields at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> of the (<b>a</b>) plunging jet and (<b>b</b>) of the submerged jet.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png?1650010351" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Velocity Profiles from: plunging jet—grey line; submerged jet—black line.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2073-4441/14/8/1277/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Water circulation in storage tanks significantly impacts water quality in distribution networks since old water tends to have low residual chlorine concentrations that are insufficient to neutralize microbial regeneration. Their large capacity and long residence times result in uneven mixing, which can accelerate the disinfectant decay and the formation of potentially carcinogenic disinfection by-products. The phenomenon is strongly related to the tank inflow conditions, since there are no active mixing devices. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the flow dynamics in circular storage tanks using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model. The main motivation is that the inflow—which mixing processes rely on—strongly influences the circulations. The numerical analysis provided includes a thorough investigation of interest in understanding flow dynamics for two inflow configurations: (i) the plunging jet modelling and comparison with published experimental data and (ii) the submerged jet as an improvement measurement for these storage tanks.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=computational+fluid+dynamics">computational fluid dynamics</a>; <a href="/search?q=water+storage+tank">water storage tank</a>; <a href="/search?q=plunging+jet">plunging jet</a>; <a href="/search?q=submerged+jet">submerged jet</a>; <a href="/search?q=mixing+conditions">mixing conditions</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-water-14-01277' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>Water distribution networks are composed of assets that allow the water intake, treatment, transport, storage and delivery to consumers in quantity and with adequate pressure to satisfy demand. However, once the water leaves the treatment plant and enters the supply infrastructure, maintaining its quality is challenging for utility managers [<a href="#B1-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. While the disinfectant decay in the water transport and distribution network is reasonably well known [<a href="#B2-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">2</a>,<a href="#B3-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">3</a>], the effect of storage on treated water quality is not fully understood [<a href="#B4-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. It is believed that better water mixing in storage tanks guarantees better water quality and safer drinking water [<a href="#B6-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">6</a>], although little is known about mixing regimes in general [<a href="#B7-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B8-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Water storage tanks aim to supply consumers in normal operating conditions regulating flow rate differences in transmission pipes and distribution networks, levelling off pressures to meet daily consumer demands, and providing emergency storage for firefighting and pumping disruptions [<a href="#B9-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. These storage facilities are operated by controlling the water level [<a href="#B10-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">10</a>]; however, their large capacities and long residence times, usually associated with uneven mixing, can significantly deteriorate the water quality supplied to the downstream network [<a href="#B11-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. One of the most negative impacts is the loss of residual disinfectant (disinfectant decay), promoting microorganisms regrowth and increasing human pathogens’ survival [<a href="#B9-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. These circumstances result in the need for re-chlorination [<a href="#B12-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">12</a>], resulting in the subsequent formation of potentially carcinogenic toxic by-products [<a href="#B13-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">13</a>,<a href="#B14-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. Improving mixing processes in existing storage tanks may be attained by installing an active mixing device such as an impeller or a turbine [<a href="#B15-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. However, when these devices do not exist, the mixing process in the storage tank strongly relies on jet mixers [<a href="#B16-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. The jet momentum, <span class='html-italic'>M</span>, is given by:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD1-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <mi>π</mi> <msubsup> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(1)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> = mean velocity in the nozzle and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> = inlet nozzle diameter. Whenever a water flow through a nozzle (jet) encounters a large mass of undisturbed liquid, the jet forces the stored water into the storage tank, leaving a track of moving particles called the ‘entrainment path’. The jet direction should ensure a long and unobstructed ‘entrainment path’ to improve the mixture [<a href="#B15-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. However, the ‘entrainment path’ in a given storage tank geometry gives rise to a complex three-dimensional (3D) flow pattern, which is often difficult to characterise. This subject presents a significant concern to utilities as storage tanks have different sizes, geometries (circular, rectangular), installed features (with or without baffles; inlet–outlet configurations and sizes) and several size-to-ratio dimensions (water level/length <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>H</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>. Each combination results in a different flow pattern, which is a decisive factor in the water mixing in tanks [<a href="#B17-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">17</a>]. Even experimental and field studies cannot fully describe and characterise the flow pattern since sampling techniques can only assess the water at specific locations and not in the entire tank volume since tracer tests are carried out at these points, which are insufficient to interpret the 3D flow pattern. Several authors have captured the complex flow pattern using several measurement techniques in small-scale models using Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry for volume sampling [<a href="#B18-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">18</a>] and the 3D laser-induced fluorescence for plane sampling [<a href="#B19-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B20-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>For this reason, several researchers focused on assessing and analysing the mixture quality by