CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>American Civil War - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"cf7f1192-85b2-4f60-a1f4-28c15b88c79f","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"American_Civil_War","wgTitle":"American Civil War","wgCurRevisionId":1258374105,"wgRevisionId":1258374105,"wgArticleId":863 ,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"American_Civil_War","wgRelevantArticleId":863,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true, "wgMFScriptPath":"","wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym":"अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho", "autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir" :"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym": "farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr" },{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir" :"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sco","autonym":"Scots","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr" ,"autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym":"тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir": "ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr", "mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q8676","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model", "platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles": "ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/CivilWarUSAColl.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1945"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/CivilWarUSAColl.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1296"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1037"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="American Civil War - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-American_Civil_War rootpage-American_Civil_War stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=American+Civil+War" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=American+Civil+War" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">American Civil War</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:American_Civil_War" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=American+Civil+War" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style>The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">other names</a>) was a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[e]</a> ("the North") and the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a> ("the South"), which was formed in 1861 by <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> that had <a href="/wiki/Seceded" class="mw-redirect" title="Seceded">seceded</a> from the Union. The <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">central conflict leading to war</a> was a dispute over whether <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> should be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more <a href="/wiki/Slave_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave states">slave states</a>, or be prohibited from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.<a href="#cite_note-19">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woods2012-20">[15]</a> <table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">American Civil War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:CivilWarUSAColl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/CivilWarUSAColl.png/300px-CivilWarUSAColl.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="486" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/CivilWarUSAColl.png 1.5x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="645"></a> Clockwise from top: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Horse_Artillery_Brigade" title="U.S. Horse Artillery Brigade">U.S. Horse Artillery Brigade</a> officers under Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Tidball" class="mw-redirect" title="John Tidball">John Tidball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate</a> prisoners</li> <li>Ironclad <a href="/wiki/USS_Atlanta_(1861)" title="USS Atlanta (1861)">USS Atlanta</a></li> <li>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond, Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin" title="Battle of Franklin">Battle of Franklin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865<a href="#cite_note-End1-1">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-End2-2">[b]</a> (4 years, 1 month and 2 weeks)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> Dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650"></a> <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">United States</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="600"> <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650"></a> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650"></a> <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War#The_United_States_(The_Union)" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">and others...</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America"><img alt="Confederate States of America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="600"></a> <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351"></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America"><img alt="Confederate States of America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="600"></a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351"></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War#The_Confederate_States" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">and others...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>698,000 at peak<a href="#cite_note-3">[1]</a></li> <li>2,200,000 total<a href="#cite_note-NationalParkService-4">[2]</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>360,000 at peak<a href="#cite_note-NationalParkService-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a></li> <li>750,000–1,000,000 total<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971705-6">[4]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>110,000+ <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><abbr title="killed in action">KIA</abbr> or <abbr title="died of wounds">DOW</abbr></a></li> <li>230,000+ died from accidents or disease<a href="#cite_note-Fox1889-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DCAS-8">[6]</a></li> <li>25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons<a href="#cite_note-NationalParkService-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox1889-7">[5]</a></li> <li>365,000+ total dead<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersAnderson1999849-9">[7]</a></li></ul> </div> <hr> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>282,000+ wounded<a href="#cite_note-DCAS-8">[6]</a></li> <li>181,193 captured<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1893-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[c]</a></li> <li>828,000+ total casualties</li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>94,000+ <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><abbr title="killed in action">KIA</abbr> or <abbr title="died of wounds">DOW</abbr></a><a href="#cite_note-Fox1889-7">[5]</a></li> <li>26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons<a href="#cite_note-DCAS-8">[6]</a></li> <li>290,000+ total dead</li></ul> </div> <hr> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>137,000+ wounded</li> <li>436,658 captured<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1893-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[d]</a></li> <li>864,000+ total casualties</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>50,000 free civilians died<a href="#cite_note-Nofi2001-13">[9]</a></li> <li>60,000 documented slaves, "tens of thousands" of undocumented slaves died from disease<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a></li> <li>616,222<a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a>–1,000,000+ total dead<a href="#cite_note-Hacker2011-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[13]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234909266">.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar{width:22.0em;border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:#002868;color:#FFFFFF;background-clip:padding-box}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a,.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-title a,.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .mw-collapsible-text{color:#FFFFFF}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-caption{padding-bottom:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-content{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Decades of controversy</a> over slavery were brought to a head when <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, who opposed slavery's expansion, won the <a href="/wiki/1860_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 presidential election">1860 presidential election</a>. Seven Southern slave states responded to Lincoln's victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. The Confederacy seized U.S. forts and other federal assets within their borders. The war began on April 12, 1861, when the Confederacy bombarded <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>. A wave of enthusiasm for war swept over the North and South, as military recruitment soared. Four more Southern states <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">seceded</a> after the war began and, led by its president, <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, the Confederacy asserted control over a third of the U.S. population in eleven states. Four years of intense combat, mostly in the South, ensued. During 1861–1862 in the <a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western theater</a>, the Union made permanent gains—though in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern theater</a> the conflict was inconclusive. The abolition of slavery became a Union war goal on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, which declared all slaves in rebel states to be free, applying to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country. To the west, the Union first destroyed the Confederacy's river navy by the summer of 1862, then much of its western armies, and <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_New_Orleans" title="Capture of New Orleans">seized New Orleans</a>. The successful 1863 Union <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">siege of Vicksburg</a> split the Confederacy in two at the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, while Confederate General <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a>'s incursion north failed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a>. Western successes led to General <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>'s command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening <a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">naval blockade</a> of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Atlanta">fall of Atlanta</a> in 1864 to Union General <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a>, followed by his <a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">March to the Sea</a>. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Siege of Petersburg</a>, gateway to the Confederate capital of <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a>. The Confederates abandoned Richmond, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House" title="Battle of Appomattox Court House">Battle of Appomattox Court House</a>, setting in motion the <a href="/wiki/Conclusion_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Conclusion of the American Civil War">end of the war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[f]</a> Lincoln lived to see this victory but <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">was shot</a> on April 14, dying the next day. By the end of the war, much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> in an attempt to rebuild the country, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and grant <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> to freed slaves. The war is one of the most extensively studied and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">written about</a> episodes in <a href="/wiki/U.S._history" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. history">U.S. history</a>. It remains the subject of cultural and <a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">historiographical debate</a>. Of continuing interest is the fading myth of the <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause of the Confederacy</a>. The war was among the first to use <a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a>. Railroads, the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a>, steamships, the <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship">ironclad warship</a>, and mass-produced weapons were widely used. The war left between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers dead, along with an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making the Civil War the deadliest military conflict in American history.<a href="#cite_note-22">[g]</a> The technology and brutality of the Civil War foreshadowed the coming <a href="/wiki/World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wars">World Wars</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Origins">1 Origins</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Lincoln's_election">1.1 Lincoln's election</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Outbreak_of_the_war">2 Outbreak of the war</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Secession_crisis">2.1 Secession crisis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Battle_of_Fort_Sumter">2.2 Battle of Fort Sumter</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Attitude_of_the_border_states">2.3 Attitude of the border states</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#War">3 War</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Mobilization">3.1 Mobilization</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Southern_Unionists">3.2 Southern Unionists</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Prisoners">3.3 Prisoners</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Women">3.4 Women</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Naval_tactics">3.5 Naval tactics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Union_blockade">3.6 Union blockade</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Blockade_runners">3.6.1 Blockade runners</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Economic_impact">3.6.2 Economic impact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Diplomacy">3.7 Diplomacy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Eastern_theater">4 Eastern theater</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Background">4.1 Background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Army_of_the_Potomac">4.1.1 Army of the Potomac</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Army_of_Northern_Virginia">4.1.2 Army of Northern Virginia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Battles">4.2 Battles</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Western_theater">5 Western theater</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Background_2">5.1 Background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Army_of_the_Tennessee_and_Army_of_the_Cumberland">5.1.1 Army of the Tennessee and Army of the Cumberland</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Army_of_Tennessee">5.1.2 Army of Tennessee</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Battles_2">5.2 Battles</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Trans-Mississippi_theater">6 Trans-Mississippi theater</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Background_3">6.1 Background</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Battles_3">6.2 Battles</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Lower_seaboard_theater">7 Lower seaboard theater</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Background_4">7.1 Background</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Battles_4">7.2 Battles</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Pacific_coast_theater">8 Pacific coast theater</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Conquest_of_Virginia">9 Conquest of Virginia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Grant's_Overland_Campaign">9.1 Grant's Overland Campaign</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Sheridan's_Valley_Campaign">9.2 Sheridan's Valley Campaign</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Sherman's_March_to_the_Sea">9.3 Sherman's March to the Sea</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#The_Waterloo_of_the_Confederacy">9.4 The Waterloo of the Confederacy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#End_of_the_war">10 End of the war</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#Union_victory">11 Union victory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Casualties">12 Casualties</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Emancipation">13 Emancipation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Emancipation_Proclamation">13.1 Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Reconstruction">14 Reconstruction</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Memory_and_historiography">15 Memory and historiography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Lost_Cause">15.1 Lost Cause</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Battlefield_preservation">15.2 Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Commemoration">15.3 Commemoration</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Technological_significance">15.4 Technological significance</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><a href="#In_works_of_culture_and_art">16 In works of culture and art</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><a href="#Literature">16.1 Literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#Film">16.2 Film</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Music">16.3 Music</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><a href="#Video_games">16.4 Video games</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-55"><a href="#See_also">17 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-56"><a href="#Notes">18 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-57"><a href="#References">19 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-58"><a href="#Bibliography">19.1 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-59"><a href="#Sources_referenced">19.1.1 Sources referenced</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-60"><a href="#Web_sources">19.2 Web sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><a href="#Further_reading">19.3 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-62"><a href="#Soldier_life:_North_and_South">19.4 Soldier life: North and South</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-63"><a href="#External_links">20 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></div> A consensus of historians who address the origins of the war agree that the preservation of the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">institution of slavery</a> was the principal aim of the eleven <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern states</a> (seven states before the onset of the war and four states after the onset) that declared their secession from the United States (the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a>) and united to form the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> (known as the "Confederacy").<a href="#cite_note-Woods2012-20">[15]</a> However, while historians in the 21st century <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_consensus" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarly consensus">agree</a> on the centrality of slavery in the conflict, they disagree sharply on which aspects of this conflict (ideological, economic, political, or social) were most important, and on the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">North</a>'s reasons for refusing to allow the Southern states to secede.<a href="#cite_note-23">[16]</a> Proponents of the pseudohistorical <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost Cause">Lost Cause</a> ideology have denied that slavery was the principal cause of the secession, a view that has been disproven by the overwhelming historical evidence against it, notably some of the seceding states' own <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession" title="Ordinance of Secession">secession documents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[17]</a> The principal political battle leading to Southern secession was over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the Western territories destined to become states. Initially, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> had admitted new states into the Union in pairs, <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">one slave and one free</a>. This had kept a sectional balance in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> but not in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, as free states outstripped slave states in their numbers of eligible voters.<a href="#cite_note-25">[18]</a> Thus, at mid-19th century, the free-versus-slave status of the new territories was a critical issue, both for the North, where anti-slavery sentiment had grown, and for the South, where the fear of slavery's <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition</a> had grown. Another factor leading to secession and the formation of the Confederacy was the development of <a href="/wiki/White_Southerners" title="White Southerners">white Southern</a> nationalism in the preceding decades.<a href="#cite_note-26">[19]</a> The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[20]</a> Background factors in the run up to the Civil War were <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">partisan politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nullification_(U.S._Constitution)" title="Nullification (U.S. Constitution)">nullification</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a>, Southern and Northern nationalism, <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">expansionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">economics</a>, and modernization in the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Antebellum period">antebellum period</a>. As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war."<a href="#cite_note-28">[21]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/David_M._Potter" title="David M. Potter">David M. Potter</a> wrote: "The problem for Americans who, in the age of Lincoln, wanted slaves to be free was not simply that southerners wanted the opposite, but that they themselves cherished a conflicting value: they wanted the Constitution, which protected slavery, to be honored, and the Union, which was a fellowship with slaveholders, to be preserved. Thus they were committed to values that could not logically be reconciled."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher197644%E2%80%9345-29">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lincoln's_election">Lincoln's election</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady,_1860.tif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Portrait of the middle-aged Abraham Lincoln the year of 1860 by Mathew Brady" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif/lossy-page1-180px-Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3485" data-file-height="5373"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif/lossy-page1-180px-Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif.jpg" data-alt="Portrait of the middle-aged Abraham Lincoln the year of 1860 by Mathew Brady" data-width="180" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif/lossy-page1-270px-Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif/lossy-page1-360px-Abraham_Lincoln_by_Mathew_Brady%2C_1860.tif.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Brady" title="Mathew Brady">Mathew Brady</a>'s Portrait of Abraham Lincoln, 1860</figcaption></figure> Lincoln's election in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976485-30">[23]</a> Southern leaders feared Lincoln would stop slavery's expansion and put it on a course toward extinction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988254%E2%80%93255-31">[24]</a> However, Lincoln would not be inaugurated until March 4, 1861, which gave the South time to secede and prepare for war during the winter of 1860–1861.<a href="#cite_note-NegativesPrints-32">[25]</a> According to Lincoln, the American people had shown they had been successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation: maintaining a republic based on the people's vote, in the face of an attempt to destroy it.<a href="#cite_note-33">[26]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Outbreak_of_the_war">Outbreak of the war</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secession_crisis">Secession crisis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession" title="Ordinance of Secession">Ordinance of Secession</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Secession_map_1861.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/300px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="184" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="483"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 184px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/300px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png" data-alt="Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories" data-width="300" data-height="184" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/450px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/600px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Status of the states, 1861</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> Slave states that seceded before April 15, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Slave states that seceded after April 15, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Border Southern states that permitted slavery but did not secede (both KY and MO had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Union states that banned slavery</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Territories</div></figcaption></figure> Lincoln's election provoked <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a>'s legislature to call a state convention to consider secession. South Carolina had done more than any other state to advance the notion that a state had the right to <a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">nullify</a> federal laws and even secede. On December 20, 1860, the convention unanimously voted to secede and adopted <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">a secession declaration</a>. It argued for states' rights for slave owners but complained about states' rights in the North in the form of resistance to the federal Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their obligations to assist in the return of fugitive slaves. The "cotton states" of <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a> followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.<a href="#cite_note-NegativesPrints-32">[25]</a> Among the ordinances of secession, those of Texas, Alabama, and Virginia mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states" at the hands of Northern abolitionists. The rest made no mention of slavery but were brief announcements by the legislatures of the dissolution of ties to the Union.<a href="#cite_note-34">[27]</a> However, at least four—South Carolina,<a href="#cite_note-35">[28]</a> Mississippi,<a href="#cite_note-36">[29]</a> Georgia,<a href="#cite_note-37">[30]</a> and Texas<a href="#cite_note-38">[31]</a>—provided detailed reasons for their secession, all blaming the movement to abolish slavery and its influence over the North. Southern states believed that the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a> made slaveholding a constitutional right. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>, on February 4, 1861.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson198824-39">[32]</a> They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries, with little resistance from outgoing President <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a>, whose term ended on March 4. Buchanan said the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_decision" class="mw-redirect" title="Dred Scott decision">Dred Scott decision</a> was proof the Southern states had no reason to secede and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual". He added, however, that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress".<a href="#cite_note-Buchanan1860-40">[33]</a> A quarter of the US army—the Texas garrison—was surrendered in February to state forces by its general, <a href="/wiki/David_E._Twiggs" title="David E. Twiggs">David E. Twiggs</a>, who joined the Confederacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinters196328-41">[34]</a> As Southerners resigned their Senate and House seats, Republicans could pass projects that had been blocked. These included the <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Tariff" title="Morrill Tariff">Morrill Tariff</a>, land grant colleges, a <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts#Homestead_Act_of_1862" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Act</a>, a transcontinental railroad,<a href="#cite_note-42">[35]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Bank_Act" title="National Bank Act">National Bank Act</a>, authorization of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Note" title="United States Note">United States Notes</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Legal_Tender_Act_of_1862" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Tender Act of 1862">Legal Tender Act of 1862</a>, and the end of <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Compensated_Emancipation_Act" title="District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act">slavery in the District of Columbia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1861" title="Revenue Act of 1861">Revenue Act of 1861</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> to help finance the war.<a href="#cite_note-43">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Middle-aged man in a goatee posed standing in a suit, vest and bowtie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg/180px-President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1738" data-file-height="2220"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 230px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg/180px-President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg" data-alt="Middle-aged man in a goatee posed standing in a suit, vest and bowtie" data-width="180" data-height="230" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg/270px-President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg/360px-President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America" title="President of the Confederate States of America">President of the Confederate States of America</a> (1861–1865)</figcaption></figure> In December 1860, the <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a> was proposed to re-establish the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> line, by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of it, while permitting it to the south. The Compromise would likely have prevented secession, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988252%E2%80%93254-44">[37]</a> Lincoln stated that any compromise that would extend slavery would bring down the Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988253-45">[38]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Peace_Conference_of_1861" title="Peace Conference of 1861">February peace conference</a> met in Washington, proposing a solution similar the Compromise; it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed the <a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a>, an alternative, not to interfere with slavery where it existed, but the South regarded it as insufficient. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy, following a no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988234%E2%80%93266-46">[39]</a> On March 4, Lincoln was sworn in as president. In his <a href="/wiki/Inaugural_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural address">inaugural address</a>, he argued that the Constitution was a <a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">more perfect union</a> than the earlier <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union</a>, was a binding contract, and called secession "legally void".