means of numerical models, such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which is largely used to simulate fluid flows [<a href="#B21-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B22-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. Okita and Oyama [<a href="#B25-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">25</a>] tested an extensive range of orifices for two small-scale circular tanks. These researchers concluded that the ratio between the tank diameter, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, and the nozzle diameter, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, is related to the mixing time as a function of the inflow (nozzle) characterised by the Reynolds number, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <mo>/</mo> <mi>μ</mi> <mo><</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>4</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>, in which <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> dynamic viscosity. Grayman et al. [<a href="#B15-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">15</a>], using a small-scale model, proposed methods to support the design and operation of water storage tanks to reduce the risk of water quality degradation from poor mixing. Khan et al. [<a href="#B26-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">26</a>] showed results of a 3D CFD model and concluded that the numerical model could accurately reproduce the flow patterns. Likewise, Marek et al. [<a href="#B27-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">27</a>] compared the numerical concentration profiles with the experimental ones and concluded that 3D CFD model is able to simulate the complex effects of the flow. In addition, Zhang et al. [<a href="#B28-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">28</a>] evaluated several locations of submerged nozzles with a numerical model to determine the ozone concentration and disinfectant contact time values, concluding that the modelling results agreed well with the full-scale experimental data.</div><div class='html-p'>In general, researchers observed that the flow pattern in storage tanks is highly dependent on the momentum of the inflow nozzle and the respective inflow orientation [<a href="#B29-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">29</a>], the number of jets (single and multiple) [<a href="#B30-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">30</a>] and the position of the jet with respect to the water level in the tank [<a href="#B31-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. So far, a significant number of conditions have been studied for the nozzle positioned below the water level (submerged jet) in several directions and locations [<a href="#B9-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B20-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">20</a>], while according to the authors’ knowledge, no studies have been conducted in storage tanks with a plunging jet.</div><div class='html-p'>For these reasons, the current research aims to better understand the flow hydrodynamics (flow pattern) in circular storage tanks for two inflow configurations—above and below the water level—through a 3D CFD model. The nozzle above the water level is referred to as a plunging jet, while the nozzle below the water level is a submerged jet. The detailed information about flow patterns represents a valuable tool to establish the design and guidelines for operation and rehabilitation in order to improve the water mixture in storage tanks and, thus, assuring the safety of drinking water distribution networks.</div><div class='html-p'>The main innovative key features of this paper are: (i) the analysis of the flow pattern of a plugging jet in a circular storage tank validated by available laboratory data; (ii) the flow pattern analysis of a submerged jet for the same geometry as an improvement measurement of water mixture; and (iii) velocity fields comparison of both inflows: plunging and submerged jet.</div></section><section id='sec2-water-14-01277' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Background Jet Theory</h2><section id='sec2dot1-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Plunging Jet</h4><div class='html-p'>A circular nozzle positioned above the water level generates an axisymmetric jet with a velocity, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo>*</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, a diameter, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo>*</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, and an angle with the horizontal plane, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mi>θ</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo>*</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> (<a href="#water-14-01277-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>). As the stream leaves the nozzle, a smooth and cylindrical shape jet is established. The jet is immediately subjected to gravity forces and surface tension: gravity adds a vertical velocity component, which causes the water jet to fall, while the surface tension maintains the jet shape by the molecular attraction forces of the water (cohesion). While the jet falls, the gravity force increases its velocity, causing the jet diameter to decrease (maintaining the same flow rate). Due to the surface tension, the cylindrical jet shape surface behaves as an elastic membrane, stretching and subjecting the region with more curvature. These effects increase as the jet develops and become more prominent. Due to the turbulent velocity component, the well-defined jet may break into multiple droplets [<a href="#B32-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">32</a>] until it reaches the water level, depending on the flow rate and the vertical distance between the nozzle and the water surface.</div><div class='html-p'>As the jet attains the water level, the phenomenon is mainly influenced by the gravity force, being characterised by the impact angle, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mi>P</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, the diameter, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, and the mean velocity, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>P</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> (<a href="#water-14-01277-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>). The plunging jet momentum results in the penetration of the stream into the pool of water (<a href="#water-14-01277-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>a) or droplets being formed (<a href="#water-14-01277-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>b), creating a meniscus void, with a cylindrical shape, in the pool surface. The air entrainment results from the volatility of the air–water interfaces, which is also known as Helmholtz–Taylor hydrodynamics instability [<a href="#B33-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">33</a>]. The air entrainment by a plunging jet is frequently encountered in practice, namely, in cases of fluid aeration [<a href="#B33-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">33</a>,<a href="#B34-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">34</a>,<a