<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln1861-47">[40]</a> He did not intend to invade Southern states, nor to end slavery where it existed, but he said he would use force to maintain possession of federal property,<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln1861-47">[40]</a> including forts, arsenals, mints, and customhouses that had been seized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988262-48">[41]</a> The government would not try to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of federal law, US marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from mints. He stated that it would be US policy "to collect the duties and imposts"; "there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere" that would justify an armed revolution. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions.<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln1861-47">[40]</a> The Davis government of the new Confederacy sent delegates to Washington to negotiate a peace treaty. Lincoln rejected negotiations, because he claimed that the Confederacy was not a legitimate government and to make a treaty with it would recognize it as such.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976572%E2%80%93573-49">[42]</a> Lincoln instead attempted to negotiate directly with the governors of seceded states, whose administrations he continued to recognize.<a href="#cite_note-50">[43]</a> Complicating Lincoln's attempts to defuse the crisis was Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a>, who had been Lincoln's rival for the Republican <a href="/wiki/Presidential_nominee" title="Presidential nominee">nomination</a>. Embittered by his defeat, Seward agreed to support Lincoln's candidacy only after he was guaranteed the executive office then considered the second most powerful. In the early stages of Lincoln's presidency Seward held little regard for him, due to his perceived inexperience. Seward viewed himself as the de facto head of government, the "<a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>" behind the throne. Seward attempted to engage in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976572%E2%80%93573-49">[42]</a> Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> in Virginia, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pickens" title="Fort Pickens">Fort Pickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Jefferson_(Florida)" title="Fort Jefferson (Florida)">Fort Jefferson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Taylor">Fort Taylor</a> in Florida, and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a> in South Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-51">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Fort_Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Artwork Despite him stone fort at center surrounded by water. The fort is on fire, and shells explode in the air above it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/220px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4448" data-file-height="2859"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 141px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/220px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg" data-alt="Artwork Despite him stone fort at center surrounded by water. The fort is on fire, and shells explode in the air above it." data-width="220" data-height="141" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/330px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/440px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Battle of Fort Sumter, as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives" title="Currier and Ives">Currier and Ives</a></figcaption></figure> The American Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces opened fire on the Union-held Fort Sumter. Fort Sumter is located in the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a>, South Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988264-52">[45]</a> Its status had been contentious for months. Outgoing President Buchanan had dithered in reinforcing its garrison, commanded by Major <a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Civil_War)" title="Robert Anderson (Civil War)">Robert Anderson</a>. Anderson took matters into his own hands and on December 26, 1860, under the cover of darkness, sailed the garrison from the poorly placed <a href="/wiki/Fort_Moultrie" title="Fort Moultrie">Fort Moultrie</a> to the stalwart island Fort Sumter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988265-53">[46]</a> Anderson's actions catapulted him to hero status in the North. An attempt to resupply the fort on January 9, 1861, failed and nearly started the war then, but an informal truce held.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988266-54">[47]</a> On March 5, Lincoln was informed the fort was low on supplies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988267-55">[48]</a> Fort Sumter proved a key challenge to Lincoln's administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988267-55">[48]</a> Back-channel dealing by Seward with the Confederates undermined Lincoln's decision-making; Seward wanted to pull out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988268-56">[49]</a> But a firm hand by Lincoln tamed Seward, who was a staunch Lincoln ally. Lincoln decided holding the fort, which would require reinforcing it, was the only workable option. On April 6, Lincoln informed the Governor of South Carolina that a ship with food but no ammunition would attempt to supply the fort. Historian McPherson describes this win-win approach as "the first sign of the mastery that would mark Lincoln's presidency"; the Union would win if it could resupply and hold the fort, and the South would be the aggressor if it opened fire on an unarmed ship supplying starving men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988272-57">[50]</a> An April 9 Confederate cabinet meeting resulted in Davis ordering General <a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">P. G. T. Beauregard</a> to take the fort before supplies reached it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273-58">[51]</a> At 4:30 am on April 12, Confederate forces fired the first of 4,000 shells at the fort; it fell the next day. The loss of Fort Sumter lit a patriotic fire under the North.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273%E2%80%93274-59">[52]</a> On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to field <a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">75,000 volunteer</a> troops for 90 days; impassioned Union states met the quotas quickly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988274-60">[53]</a> On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for three years.<a href="#cite_note-Presidency.ucsb.edu-61">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988278-62">[55]</a> Shortly after this, <a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a> seceded and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988276%E2%80%93307-63">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attitude_of_the_border_states">Attitude of the border states</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border states (American Civil War)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Secession_map_1863.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/US_Secession_map_1863.svg/300px-US_Secession_map_1863.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 186px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/US_Secession_map_1863.svg/300px-US_Secession_map_1863.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="186" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/US_Secession_map_1863.svg/450px-US_Secession_map_1863.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/US_Secession_map_1863.svg/600px-US_Secession_map_1863.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>US Secession map. The <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> vs. the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Union states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Union territories not permitting slavery</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Southern <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border Union states, permitting slavery</a></div> (One of these states, <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>, was created in 1863, while KY, WV and MO had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Confederate states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Union territories that permitted slavery (claimed by Confederacy) at the start of the war, but where slavery was outlawed by the U.S. in 1862</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> were slave states whose people had divided loyalties to Northern and Southern businesses and family members. Some men enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> and others in the Confederate Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011203%E2%80%93204-64">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> separated from <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and was admitted to the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> on June 20, 1863, though half its counties were secessionist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201121-65">[58]</a> Maryland's territory surrounded <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a>, and could cut it off from the North.<a href="#cite_note-66">[59]</a> It had anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">rioting in Baltimore</a> and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly to stay in the Union, but rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent their use for war.<a href="#cite_note-MarylandArchives2005-67">[60]</a> Lincoln responded by establishing <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> and unilaterally suspending <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> in Maryland, along with sending in militia units.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988284%E2%80%93287-68">[61]</a> Lincoln took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing prominent figures, including arresting one-third of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly" title="Maryland General Assembly">Maryland General Assembly</a> on the day it reconvened.<a href="#cite_note-MarylandArchives2005-67">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[62]</a> All were held without trial, with Lincoln ignoring a ruling on June 1, 1861, by Supreme Court Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_Taney" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Taney">Roger Taney</a>, not speaking for the Court,<a href="#cite_note-72">[h]</a> that only Congress could suspend habeas corpus (<a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Merryman" title="Ex parte Merryman">Ex parte Merryman</a>). Federal troops imprisoned a Baltimore newspaper editor, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Key_Howard" title="Frank Key Howard">Frank Key Howard</a>, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring Taney's ruling.<a href="#cite_note-73">[65]</a> In Missouri, an <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Constitutional_Convention_of_1861%E2%80%931863" title="Missouri Constitutional Convention of 1861–1863">elected convention</a> on secession voted to remain in the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor <a href="/wiki/Claiborne_Fox_Jackson" title="Claiborne Fox Jackson">Claiborne Fox Jackson</a> called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Lyon" title="Nathaniel Lyon">Nathaniel Lyon</a>, who chased the governor and rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of Missouri (see <a href="/wiki/Missouri_secession" title="Missouri secession">Missouri secession</a>). Early in the war the Confederacy controlled southern Missouri through the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_government_of_Missouri" title="Confederate government of Missouri">Confederate government of Missouri</a> but was driven out after 1862. In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.<a href="#cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._119%E2%80%93129-74">[66]</a> Kentucky did not secede, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status while maintaining slavery. During an invasion by Confederate forces in 1861, Confederate sympathizers and delegates from 68 Kentucky counties organized the secession Russellville Convention, formed the shadow <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Government_of_Kentucky" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Government of Kentucky">Confederate Government of Kentucky</a>, inaugurated a governor, and Kentucky was admitted into the Confederacy on December 10, 1861. Its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth, which at its greatest extent was over half the state, and it went into exile after October 1862.<a href="#cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._129%E2%80%93136-75">[67]</a> After Virginia's secession, a <a href="/wiki/Restored_Government_of_Virginia" title="Restored Government of Virginia">Unionist government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wheeling,_West_Virginia" title="Wheeling, West Virginia">Wheeling</a> asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state in October 1861. A voter turnout of 34% approved the statehood bill (96% approving).<a href="#cite_note-76">[68]</a> Twenty-four secessionist counties were included in the new state,<a href="#cite_note-Curry1964-77">[69]</a> and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 federal troops for much of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988303-78">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeigley200455-79">[71]</a> Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginians provided about 20,000 soldiers to each side in the war.<a href="#cite_note-Snell2011-80">[72]</a> A Unionist secession attempt occurred in <a href="/wiki/East_Tennessee" title="East Tennessee">East Tennessee</a>, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of loyalty to the Union; they were held without trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeely199310%E2%80%9311-81">[73]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="War">War</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">List of American Civil War battles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Military leadership in the American Civil War</a></div> The Civil War was marked by intense and frequent battles. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, along with many smaller actions, often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Keegan" title="John Keegan">John Keegan</a> described it as "one of the most ferocious wars ever fought," where, in many cases, the only target was the enemy's soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-82">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobilization">Mobilization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Economic history of the American Civil War">Economic history of the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt='Building on fire as rioters look on, one holds a sign that says "no draft"' src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/180px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/180px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg" data-alt='Building on fire as rioters look on, one holds a sign that says "no draft"' data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/270px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/360px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Rioters attacking a building during the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York anti-draft riots</a> of 1863</figcaption></figure> As the Confederate states organized, the U.S. Army numbered 16,000, while Northern governors began mobilizing their militias.<a href="#cite_note-84">[76]</a> The Confederate Congress authorized up to 100,000 troops in February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for another 100,000 soldiers for one year or the duration, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.