href="#B35-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>In addition, the falling jet causes a deviation from the state of equilibrium in the tank (in the gravitational field), which generates an oscillatory motion due to the gravity and surface tension (capillary forces). This motion propagates along the water surface in waves known as gravity–capillary waves, which are common in nature and often referred to as ripples [<a href="#B36-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">36</a>,<a href="#B37-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Submerged Jet</h4><div class='html-p'>A submerged circular nozzle generates an axisimmetric jet with a mean velocity <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and a diameter <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> which, independently of the initial flow regime, being laminar or turbulent, becomes turbulent at a certain distance from the nozzle [<a href="#B38-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. The discontinuity between the jet mean velocity and the water in the tank at rest is highly unstable, and due to viscosity, the neighbouring fluid layers are increasingly drawn into the motion, embodying part of the fluid at rest and sweeping it along, giving rise to a mixing layer downstream of the nozzle (<a href="#water-14-01277-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>). The thickness of the mixing layer, also called the shear layer, increases with the distance from the nozzle [<a href="#B39-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. In the mixing layer, coherent structures (vortices) are formed, and their sizes are of the order of magnitude of the layer thickness—the fluid particles from the tank carried by the jet increase the mass flow. Consequently, the jet width spreads out, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>S</mi> </msub> <mo>></mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>, taking the shape of a bell, and the mean velocity of the flow, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>S</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, decreases with the increasing distance from the nozzle [<a href="#B25-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</div></section></section><section id='sec3-water-14-01277' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Models Description</h2><div class='html-p'>Portugal’s most common drinking water storage tanks are placed in-ground, have a circular cross-section without internal baffles, and a ratio between tank diameter and water height, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0.04</mn> <mo><</mo> <mi>H</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mn>1.85</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> [<a href="#B40-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. The nozzle is typically located above the water level (as a plunging jet) to separate the storage tank from the upstream transmission pipeline, avoiding emptying the tank if a sudden accident occurs and is not timely detected.</div><div class='html-p'>To investigate the water mixing and renewal in storage tanks, an experimental facility designed for tracer tests in the small-scale storage tanks have been assembled in the Hydraulics Laboratory of Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, as part of the IMiST research project (FCT PTDC/ECI-EGC/32102/2017). Qualitative evaluation of preferred flow paths is presented in <a href="#water-14-01277-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>a, where the inflow and outflow are located on opposite sides (configuration A in Pinheiro et al. [<a href="#B41-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">41</a>]) is used to validate CFD results for the plunging jet configuration (<a href="#water-14-01277-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>b). The inflow below the water level (<a href="#water-14-01277-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>c) is numerically analysed and presented herein as an improvement measurement not tested in the experimental facility, although CFD model configurations, qualitatively evaluated with laboratory data, are used in both inflow positions: above the water level (plunging jet, the one tested in the experimental facility) and below the water level (submerged jet).</div><div class='html-p'>This numerical study aims at assessing the main effects of the inflow position in the flow pattern and the water mixing and renewal. Analyses are carried out for a constant water level, for which the inlet flow rate equals the outlet flow rate.</div><div class='html-p'>The tank diameter <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>392</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm and the water level <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>H</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>60</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm. The inlet nozzle has a diameter <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm and a pipe wall thickness <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm; the shape of the jet is defined by the circular cross-section (pipe). The jet is horizontally oriented, protrudes 4 mm from the tank wall, and the respective axis is positioned 17 mm above the water level-plunging jet (P), <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>z</mi> <mi>P</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>77</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm. The submerged jet (S) is positioned 30 mm below the water level, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>z</mi> <mi>S</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>30</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm. The inlet flow rate equals the outlet flow rate, which corresponds to 9.4 l/h, with a <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.208</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> m/s, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>827</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<2000, laminar flow in the nozzle). The tank dimensions were determined by downscaling sizes and shapes of drinking water storage tanks most common in Portugal, based on Froude’s law for 1:100 geometric scale [<a href="#B41-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">41</a>].</div></section><section id='sec4-water-14-01277' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Computational Fluid Dynamics Model</h2><section id='sec4dot1-water-14-01277' type='intro'><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.1. Introduction</h4><div class='html-p'>The OpenFOAM is a free, high-level language CFD library. The applications created by libraries are divided into solvers and utilities. The former performs the actual calculations that closely parallel the description of continuum mechanical problems, and the latter provides a range of functionalities for pre- and post-processing utilities [<a href="#B42-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">42</a>].