<a href="#cite_note-85">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulter1950308-86">[78]</a> In the first year of the war, both sides had more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, relying on young men who came of age each year was not enough. Both sides enacted draft laws (conscription) to encourage or force volunteering, though relatively few were drafted. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for men aged 18–35, with exemptions for overseers, government officials, and clergymen. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within states that could not meet their quota with volunteers. European <a href="/wiki/History_of_Immigration_to_the_United_States#1850_to_1930" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Immigration to the United States">immigrants</a> joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-87">[79]</a> About 50,000 Canadians served, around 2,500 of whom were black.<a href="#cite_note-88">[80]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited to meet state quotas. States and local communities offered higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the draft law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a> in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">city's Democratic political machine</a>, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_89-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchecter2007%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-89">[81]</a> Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who were conscripted.<a href="#cite_note-Murdock1971-90">[82]</a> In the North and South, draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.<a href="#cite_note-91">[83]</a> At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, about 10 percent of the total. Southern desertion was high because many soldiers were more concerned about the fate of their local area than the Southern cause.<a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a> In the North, "<a href="/wiki/Bounty_jumper" title="Bounty jumper">bounty jumpers</a>" enlisted to collect the generous bonus, deserted, then re-enlisted under a different name for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.<a href="#cite_note-Fantina2006-93">[85]</a> From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies grew into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. Some European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional,<a href="#cite_note-94">[86]</a> but historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian, and Russian armies, and without the Atlantic, could have threatened any of them with defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan200957-95">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Unionists">Southern Unionists</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionist" title="Southern Unionist">Southern Unionist</a></div> Unionism was strong in certain areas within the Confederacy. As many as 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control served in the Union Army or pro-Union guerrilla groups. Although they came from all classes, most Southern Unionists differed socially, culturally, and economically from their region’s dominant prewar, slave-owning planter class.<a href="#cite_note-96">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prisoners">Prisoners</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">American Civil War prison camps</a></div> At the war's start, a parole system operated, under which captives agreed not to fight until exchanged. They were held in camps run by their army, paid, but not allowed to perform any military duties.<a href="#cite_note-97">[89]</a> The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons, accounting for 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite20101466-98">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military#United_States" title="Women in the military">Women in the military § United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gender_issues_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Gender issues in the American Civil War">Gender issues in the American Civil War</a></div> Historian <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_D._Leonard" title="Elizabeth D. Leonard">Elizabeth D. Leonard</a> writes that between 500 and 1,000 women enlisted as soldiers on both sides, disguised as men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard1999165,_310%E2%80%93311-99">[91]</a> Women also served as spies, resistance activists, nurses, and hospital personnel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard1999240-100">[92]</a> Women served on the Union hospital ship <a href="/wiki/USS_Red_Rover" title="USS Red Rover">Red Rover</a> and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Edwards_Walker" title="Mary Edwards Walker">Mary Edwards Walker</a>, the only woman ever to receive the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a>, served in the Union Army and was given the medal for treating the wounded during the war.<a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a> One woman, Jennie Hodgers, fought for the Union under the name Albert D. J. Cashier. After she returned to civilian life, she continued to live as a man until she died in 1915 at the age of 71.<a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_tactics">Naval tactics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Painting of land battle scene in foreground and naval battle with sinking ships in background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1736" data-file-height="1229"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg" data-alt="Painting of land battle scene in foreground and naval battle with sinking ships in background" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Hampton_Roads_3g01752u.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Battle between the <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS Monitor</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Merrimack_(1855)" title="USS Merrimack (1855)">Merrimack</a></figcaption></figure> The small <a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">U.S. Navy</a> of 1861 rapidly expanded to 6,000 officers and 45,000 sailors by 1865, with 671 vessels totaling 510,396 tons.<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite2010462-106">[98]</a> Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, control the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_107-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanney1998%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-107">[99]</a> The main riverine war was fought in the West, where major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually controlled the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy shelled Confederate forts and supported coastal army operations.<a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a> The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution, leading to naval innovations, notably the <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship">ironclad warship</a>. The Confederacy, recognizing the need to counter the Union's naval superiority, built or converted over 130 vessels, including 26 ironclads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson200592-109">[101]</a> Despite these efforts, Confederate ships were largely unsuccessful against Union ironclads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989300-110">[102]</a> The Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards in Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built or modified <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> The Confederacy experimented with the submarine <a href="/wiki/H._L._Hunley_(submarine)" title="H. L. Hunley (submarine)">CSS Hunley</a>, which was not successful, and with the ironclad <a href="/wiki/CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS Virginia</a>, rebuilt from the sunken Union ship <a href="/wiki/USS_Merrimack_(1855)" title="USS Merrimack (1855)">Merrimack</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> On March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage on the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day, the first Union ironclad, <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS Monitor</a>, arrived to challenge it in the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>. The resulting three-hour <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Battle of Hampton Roads</a> was a draw, proving ironclads were effective warships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2005345-113">[105]</a> The Confederacy scuttled the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. The Confederacy's efforts to obtain warships from <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Great Britain</a> failed, as Britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation at war with a stronger enemy and feared souring relations with the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller200836-114">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Union_blockade">Union blockade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union blockade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scott-anaconda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A cartoon map of the South surrounded by a snake." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scott-anaconda.jpg/220px-Scott-anaconda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5248" data-file-height="4382"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 184px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scott-anaconda.jpg/220px-Scott-anaconda.jpg" data-alt="A cartoon map of the South surrounded by a snake." data-width="220" data-height="184" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scott-anaconda.jpg/330px-Scott-anaconda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scott-anaconda.jpg/440px-Scott-anaconda.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>General Scott's <a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a>, featuring a tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia.</figcaption></figure> By early 1861, General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> had devised the <a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a> to win the war with minimal bloodshed, calling for a blockade of the Confederacy to suffocate the South into surrender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichter200949-115">[107]</a> Lincoln adopted parts of the plan but opted for a more active war strategy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1998228-116">[108]</a> In April 1861, Lincoln announced a blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance, ending regular traffic. The South blundered by embargoing cotton exports before the blockade was fully effective; by the time they reversed this decision, it was too late. "<a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a>" was dead, as the South could export less than 10% of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989288%E2%80%93289,_296%E2%80%93298-117">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blockade_runners">Blockade runners</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners of the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Panoramic view of ships in harbor during battle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg/300px-First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="117" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="350"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 117px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg/300px-First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg" data-alt="Panoramic view of ships in harbor during battle" data-width="300" data-height="117" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg/450px-First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg/600px-First_Charleston_Harbor.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Gunline of nine Union ironclads. <a href="/wiki/Union_blockade#South_Atlantic_Blockading_Squadron" title="Union blockade">South Atlantic Blockading Squadron</a> off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production. </figcaption></figure> The Confederates began the war short on military supplies, which the agrarian South could not produce. Northern arms manufacturers were restricted by an embargo, ending existing and future contracts with the South. The Confederacy turned to foreign sources, connecting with financiers and companies like <a href="/wiki/S._Isaac,_Campbell_%26_Company" title="S. Isaac, Campbell & Company">S. Isaac, Campbell & Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/London_Armoury_Company" title="London Armoury Company">London Armoury Company</a> in Britain, becoming the Confederacy's main source of arms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWise199149-118">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelsohn201243%E2%80%9344-119">[111]</a> To transport arms safely to the Confederacy, British investors built small, fast, steam-driven <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">blockade runners</a> that traded arms and supplies from Britain, through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in exchange for high-priced cotton. Many were lightweight and designed for speed, only carrying small amounts of cotton back to England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern1962224%E2%80%93225-120">[112]</a> When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a <a href="/wiki/Prize_of_war" title="Prize of war">prize of war</a> and sold, with proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen, mostly British, were released.<a href="#cite_note-121">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_impact">Economic impact</h4></div> The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war due to multiple factors: severe food shortages, failing railroads, loss of control over key rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate forces.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_122-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWise1991%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-122">[114]</a> Historians agree the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues blockade runners provided enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to supplies like 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_122-1' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWise1991%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-122">[114]</a> Surdam contends that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, costing few lives in combat. The Confederate cotton crop became nearly useless, cutting off the Confederacy's primary income source. Critical imports were scarce, and coastal trade largely ended as well.<a href="#cite_note-123">[115]</a> The blockade's success was not measured by the few ships that slipped through but by the thousands that never tried. European merchant ships could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade, so they stopped calling at Confederate ports.<a href="#cite_note-124">[116]</a> To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased arms in Britain and converted British-built ships into <a href="/wiki/Commerce_raider" class="mw-redirect" title="Commerce raider">commerce raiders</a>. The smuggling of 600,000 arms enabled the Confederacy to fight on for two more years,<a href="#cite_note-125">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a> and the commerce raiders targeted <a href="/wiki/U.S._Merchant_Marine" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Merchant Marine">U.S. Merchant Marine</a> ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates soared, and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters, though reflagging ships with European flags allowed them to continue operating unmolested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989300-110">[102]</a> After the war, the U.S. government demanded Britain compensate it for the damage caused by blockade runners and raiders outfitted in British ports. Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871, but only for commerce raiding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2002225-127">[119]</a> Dinçaslan argues that another outcome of the blockade was the rise of oil as a prominent commodity. The declining whale oil industry took a blow as many old whaling ships were used in blockade efforts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Fleet" title="Stone Fleet">Stone Fleet</a>, and Confederate raiders harassed Union whalers. Oil products, especially kerosene, began replacing whale oil in lamps, increasing oil's importance long before it became fuel for combustion engines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDin%C3%A7aslan202273-128">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy of the American Civil War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="United Kingdom and the American Civil War">United Kingdom and the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/France_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="France and the American Civil War">France and the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_London_Punch;_cartoons,_comments_and_poems,_published_in_the_London_charivari,_during_the_American_Civil_War_(1861-1865)_(1909)_(14782634093).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_London_Punch%3B_cartoons%2C_comments_and_poems%2C_published_in_the_London_charivari%2C_during_the_American_Civil_War_%281861-1865%29_%281909%29_%2814782634093%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="1814"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_London_Punch%3B_cartoons%2C_comments_and_poems%2C_published_in_the_London_charivari%2C_during_the_American_Civil_War_%281861-1865%29_%281909%29_%2814782634093%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_London_Punch%3B_cartoons%2C_comments_and_poems%2C_published_in_the_London_charivari%2C_during_the_American_Civil_War_%281861-1865%29_%281909%29_%2814782634093%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_London_Punch%3B_cartoons%2C_comments_and_poems%2C_published_in_the_London_charivari%2C_during_the_American_Civil_War_%281861-1865%29_%281909%29_%2814782634093%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A December 1861 cartoon in Punch magazine in London ridicules American aggressiveness in the <a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a>, at right, warns <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a>, "You do what's right, my son, or I'll blow you out of the water."</figcaption></figure> Although the Confederacy hoped Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, so they sought to bring them in as mediators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988546%E2%80%93557-129">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2011237-130">[122]</a> The Union worked to block this and threatened war if any country recognized the Confederacy. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war, but this failed. Worse, Europe turned to Egypt and India for cotton, which they found superior, hindering the South's post-war recovery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988386-131">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._263%E2%80%93264-132">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cotton_diplomacy" title="Cotton diplomacy">Cotton diplomacy</a> proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports critically important. It also helped turn European opinion against the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton," as U.S. grain went from a quarter to almost half of British imports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988386-131">[123]</a> Meanwhile, the war created jobs for arms makers, ironworkers, and ships to transport weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._263%E2%80%93264-132">[124]</a> Lincoln's administration initially struggled to appeal to European public opinion. At first, diplomats explained that the U.S. was not committed to ending slavery and emphasized legal arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, however, focused on their struggle for liberty, commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle201569%E2%80%9370-133">[125]</a> The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle20158-134">[126]</a> However, a European public with liberal sensibilities remained, which the U.S. sought to appeal to by building connections with the international press. By 1861, Union diplomats like <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schurz" title="Carl Schurz">Carl Schurz</a> realized emphasizing the war against slavery was the Union's most effective moral asset in swaying European public opinion. Seward was concerned an overly radical case for reunification would distress European merchants with cotton interests; even so, he supported a widespread campaign of public diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle201570%E2%80%9374-135">[127]</a> U.S. <a href="/wiki/Ambassador" title="Ambassador">minister</a> to Britain <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Francis Adams, Sr.">Charles Francis Adams</a> proved adept and convinced Britain not to challenge the Union blockade. The Confederacy purchased warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain, with the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/CSS_Alabama" title="CSS Alabama">CSS Alabama</a>, which caused considerable damage and led to serious <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">postwar disputes</a>. However, public opinion against slavery in Britain created a political liability for politicians, where the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">anti-slavery movement</a> was powerful.<a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the <a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent affair</a>, which began when U.S. Navy personnel boarded the British ship <a href="/wiki/RMS_Trent" title="RMS Trent">Trent</a> and seized two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington smoothed this over after Lincoln released the two men.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-137">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert, Prince Consort">Prince Albert</a> left his deathbed to <a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair#British_reaction_(November_27_%E2%80%93_December_31,_1861)" title="Trent Affair">issue diplomatic instructions</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lord_Lyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Lyons">Lord Lyons</a> during the Trent affair. His request was honored, and, as a result, the British response to the U.S. was toned down, helping avert war.<a href="#cite_note-138">[130]</a> In 1862, the British government considered mediating between the Union and Confederacy, though such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Lord_Palmerston" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a> reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding what his decision would be.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-137">[129]</a> The Union victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a> caused the British to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation increased the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Realizing that Washington could not intervene in <a href="/wiki/Second_Federal_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Second Federal Republic of Mexico">Mexico</a> as long as the Confederacy controlled Texas, <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">France invaded Mexico</a> in 1861 and installed the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg</a> Austrian archduke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I_of_Mexico" title="Maximilian I of Mexico">Maximilian I</a> as emperor.<a href="#cite_note-139">[131]</a> Washington repeatedly protested France's violation of the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred it from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">Polish revolt against Russia</a> further distracted the European powers and ensured they remained neutral.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2011261-140">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> supported the Union, largely because it believed the U.S. served as a counterbalance to its geopolitical rival, the U.K. In 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a>'s Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Eastern_theater">Eastern theater</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern theater of the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater,_Year.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Map of the United States with counties colored" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png/330px-American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="196" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="659"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 196px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png/330px-American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png" data-alt="Map of the United States with counties colored" data-width="330" data-height="196" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png/495px-American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png/660px-American_Civil_War_Battles_by_Theater%2C_Year.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a> map of Civil War battles by theater and year</figcaption></figure> The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>, including Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army_of_the_Potomac">Army of the Potomac</h4></div> Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> took command of the Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac" title="Army of the Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a> on July 26, 1861, and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson198991-143">[135]</a> <ol><li>McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.</li> <li>Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.</li> <li>The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.</li> <li>The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army_of_Northern_Virginia">Army of Northern Virginia</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Old man with gray beard and military uniform" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg/180px-Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="266" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2807" data-file-height="4154"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 266px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg/180px-Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg" data-alt="Old man with gray beard and military uniform" data-width="180" data-height="266" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg/270px-Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg/360px-Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></figcaption></figure> The primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia" title="Army of Northern Virginia">Army of Northern Virginia</a>. The Army originated as the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Army_of_the_Potomac" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Army of the Potomac">(Confederate) Army of the Potomac</a>, which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in Northern Virginia. On July 20 and 21, the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Shenandoah_(Confederate)" title="Army of the Shenandoah (Confederate)">Army of the Shenandoah</a> and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Northwest_(Confederate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of the Northwest (Confederate)">Army of the Northwest</a> were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed Army of Northern Virginia on March 14. The <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Peninsula" title="Army of the Peninsula">Army of the Peninsula</a> was merged into it on April 12, 1862. When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. Lee's biographer, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_S._Freeman" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas S. Freeman">Douglas S. Freeman</a>, asserts that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862.<a href="#cite_note-144">[136]</a> However, Freeman does admit that Lee corresponded with Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">Joseph E. Johnston</a>, his predecessor in army command, before that date and referred to Johnston's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia (as of October 22, 1861) and the name Army of Northern Virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent department's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but it is clear the organization of units as of March 14 was the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and thus it is generally referred to today as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect. On July 4 at Harper's Ferry, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas J. Jackson">Thomas J. Jackson</a> assigned <a href="/wiki/Jeb_Stuart" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeb Stuart">Jeb Stuart</a> to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah. He eventually commanded the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battles">Battles</h3></div> In July 1861, in of the first highly visible battles, Union troops under the command of <a href="/wiki/Maj._Gen." class="mw-redirect" title="Maj. Gen.">Maj. Gen.</a> <a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">Irvin McDowell</a> attacking Confederate forces led by Beauregard near Washington were repulsed at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">First Battle of Bull Run</a>. The Union had the upper hand at first, nearly pushing Confederate forces holding a defensive position into a rout, but Confederate reinforcements under Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the <a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley" title="Shenandoah Valley">Shenandoah Valley</a> by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Brigade" title="Stonewall Brigade">brigade of Virginians</a> under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Military_Institute" title="Virginia Military Institute">Virginia Military Institute</a>, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson's receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall". Upon the urging of Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Peninsula" title="Virginia Peninsula">peninsula</a> between the <a href="/wiki/York_River_(Virginia)" title="York River (Virginia)">York River</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_River" title="James River">James River</a>, southeast of Richmond. McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoote1974464%E2%80%93519-145">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Catton-146">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988424%E2%80%93427-147">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Painting of battlefield scene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg/220px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9608" data-file-height="6968"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg/220px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg" data-alt="Painting of battlefield scene" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg/330px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg/440px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_Battle_of_Antietam.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a>, the Civil War's deadliest one-day fight</figcaption></figure> Also in the spring of 1862, in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson led his <a href="/wiki/Valley_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley Campaign">Valley Campaign</a>. Audaciously employing rapid, unpredictable movements on interior lines, Jackson's 17,000 troops marched 646 miles (1,040 km) in 48 days and won minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies (52,000 men), including those of <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_P._Banks" title="Nathaniel P. Banks">Nathaniel P. Banks</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fremont" class="mw-redirect" title="John C. Fremont">John C. Fremont</a>, preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson's men earned them the nickname of "<a href="/wiki/Foot_cavalry" title="Foot cavalry">foot cavalry</a>". Johnston halted McClellan's advance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Battle of Seven Pines</a>, but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. Lee and top subordinates <a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">James Longstreet</a> and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days Battles</a> and forced his retreat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988538%E2%80%93544-148">[140]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Virginia Campaign">Northern Virginia Campaign</a>, which included the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">Second Battle of Bull Run</a>, ended in yet another victory for the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988528%E2%80%93533-149">[141]</a> McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">John Pope's</a> Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Virginia" title="Army of Virginia">Army of Virginia</a>, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a> Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North with the <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Campaign">Maryland Campaign</a>. Lee led 45,000 troops of the Army of Northern Virginia across the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a> into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near <a href="/wiki/Sharpsburg,_Maryland" title="Sharpsburg, Maryland">Sharpsburg</a>, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in US military history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988538%E2%80%93544-148">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988543%E2%80%93545-151">[143]</a> Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988557%E2%80%93558-152">[144]</a> When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Ambrose Burnside</a>. Burnside was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Battle of Fredericksburg</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988571%E2%80%93574-153">[145]</a> on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights.<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a> After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Joseph Hooker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Cavalry charges on a battlefield" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/220px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9656" data-file-height="7000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/220px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg" data-alt="Cavalry charges on a battlefield" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/330px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg/440px-Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge" title="Pickett's Charge">Pickett's Charge</a></figcaption></figure> Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, his Chancellorsville Campaign proved ineffective, and he was humiliated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Battle of Chancellorsville</a> in May 1863.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988639%E2%80%93645-156">[148]</a> Chancellorsville is known as Lee's "perfect battle" because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the left arm and right hand by friendly fire during the battle. The arm was amputated, but he died of pneumonia.<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a> Lee famously said: "He has lost his left arm, but I have lost my right arm."<a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> The fiercest fighting of the battle—and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War—occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, <a href="/wiki/John_Sedgwick" title="John Sedgwick">John Sedgwick</a> advanced across the <a href="/wiki/Rappahannock_River" title="Rappahannock River">Rappahannock River</a>, defeated the small Confederate force at Marye's Heights in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Second Battle of Fredericksburg">Second Battle of Fredericksburg</a>, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a successful delaying action at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salem_Church" title="Battle of Salem Church">Battle of Salem Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a> Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">George Meade</a> during Lee's <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gettysburg Campaign">second invasion of the North</a>, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a> (July 1863).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988653%E2%80%93663-160">[152]</a> This was the bloodiest battle and has been called the war's <a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">turning point</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge" title="Pickett's Charge">Pickett's Charge</a> on July 3 is considered the <a href="/wiki/High-water_mark_of_the_Confederacy" title="High-water mark of the Confederacy">high-water mark of the Confederacy</a> because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties, versus Meade's 23,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988664-161">[153]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Western_theater">Western theater</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western theater of the American Civil War</a></div> The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, North Carolina, Kentucky, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bowery2014-162">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_2">Background</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army_of_the_Tennessee_and_Army_of_the_Cumberland">Army of the Tennessee and Army of the Cumberland</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_(4228634580).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg/180px-Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="245" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2204" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 245px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg/180px-Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="245" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg/270px-Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg/360px-Gen._Ulysses_S._Grant_%284228634580%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></figcaption></figure> The primary Union forces in this theater were the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Tennessee" title="Army of the Tennessee">Army of the Tennessee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Cumberland" title="Army of the Cumberland">Army of the Cumberland</a>, named for the two rivers, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_River" title="Tennessee River">Tennessee River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cumberland_River" title="Cumberland River">Cumberland River</a>. After Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BattlefieldTrust-163">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army_of_Tennessee">Army of Tennessee</h4></div> The primary Confederate force in the Western theater was the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Tennessee" title="Army of Tennessee">Army of Tennessee</a>. The army was formed on November 20, 1862, when General <a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Braxton Bragg</a> renamed the former <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Mississippi" title="Army of Mississippi">Army of Mississippi</a>. While the Confederate forces had successes in the Eastern theater, they were defeated many times in the West.<a href="#cite_note-Bowery2014-162">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battles_2">Battles</h3></div> The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Henry" title="Battle of Fort Henry">Henry</a> (February 6, 1862) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Donelson</a> (February 11 to 16, 1862), earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. With these victories the Union gained control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988405%E2%80%93413-164">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a> rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland. <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a> and central Tennessee thus fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Confederate general <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Leonidas Polk</a>'s invasion of <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Kentucky" title="Columbus, Kentucky">Columbus</a> ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Andrew Hull Foote</a>'s gunboats of the Western Flotilla, to threaten the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" at Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of west Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.<a href="#cite_note-165">[157]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Battle of Shiloh</a>, in Shiloh, Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed reinforcements, and Grant counterattacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would occur repeatedly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankReaves2003170-166">[158]</a> The Confederates lost <a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">Albert Sidney Johnston</a>, considered their finest general before the emergence of Lee.<a href="#cite_note-167">[159]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chickamauga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chickamauga.jpg/220px-Chickamauga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="7707" data-file-height="5526"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chickamauga.jpg/220px-Chickamauga.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chickamauga.jpg/330px-Chickamauga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chickamauga.jpg/440px-Chickamauga.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Battle of Chickamauga</a>, the highest two-day losses</figcaption></figure> One of the early Union objectives was to capture the Mississippi River to cut the Confederacy in half. The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Island_Number_Ten" title="Battle of Island Number Ten">Island No. 10</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Madrid,_Missouri" title="New Madrid, Missouri">New Madrid</a>, Missouri, and then <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988418%E2%80%93420-168">[160]</a> In April 1862, the Union Navy <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_New_Orleans" title="Capture of New Orleans">captured New Orleans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988418%E2%80%93420-168">[160]</a> "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South's largest port [and] greatest industrial center."<a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a> U.S. Naval forces under <a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a> ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESymondsClipson200192-170">[162]</a> which allowed Union forces to move up the Mississippi. <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Memphis" title="First Battle of Memphis">Memphis fell to Union forces</a> on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg</a>, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a> Bragg's second invasion of Kentucky in the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Heartland_Offensive" title="Confederate Heartland Offensive">Confederate Heartland Offensive</a> included initial successes such as <a href="/wiki/Kirby_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirby Smith">Kirby Smith</a>'s triumph at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Richmond" title="Battle of Richmond">Battle of Richmond</a> and the capture of the Kentucky capital of Frankfort on September 3, 1862.<a href="#cite_note-172">[164]</a> However, the campaign ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Don Carlos Buell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Battle of Perryville</a>. Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat, due to lack of logistical support and infantry recruits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988419%E2%80%93420-173">[165]</a> Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">William Rosecrans</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Battle of Stones River</a> in Tennessee, the culmination of the <a href="/wiki/Stones_River_Campaign" title="Stones River Campaign">Stones River Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988480%E2%80%93483-174">[166]</a> Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicksburg Campaign">Vicksburg Campaign</a> that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vicksburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vicksburg">Battle of Vicksburg</a> in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi and is one of the turning points of the war.<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[168]</a> The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Battle of Chickamauga</a>. After Rosecrans' successful <a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tullahoma Campaign">Tullahoma Campaign</a>, Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. <a href="/wiki/First_Corps,_Army_of_Northern_Virginia" title="First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia">James Longstreet's corps</a>, defeated Rosecrans, despite the defensive stand of Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">George Henry Thomas</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Rosecrans retreated to <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga">Chattanooga</a>, which Bragg then besieged in the <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga Campaign">Chattanooga Campaign</a>. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988677%E2%80%93680-177">[169]</a> eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his <a href="/wiki/Knoxville_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Knoxville Campaign">Knoxville Campaign</a> and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.<a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Trans-Mississippi_theater">Trans-Mississippi theater</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_3">Background</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi theater</a> refers to military operations west of the Mississippi, encompassing most of Missouri, <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>, most of Louisiana, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Department" title="Trans-Mississippi Department">Trans-Mississippi District</a> was formed by the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</a> to better coordinate <a href="/wiki/Ben_McCulloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben McCulloch">Ben McCulloch</a>'s command of troops in Arkansas and Louisiana, <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Sterling Price</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Missouri_State_Guard" title="Missouri State Guard">Missouri State Guard</a>, as well as the portion of Earl Van Dorn's command that included the Indian Territory and excluded the Army of the West. The Union's command was the Trans-Mississippi Division, or the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_West_Mississippi" title="Army of West Mississippi">Military Division of West Mississippi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20111476-179">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battles_3">Battles</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_(rotate).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg/220px-Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3440" data-file-height="2236"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg/220px-Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg/330px-Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg/440px-Wilson%27s_Creek_charge_of_1st_Iowa_%28rotate%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Lyon" title="Nathaniel Lyon">Nathaniel Lyon</a> secured docks and arsenal in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>, leading <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> forces to expel the Missouri Confederate forces and government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009100-180">[172]</a></figcaption></figure> The first battle of the Trans-Mississippi theater was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Battle of Wilson's Creek</a> (August 1861). The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Battle of Pea Ridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988404%E2%80%93405-181">[173]</a> Extensive <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.