</div></section><section id='sec4dot2-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.2. Mesh</h4><div class='html-p'>The snappyHexMesh is a pre-processing tool that considers a background mesh (pure hex mesh), generated by the blockMesh utility, and it chisels and refines it into the fluid domain defined by computer-aided software. It follows three meshing steps: (i) the cells of the background mesh are deleted beyond the fluid domain boundaries (castellation); (ii) the cells are reconstructed to approximate edges to the fluid domain boundaries (snapping); and (iii) the additional layers are generated in the boundary region (layering).</div><div class='html-p'>The final mesh is hex-dominant, refined in the tank’s walls, inlet and outlet regions, in the air–water interface and where high-velocity gradients are expected (<a href="#water-14-01277-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>)—resulting in a mesh that is characterised by 1.4 million mainly hexahedral cells with 1.5 million points of calculus, and by the minimum and maximum volumes of cells of <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>9.4</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>13</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>2.3</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>, respectively.</div><div class='html-p'>Even if the inflow is laminar, the behaviour of particles is complex, with jets (plunging and submerged) leading the flow. However, the circulating flow, mainly near the walls, is predominant and defines the flow pattern.</div><div class='html-p'>Less refined meshes settings were analysed and tested (higher minimum and maximum volume of cells); however, the flow pattern obtained by the CFD data did not follow the observed by recorder images of the movement of the dye tracer solution in the laboratory [<a href="#B41-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. For the sake of brevity, the analyses of less refined meshes are not presented herein.</div></section><section id='sec4dot3-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.3. Multiphase Flow</h4><div class='html-p'>For the flow pattern analysis, a multiphase solver has been used. For each phase, the solver multiphase InterFoam captures the interfaces between two (water and air) and includes surface tension and contact angle effects. It uses the finite volume along with the volume of fluid method. The starting point is the equations of mass conservation (continuity), <div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD2-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(2)</label> </div> </div> and momentum, <div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD3-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>∂</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>∂</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> <mo>+</mo> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mo>⊗</mo> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mo>∇</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi>b</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(3)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> velocity vector shared by the two phases throughout the flow domain, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> phase fraction, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> viscous stress tensor given by <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>μ</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> <mi>μ</mi> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mi>I</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, with the mean rate of the strain tensor <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mo>∇</mo> <mi>V</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mo>∇</mo> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mi>T</mi> </msup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> pressure, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi>b</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> are body forces per unit mass, which includes gravity, <span class='html-italic'>g</span>, and surface tension effects at the interface [<a href="#B43-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. The volume fraction transport equation is given by:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD4-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>∂</mo> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>∂</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> <mo>+</mo> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>+</mo> <mo>∇</mo> <mo>•</mo> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(4)</label> </div> </div> where phase <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math> can take values within the range <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0</mn> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> relative velocity of the phases; the solution of <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math> is achieved through a multidimensional universal limiter for explicit solution, which is an explicit solver based on the Flux-Corrected Transport technique [<a href="#B44-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">44</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The physical properties are calculated as weighted averages based on the distribution of the water volume fraction, thus being equal to the properties of each fluid in their corresponding occupied regions and varying only across the interface:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD5-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mtable displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd columnalign="right"> <mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>w</mi> </msub> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(5)</label> </div> </div><div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD6-water-14-01277'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mtable displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd columnalign="right"> <mrow> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>w</mi> </msub> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(6)</label> </div> </div> where the subscripts <span class='html-italic'>w</span> and <span class='html-italic'>a</span> refers to water and air, respectively. To close the problem, it is necessary to specify the initial and boundary conditions in space in time [<a href="#B45-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">45</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>For the simulation, an unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes for turbulence is adopted. The gradient and divergence schemes used were the Gaussian integration with linear interpolation. The SST <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ω</mi> </semantics></math> model is selected by its main feature: it is a two-equation eddy viscosity hybrid model that combines the use of Wilcox <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ω</mi> </semantics></math> and the <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ε</mi> </semantics></math> models. The SST <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ω</mi> </semantics></math> model activates the <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ω</mi> </semantics></math> model near the wall and the <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ε</mi> </semantics></math> model away from it; this zonal formulation is based on blending functions [<a href="#B46-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">46</a>]. The SST <span class='html-italic'>k</span>-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ω</mi> </semantics></math> model is used when the flow is affected by a solid or a surface (e.g., aerodynamics applications and ‘Coanda effect’)—justifying the need for a refined mesh near the wall.</div><div class='html-p'>Convergence can be assessed by progressively tracking the imbalances (residuals) accentuated by each iteration. A convergence solution is achieved when the residuals fall below the convergence criterion of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>9</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>.</div></section></section><section id='sec5-water-14-01277' type='results'><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Results and Discussion</h2><section id='sec5dot1-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.1. Plunging Jet</h4><div class='html-p'>In a plunging jet, the water enters the tank by the horizontally oriented nozzle. The flow inside the nozzle is laminar (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 827) and as the cylindrical jet exits the nozzle, it is immediately subjected to gravity and surface tension forces. The gravity is responsible for the fall of the jet (i.e., vertical velocity component), while the surface tension maintains the initial shape of the jet (<a href="#water-14-01277-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>).</div><div class='html-p'>The jet is immediately pushed downwards and, due to the adhesion of the water molecules to other substances or materials, the jet attaches to the inferior wall of the nozzle tip (<a href="#water-14-01277-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>), adding a horizontal velocity component in the wall direction. This phenomenon is known as the ‘Coanda effect’, which is the tendency of a stream to stay attached to a convex surface. This attachment pulls in the flow, adding a horizontal velocity component in the wall direction [<a href="#B47-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">47</a>,<a href="#B48-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">48</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>As the jet continues, the water molecules attracted to the nozzle tip are also attracted to each other, resulting in a distortion of the jet shape (<a href="#water-14-01277-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>). The ‘Coanda effect’ can be noticed by the water molecules’ attractiveness to the nozzle’s tip, altering the cylindrical shape to a flattened and angled jet. This effect is responsible for an early break of the jet into droplets of smaller total area surface [<a href="#B49-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">49</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>As a droplet penetrates the pool of water, it leaves a void on the surface of the pool (<a href="#water-14-01277-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>b). The thin layer of air along the droplet surface is transported below the water level, forming small air bubbles [<a href="#B50-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">50</a>]. These air bubbles are dragged downwards and are slowed down by buoyancy forces that push them upwards. This instability is responsible for most of the air entrainment. As a result, some air bubbles emerge at the water surface, where they rapidly coalesce, while some are dragged by the flow [<a href="#B51-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. This agitation causes the jet to penetrate the surface of the pool of water and become more turbulent; however, it will not reach very deep and represents a considerable loss in the dynamic pressure [<a href="#B52-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">52</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The droplets’ impact generates an oscillatory motion in the surface of the pool in the form of gravity–capillary waves (<span class='html-italic'>ripples</span>) [<a href="#B53-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">53</a>] that travel radially from the tank walls towards the centre of the circular storage tank (<a href="#water-14-01277-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>).</div><div class='html-p'>The flow pattern starts to be established. Due to the ‘Coanda effect’ in the tank wall, the water from the jet progresses clung to the tank walls, symmetrically, in the left and right directions (<a href="#water-14-01277-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>a–c). Pinheiro et al. [<a href="#B41-water-14-01277" class="html-bibr">41</a>], using a visual tracer (rhodamine solution), observed this flow pattern.</div><div class='html-p'>The flow pattern results from a combination of the inlet and the outlet position and the tank configuration (circular cross-section and no baffle structures). The evolution in the initial time steps is always close to the wall due to the ‘Coanda effect’. The ‘Coanda effect’ occurs when fluid is closely projected to a surface (wall, ceiling, pipe). When this happens, the fluid tends to cling to the surface as it moves due to the local pressure drop caused by the acceleration of the flow around a solid surface, allowing the fluid to remain clung. However, the flow gains a downward component, developing the flow pattern presented in <a href="#water-14-01277-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>. Due to the inlet position above the water level, the jet falls near the wall and adheres while continuing to progress. After a short period, the flow starts to feel the reverse flow and the initial phase of the flow pattern; this effect can be observed in detail in <a href="#water-14-01277-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>After 50 s of simulation, the flow pattern is beginning to be established. It is possible to observe that due to the dynamic pressure of the inflow, the undisturbed particles in the tank are pushed against the tank walls. This results in a reverse flow (from the outlet to the inlet), colliding with the inflow. As the reverse flow progresses, it pushes the inflow.</div><div class='html-p'>At 200 s, the 3D steady pattern is established in the tank, challenging to characterise; the inflow continues to cling to the wall, and it is disturbed and pushed down by the reverse flow. <a href="#water-14-01277-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a> presents velocity vectors at three tank heights, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4<span class='html-italic'>H</span> of the water level, corresponding to <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.015, 0.030 and 0.045 m, respectively (<a href="#water-14-01277-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>a–c). The flow pattern near the bottom is different from the one near the surface (<a href="#water-14-01277-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>d). After 200 s, the flow pattern shows slight changes due to flow turbulence.