<a href="#cite_note-182">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[175]</a> Roving Confederate bands such as <a href="/wiki/Quantrill%27s_Raiders" title="Quantrill's Raiders">Quantrill's Raiders</a> terrorized the countryside, striking military installations and civilian settlements.<a href="#cite_note-184">[176]</a> The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be driven out of Missouri, until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide antiwar movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote to win re-election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009270-185">[177]</a> Small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico Territory</a> for the Union. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glorieta_Pass" title="Battle of Glorieta Pass">Battle of Glorieta Pass</a> was the decisive battle of the <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="New Mexico Campaign">New Mexico Campaign</a>. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy but fewer for the Union.<a href="#cite_note-186">[178]</a> The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Stand Watie</a>, the last Confederate general to surrender.<a href="#cite_note-187">[179]</a> After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, Jefferson Davis informed General Kirby Smith in Texas that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union, in turn, did not directly engage him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009220%E2%80%93221-188">[180]</a> Its 1864 <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Red River Campaign">Red River Campaign</a> to take Shreveport, Louisiana, failed and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.<a href="#cite_note-189">[181]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Lower_seaboard_theater">Lower seaboard theater</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_4">Background</h3></div> The lower seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast as well as the southern part of the Mississippi. Union naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.<a href="#cite_note-190">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battles_4">Battles</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3312" data-file-height="2352"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Naval_Triumph_on_the_Mississippi_below_New_Orleans_1862_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip#Surrender_of_New_Orleans_and_the_forts" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans captured</a></figcaption></figure> One of the earliest battles was fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Royal" title="Battle of Port Royal">Port Royal Sound</a> (November 1861), south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston</a>. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches: by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each attack. A famous land attack was the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Fort_Wagner" title="Second Battle of Fort Wagner">Second Battle of Fort Wagner</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/54th_Massachusetts_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="54th Massachusetts Infantry">54th Massachusetts Infantry</a> took part. The Union suffered a serious defeat, losing 1,515 soldiers while the Confederates lost only 174. However, the 54th was hailed for its valor, which encouraged the general acceptance of the recruitment of African American soldiers into the Union Army, which reinforced the Union's numerical advantage.<a href="#cite_note-191">[183]</a> Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain <a href="/wiki/Quincy_Adams_Gillmore" title="Quincy Adams Gillmore">Quincy Adams Gillmore</a>, forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing it.<a href="#cite_note-192">[184]</a> In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander <a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">David Dixon Porter</a> attacked <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">Forts Jackson and St. Philip</a>, which guarded the river approach to <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Major General <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Benjamin Butler</a> landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast".<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> The following year, the Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Gulf" title="Army of the Gulf">Army of the Gulf</a> commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks laid <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Hudson" title="Siege of Port Hudson">siege to Port Hudson</a> for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in US military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the <a href="/wiki/Bayou_Teche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayou Teche Campaign">Bayou Teche Campaign</a> but surrendered after Vicksburg. These surrenders gave the Union control over the Mississippi.<a href="#cite_note-BattlefieldTrust-163">[155]</a> Several small skirmishes but no major battles were fought in Florida. The biggest was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olustee" title="Battle of Olustee">Battle of Olustee</a> in early 1864.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Pacific_coast_theater">Pacific coast theater</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War</a></div> The Pacific coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Conquest_of_Virginia">Conquest of Virginia</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg/180px-William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 228px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg/180px-William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="228" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg/270px-William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg/360px-William-Tecumseh-Sherman.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a></figcaption></figure> At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and put Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a> in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a> and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.<a href="#cite_note-195">[187]</a> This was total war not in killing civilians, but in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a> Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals Meade and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Benjamin Butler</a> were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General <a href="/wiki/Franz_Sigel" title="Franz Sigel">Franz Sigel</a> was to <a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">attack the Shenandoah Valley</a>, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the Atlantic Ocean, Generals <a href="/wiki/George_Crook" title="George Crook">George Crook</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_W._Averell" title="William W. Averell">William W. Averell</a> were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture <a href="/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama" title="Mobile, Alabama">Mobile</a>, Alabama.<a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grant's_Overland_Campaign">Grant's Overland Campaign</h3></div> Grant's army set out on the <a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland Campaign</a> intending to draw Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cold_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a>. These resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724%E2%80%93735-198">[190]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yellow_Tavern" title="Battle of Yellow Tavern">Battle of Yellow Tavern</a>, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988728-199">[191]</a> An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the <a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Bermuda Hundred Campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a> river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored those they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike them, Grant chose to fight on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Siege of Petersburg</a>, where the two armies engaged in <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a> for over nine months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724%E2%80%93742-200">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sheridan's_Valley_Campaign">Sheridan's Valley Campaign</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg/180px-Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1381"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg/180px-Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg/270px-Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg/360px-Philip_Sheridan_1-restored.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a></figcaption></figure> To deny the Confederacy continued use of the <a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley" title="Shenandoah Valley">Shenandoah Valley</a> as a base from which to launch invasions of Maryland and the Washington area, and to threaten Lee's supply lines for his forces, Grant launched the <a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley campaigns</a> in the spring of 1864. Initial efforts led by Gen. Sigel were repelled at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Market" title="Battle of New Market">Battle of New Market</a> by Confederate Gen. <a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a>. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory, and included a charge by teenage <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Military_Institute" title="Virginia Military Institute">VMI</a> cadets. After relieving Sigel, and following mixed performances by his successor, Grant finally found a commander, General <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a>, aggressive enough to prevail against the army of Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Jubal_A._Early" class="mw-redirect" title="Jubal A. Early">Jubal A. Early</a>. After a cautious start, Sheridan defeated Early in a series of battles in September and October 1864, including a decisive defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cedar_Creek" title="Battle of Cedar Creek">Battle of Cedar Creek</a>. Sheridan then proceeded through that winter to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988778%E2%80%93779-201">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sherman's_March_to_the_Sea">Sherman's March to the Sea</h3></div> Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">John Bell Hood</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">fall of Atlanta</a> on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988773%E2%80%93776-202">[194]</a> Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the <a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin–Nashville Campaign">Franklin–Nashville Campaign</a>. Union Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/John_Schofield" title="John Schofield">John Schofield</a> defeated Hood at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin" title="Battle of Franklin">Battle of Franklin</a>, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Battle of Nashville</a>, effectively destroying Hood's army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988812%E2%80%93815-203">[195]</a> Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched, with no destination set, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "<a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">March to the Sea</a>". He reached the Atlantic at <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a>, Georgia, in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the march. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina, to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988825%E2%80%93830-204">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Waterloo_of_the_Confederacy">The Waterloo of the Confederacy</h3></div> Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Battle of Five Forks</a> on April 1. The Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond–Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing the capital was now lost, Lee's army and the Confederate government were forced to evacuate. The Confederate capital fell on April 2–3, to the <a href="/wiki/XXV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXV Corps (Union Army)">Union XXV Corps</a>, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sayler%27s_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Sayler's Creek">Sayler's Creek</a> on April 6.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988846%E2%80%93847-205">[197]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="End_of_the_war">End of the war</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conclusion_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Conclusion of the American Civil War">Conclusion of the American Civil War</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:262px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png/175px-18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 175px;height: 263px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png/175px-18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png" data-alt="" data-width="175" data-height="263" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png/263px-18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png/350px-18650410_Surrender_of_General_Lee_and_His_Whole_Army_-_The_New_York_Times.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">This New York Times front page celebrated Lee's surrender, headlining how Grant let Confederate officers retain their sidearms and "paroled" the Confederate officers and men.<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:211px;max-width:211px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:262px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png/209px-18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png" decoding="async" width="209" height="262" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3765"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 209px;height: 262px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png/209px-18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png" data-alt="" data-width="209" data-height="262" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png/314px-18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png/418px-18650416_Lee_Has_Surrendered_to_Grant_-_Savannah_Daily_Herald.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">News of Lee's April 9 surrender reached this southern newspaper (Savannah, Georgia) on April 15—after the April 14 shooting of President Lincoln. The article quotes Grant's terms of surrender.<a href="#cite_note-207">[199]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at <a href="/wiki/Appomattox_Station" title="Appomattox Station">Appomattox Station</a>, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached the <a href="/wiki/Appomattox_Court_House_National_Historical_Park" title="Appomattox Court House National Historical Park">village of Appomattox Court House</a>, they were surrounded. After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House" title="Battle of Appomattox Court House">an initial battle</a>, Lee decided the fight was hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on April 9, 1865, during a conference at the <a href="/wiki/McLean_House_(Appomattox,_Virginia)" title="McLean House (Appomattox, Virginia)">McLean House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[201]</a> In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and horse, <a href="/wiki/Traveller_(horse)" title="Traveller (horse)">Traveller</a>. His men were <a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">paroled</a>, and a chain of Confederate surrenders began.