</div></section><section id='sec5dot2-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.2. Submerged Jet</h4><div class='html-p'>The nozzle is positioned below the water level, horizontally oriented at half of the total water height <span class='html-italic'>H</span>, protruding 4 mm from the tank wall. In this configuration, the flow rate and the jet momentum are the same as in the plunging jet (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mi>N</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>827</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>), which results in a cylindrical jet.</div><div class='html-p'>As the water jet leaves the nozzle (at time <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0 s), the inflow has an immediate response by the surrounding particles. The entrainment path left by the jet is compensated by a reverse flow (<a href="#water-14-01277-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>). In the surroundings of the entrainment path, fluid layers are continuously being added, reducing the jet mean velocity, which becomes more spread out. This is observed in <a href="#water-14-01277-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>, as a 4 mm nozzle diameter results in a 20 times larger jet diameter at the centre of the tank (at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/2)</div><div class='html-p'>A ‘zero velocity’ region is observed between the ‘entrainment path’ and the reverse flow, and fluid layers are increasingly drawn into the motion, enlarging the entrainment path. When the inflow attains the tank wall (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>), the flow pattern has been established. The high velocities are positioned in the centre (entrainment path) and are surrounded by a ‘zero’ velocity region, followed by a reverse flow. Note that there is no zero-velocities region, this region is concentrated between two streams with different directions that are highly unstable due to turbulence.</div><div class='html-p'>Two streams are observed (<a href="#water-14-01277-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>): the one generated by the jet (entrainment path) and the other by the reverse flow that compensates. The flow pattern is established as the jet reaches the wall, which is symmetrical in the <span class='html-italic'>y</span>-direction and divided into two parts. Due to the curved tank walls, the fluid clings to the surface as it moves (‘Coanda effect’), generating a pressure drop at the surface, which allows the liquid to remain clung.</div><div class='html-p'>The main features of the flow pattern can be observed in <a href="#water-14-01277-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>, in which velocities vectors are plotted at three heights, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4<span class='html-italic'>H</span>: for <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mfrac bevelled="true"> <mn>1</mn> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, the flow occurs clung to the wall, in the downward direction (<a href="#water-14-01277-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>a); for <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mfrac bevelled="true"> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, the flow pattern seems to be more defined, with a lower downward flow rate than closer to the bottom (<a href="#water-14-01277-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>b); finally, at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mfrac bevelled="true"> <mn>3</mn> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>, the flow pattern is mainly directed to the tank walls (<a href="#water-14-01277-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>c).</div></section><section id='sec5dot3-water-14-01277' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.3. Velocity Fields Comparison</h4><div class='html-p'>The 3D velocity fields in both jets can only be assessed by means of advanced numerical models or experimental tests using complex measuring instrumentation, such as 3D laser-induced fluorescence. This section presents the main features of the flow patterns obtained by means of CFD simulations for the plunging and submerged jet. Both jets present a characteristic flow pattern for the same inflow momentum. The velocity vectors at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mfrac bevelled="true"> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> of both jets can be observed in <a href="#water-14-01277-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a>, allowing a better understanding of the effect of the nozzle positions. Both positions generate a symmetric flow pattern in the <span class='html-italic'>y</span>-axis.</div><div class='html-p'>The plunging jet breaks into droplets and falls, generating a void close to the wall, resulting in the jet separation, symmetrically, to the left and right. The divided jet continuously progresses, following the tank walls (‘Coanda effect’) until reuniting. After this, the jet proceeds as a reverse flow (in the outlet–inlet direction), crossing the centre of the tank until it reaches the inlet jet region (<a href="#water-14-01277-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a>a).</div><div class='html-p'>The main features of the submerged jet can be observed in <a href="#water-14-01277-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a>b. The submerged jet generates a long entrainment path, and as it reaches the wall, the jet is split symmetrically, in both directions (on the left and right sides), being clung to the tank walls. While it progresses, it reaches the inflow region and follows the same pattern.</div><div class='html-p'>The velocity magnitude at three distances from the inlet nozzle: <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/4<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>; 1/2<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and 3/4<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, at three heights: <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/4; 1/2 and 3/4<span class='html-italic'>H</span> are plotted in <a href="#water-14-01277-f012" class="html-fig">Figure 12</a>. Velocities in the submerged jet reach higher values than in the plunging jet. In addition, the entrainment path (jet spreading) can be identified by the considerable velocity magnitude spike at the 1/2<span class='html-italic'>H</span>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 1/4<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</div><div class='html-p'>In the tank walls, the flow has a downward direction (<a href="#water-14-01277-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>). In fact, this represents the primary air intake of the flow. For each disturbance in the tank, the water surface responds with a small pressure peak, causing waves in the surface that travels in the radial direction, going back and forward (walls–centre–walls). During these waves’ impact on the tank walls, air bubbles are imprisoned and dragged by the downward flow into the storage water and observed into the outlet flow. In the pipe network, the air, in the form of bubbles, accumulates in high points as air pockets. This can be observed in both jets and is mainly responsible for the air pockets in the pipe network.</div></section></section><section id='sec6-water-14-01277' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 6. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>This research demonstrates that numerical models can capture the 3D behaviour of flow dynamics in water storage tanks. Two inlet jets’ positions are analysed in a circular tank—the plunging jet (used to validate the CFD results qualitatively and configurations) and the submerged jet (a measure to improve water mixing)—for similar flow rate conditions.</div><div class='html-p'>CFD results allow assessing the influence of the nozzle position on the hydrodynamics conditions inside the tank. Each jet generates a preferential flow path or distinct flow pattern and velocity field in the water storage tank. The plunging jet breaks into droplets that fall into the water surface generating a void responsible for the progression of the jet clung to the tank wall and then produces a symmetrical flow clung to the walls and a flow in the centre of the tank. The submerged jet generates a long entrainment path with high velocities through the centre of the tank, promoting an enhanced water mixture by the turbulence created and a flow towards the inlet along the walls. In addition, pressure differences generate a small pressure peak in the water surface, creating an oscillatory motion (waves) that travels back and forward in the radial direction.</div><div class='html-p'>The molecular attraction forces of water molecules to each other (cohesion) and solids (adhesion) play an important role in the flow dynamics inside the storage tank. The plunging jet is highly influenced by the ‘Coanda effect’, being responsible for the early break of the jet into droplets and by its progression clung to the walls, as observed in the experimental tests carried out. The submerged jet tends to generate an entrainment path without the influence of the walls, spreading out as the nozzle distance increases.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; methodology, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; validation, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; formal analysis, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; resources, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; data curation, N.M.C.M.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; writing—review and editing, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; visualization, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C.; funding acquisition, N.M.C.M. and D.I.C.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This research was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia research projects: CPCA/A2/2568/2020—Flow Dynamics in Storage Tanks; PTDC/ECI-EGC/32102/2017—Improving Mixing in Storage Tanks for Safer Water Supply (IMiST); and DSAIPA/DS/0089/2018—Water Intelligence System Data.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Institutional Review Board Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Informed Consent Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>All relevant data are included in the paper.</div></section><section id='html-ack' class='html-ack'><h2 >Acknowledgments</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors would like to express a special acknowledgment to the Professor Emeritus António Betâmio de Almeida of Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, for fruitful discussions on the ‘Coanda effect’ and for the valuable suggestions that significantly improved the quality of this paper.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</div></section><section id='html-glossary'><h2 >Abbreviations</h2><div class='html-p'>The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript: <table class='html-array_table'><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >3D</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Three-Dimensional</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >CFD</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Computational Fluid Dynamics</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >SST</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Shear Stress Transport</td></tr></tbody></table></div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-water-14-01277' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Panguluri, S.; Grayman, W.M.; Clark, R.M. <span class='html-italic'>Water Distribution System Analysis: Field Studies, Modeling and Management: A Reference Guide for Utilities</span>; Report; U. 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(<b>b</b>) breaks into droplets.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f001" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 1.</b> The plunging liquid jet when it: (<b>a</b>) maintains the cylindrical shape; (<b>b</b>) breaks into droplets.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g001" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g001.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g001.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g001.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f002"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g002 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Jet surface roughness—schematics.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f002" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 2.</b> Jet surface roughness—schematics.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g002" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g002.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f003"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g003 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Inlet–outlet configuration–schematics: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) plunging jet (P); and (<b>c</b>) submerged jet (S).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f003" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 3.</b> Inlet–outlet configuration–schematics: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) plunging jet (P); and (<b>c</b>) submerged jet (S).</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g003" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g003.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f004"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g004 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> Mesh refinements: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) nozzle above the water level; (<b>c</b>) nozzle below the water level; and (<b>d</b>) outlet region.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f004" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 4.</b> Mesh refinements: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) nozzle above the water level; (<b>c</b>) nozzle below the water level; and (<b>d</b>) outlet region.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g004" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g004.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f005"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g005 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Plunging jet.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f005" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 5.</b> Plunging jet.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g005" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g005.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f006"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g006 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Wave propagation at different time steps from the beginning of the flow: (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.50 s; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.60 s; and (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.70 s.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f006" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 6.</b> Wave propagation at different time steps from the beginning of the flow: (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.50 s; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.60 s; and (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>0.70 s.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g006" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g006.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f007"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f007"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g007 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Water progression in the pool from the jet at (<b>a</b>) 9 s; (<b>b</b>) 12 s; (<b>c</b>) 15 s; (<b>d</b>) 50 s.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f007" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 7.</b> Water progression in the pool from the jet at (<b>a</b>) 9 s; (<b>b</b>) 12 s; (<b>c</b>) 15 s; (<b>d</b>) 50 s.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g007" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g007.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f008"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f008"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g008 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f008" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 8.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g008" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g008.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f009"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f009"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g009 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math><math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> at (<b>a</b>) 50 s; and (<b>b</b>) 150 s.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f009" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 9.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math><math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> at (<b>a</b>) 50 s; and (<b>b</b>) 150 s.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g009" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g009.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f010"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f010"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g010 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f010" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 10.</b> Plunging jet: velocity vectors and contours at 200 s in the horizontal plane at (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.25<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>b</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; (<b>c</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.75<span class='html-italic'>H</span>; and in the vertical plane at (<b>d</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> 0.5<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g010" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g010.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f011"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f011"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g011 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f011"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Flow pattern establishment and velocity fields at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> of the (<b>a</b>) plunging jet and (<b>b</b>) of the submerged jet.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f011" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 11.</b> Flow pattern establishment and velocity fields at <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> of the (<b>a</b>) plunging jet and (<b>b</b>) of the submerged jet.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g011" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g011.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="water-14-01277-f012"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f012"> <img alt="Water 14 01277 g012 550" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/8/1277/display" href="#fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f012"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 12.</b> Velocity Profiles from: plunging jet—grey line; submerged jet—black line.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_water-14-01277-f012" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 12.</b> Velocity Profiles from: plunging jet—grey line; submerged jet—black line.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Water 14 01277 g012" data-large="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png" data-original="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png" data-lsrc="/water/water-14-01277/article_deploy/html/images/water-14-01277-g012.png" /></div> </div></section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Publisher’s Note:</b> MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2022 by the authors. 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margin-top: 15px;"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Martins, N.M.C.; Covas, D.I.C. Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>14</em>, 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Martins NMC, Covas DIC. Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em>. 2022; 14(8):1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Martins, Nuno M. C., and Dídia I. C. Covas. 2022. "Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD" <em>Water</em> 14, no. 8: 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Martins, N. M. C., & Covas, D. I. C. (2022). Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em>, <em>14</em>(8), 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. 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Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>14</em>, 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Martins NMC, Covas DIC. Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em>. 2022; 14(8):1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Martins, Nuno M. C., and Dídia I. C. Covas. 2022. "Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD" <em>Water</em> 14, no. 8: 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Martins, N. M. C., & Covas, D. I. C. (2022). Induced Circulation by Plunging and Submerged Jets in Circular Water Storage Tanks Using CFD. <em>Water</em>, <em>14</em>(8), 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081277 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. 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