<a href="#cite_note-210">[202]</a> On April 14, 1865, Lincoln <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">was shot</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</a>, a Confederate sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning. Lincoln's vice president, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, was unharmed, because his would-be assassin, <a href="/wiki/George_Atzerodt" title="George Atzerodt">George Atzerodt</a>, lost his nerve, so Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered, as news of Lee's surrender reached them.<a href="#cite_note-211">[i]</a> On April 26, the same day Sergeant <a href="/wiki/Boston_Corbett" title="Boston Corbett">Boston Corbett</a> killed Booth at a tobacco barn, Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 troops of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Tennessee" title="Army of Tennessee">Army of Tennessee</a> to Sherman at <a href="/wiki/Bennett_Place" title="Bennett Place">Bennett Place</a>, near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces. On May 4, all remaining Confederate forces in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana east of the Mississippi, under the command of Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Richard Taylor</a>, surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971685-212">[203]</a> Confederate president Davis was captured in retreat at <a href="/wiki/Irwinville,_Georgia" title="Irwinville, Georgia">Irwinville, Georgia</a> on May 10.<a href="#cite_note-213">[204]</a> The final land battle was fought on May 13, 1865, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Palmito_Ranch" title="Battle of Palmito Ranch">Battle of Palmito Ranch</a> in Texas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971688-214">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201568-215">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt20155-216">[207]</a> On May 26, 1865, Confederate Lt. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Simon_B._Buckner" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon B. Buckner">Simon B. Buckner</a>, acting for Edmund Smith, signed a military convention surrendering Confederate forces in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Department" title="Trans-Mississippi Department">Trans-Mississippi Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971690-217">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunkerly2015117-218">[209]</a> This date is often cited by contemporaries and historians as the effective end date of the war.<a href="#cite_note-End1-1">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-End2-2">[b]</a> On June 2, with most of his troops having already gone home, a reluctant Kirby Smith had little choice but to sign the official surrender document.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971692-219">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[211]</a> On June 23, <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> leader and Brig. General <a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Stand Watie</a> became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.<a href="#cite_note-221">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[213]</a> On June 19, 1865, Union Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Granger" title="Gordon Granger">Gordon Granger</a> announced <a href="/wiki/General_Order_No._3" title="General Order No. 3">General Order No. 3</a>, bringing the Emancipation Proclamation into effect in Texas and freeing the last slaves of the Confederacy.<a href="#cite_note-223">[214]</a> The anniversary of this date is now celebrated as <a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[215]</a> The naval part of the war ended more slowly. It had begun on April 11, two days after Lee's surrender, when Lincoln proclaimed that foreign nations had no further "claim or pretense" to deny equality of maritime rights and hospitalities to U.S. warships and, in effect, that rights extended to Confederate ships to use neutral ports as safe havens from U.S. warships should end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeff2010205-225">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-PresidencyProject1865a-226">[217]</a> Having no response to Lincoln's proclamation, President Johnson issued a similar proclamation dated May 10, more directly stating that the war was almost at an end and insurgent cruisers still at sea, and prepared to attack U.S. ships, should not have rights to do so through use of safe foreign ports or waters.<a href="#cite_note-PresidencyProject1865b-227">[218]</a> Britain finally responded on June 6, by transmitting a letter from Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">John Russell, 1st Earl Russell</a>, to the Lords of the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)" title="Admiralty (United Kingdom)">Admiralty</a> withdrawing rights to Confederate warships to enter British ports and waters.<a href="#cite_note-228">[219]</a> U.S. Secretary of State Seward welcomed the withdrawal of concessions to the Confederates.<a href="#cite_note-229">[220]</a> Finally, on October 18, Russell advised the Admiralty that the time specified in his June message had elapsed and "all measures of a restrictive nature on vessels of war of the United States in British ports, harbors, and waters, are now to be considered as at an end".<a href="#cite_note-230">[221]</a> Nonetheless, the final Confederate surrender was in Liverpool, England where <a href="/wiki/James_Iredell_Waddell" title="James Iredell Waddell">James Iredell Waddell</a>, the captain of <a href="/wiki/CSS_Shenandoah" title="CSS Shenandoah">CSS Shenandoah</a>, surrendered the cruiser to British authorities on November 6.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes2002703%E2%80%93706-231">[222]</a> Legally, the war did not end until August 20, 1866, when President Johnson issued a proclamation that declared "that the said insurrection is at an end and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority now exist in and throughout the whole of the United States of America".<a href="#cite_note-232">[j]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Union_victory">Union victory</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_war_1861-1865.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A map of the U.S. South showing shrinking territory under rebel control" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Civil_war_1861-1865.png/300px-Civil_war_1861-1865.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="898"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 199px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Civil_war_1861-1865.png/300px-Civil_war_1861-1865.png" data-alt="A map of the U.S. South showing shrinking territory under rebel control" data-width="300" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Civil_war_1861-1865.png/450px-Civil_war_1861-1865.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Civil_war_1861-1865.png/600px-Civil_war_1861-1865.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of Confederate territory losses year by year</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">causes of the war</a>, reasons for its outcome, and even <a href="/wiki/Naming_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Naming the American Civil War">its name</a> are subjects of lingering contention. The North and West grew wealthy while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich Southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second-class citizenship of the freedmen and their poverty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988851-233">[223]</a> Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a>, argue Confederate victory was possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988855-234">[224]</a> McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely, but not guaranteed. He argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, it would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.<a href="#cite_note-Boritt-235">[225]</a> Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only to fight a defensive war to convince the North the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.<a href="#cite_note-Boritt-235">[225]</a> Lincoln was not a military dictator and could fight only as long as the American public supported the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by outlasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, hope for a political victory for the South ended. Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he defeated the <a href="/wiki/Copperheads_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copperheads (politics)">Copperheads</a>, who had wanted a negotiated peace with the Confederacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988771%E2%80%93772-236">[226]</a> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ccc;"> <caption>Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864<a href="#cite_note-Manufactures1860-237">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carter2006-238">[228]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col">Year </th> <th scope="col">Union </th> <th scope="col">Confederacy </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Population </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>22,100,000 (71%) </td> <td>9,100,000 (29%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>28,800,000 (90%)<a href="#cite_note-UnionPop-239">[k]</a> </td> <td>3,000,000 (10%)<a href="#cite_note-240">[229]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Free </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>21,700,000 (98%) </td> <td>5,600,000 (62%) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Slave </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>490,000 (2%) </td> <td>3,550,000 (38%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>negligible </td> <td>1,900,000<a href="#cite_note-CSASlaves-241">[l]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Soldiers </td> <td>1860–64 </td> <td>2,100,000 (67%) </td> <td>1,064,000 (33%) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Railroad miles<a href="#cite_note-242">[230]</a> </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>21,800 (71%) </td> <td>8,800 (29%) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>29,100 (98%)<a href="#cite_note-244">[m]</a> </td> <td>negligible </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Manufactures </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>90% </td> <td>10% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>98% </td> <td>2% </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Arms production </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>97% </td> <td>3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>98% </td> <td>2% </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Cotton bales </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>negligible </td> <td>4,500,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>300,000 </td> <td>negligible </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Exports </td> <td>1860 </td> <td>30% </td> <td>70% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1864 </td> <td>98% </td> <td>2% </td></tr></tbody></table> Some scholars argue the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayBernsteinKnox1996235-245">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes20021207%E2%80%931210-246">[233]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Shelby_Foote" title="Shelby Foote">Shelby Foote</a> expressed this view succinctly: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back .... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard1990272-247">[234]</a></blockquote> A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as <a href="/wiki/E._Merton_Coulter" title="E. Merton Coulter">E. Merton Coulter</a> put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulter1950566-248">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[236]</a> However, most historians reject the argument.<a href="#cite_note-250">[237]</a> McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1997169%E2%80%93172-251">[238]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Gary_Gallagher" class="mw-redirect" title="Gary Gallagher">Gary Gallagher</a> cites General Sherman, who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let-up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."<a href="#cite_note-252">[239]</a> Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in articulating the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.<a href="#cite_note-Fehrenbacher2004-253">[240]</a> The Confederate government failed to get Europe involved militarily. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break the blockade the Union had created around Southern ports. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to slavery, along with Lincoln's naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that Britain or France would enter the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988382%E2%80%93388-254">[241]</a> Historian Don H. Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on world history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle2015-255">[242]</a> The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the 20th century and perhaps beyond.<a href="#cite_note-256">[243]</a></blockquote> Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.<a href="#cite_note-Dupont2018-257">[244]</a> The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.<a href="#cite_note-Dupont2018-257">[244]</a> However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South, than in the North.<a href="#cite_note-Dupont2018-257">[244]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Casualties">Casualties</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:542px;max-width:542px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg/128px-Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1733"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 128px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg/128px-Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="128" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg/192px-Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg/256px-Alfred_A._Stratton.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">One in thirteen veterans were amputees.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:180px;max-width:180px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_Harbor,_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg/178px-Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4400" data-file-height="3685"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 178px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg/178px-Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="178" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg/267px-Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg/356px-Cold_Harbor%2C_Va._African_Americans_collecting_bones.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Remains of both sides were reinterred.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:226px;max-width:226px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg/224px-Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 224px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg/224px-Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="224" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg/336px-Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg/448px-Andersonville_National_Cemetery.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Andersonville_National_Cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="Andersonville National Cemetery">Andersonville National Cemetery</a>, Georgia</div></div></div></div></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"> <caption>Casualties according to the US National Park Service<a href="#cite_note-NationalParkService-4">[2]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Category </th> <th scope="col">Union </th> <th scope="col">Confederate </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Killed in action </th> <td>110,100 </td> <td>94,000 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Disease </th> <td>224,580 </td> <td>164,000 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Wounded in action </th> <td>275,154 </td> <td>194,026 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Captured (inc those who died as POWs) </th> <td>211,411 (30,192) </td> <td>462,634 (31,000) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Total </th> <td>821,245 </td> <td>914,660 </td></tr></tbody></table> The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease—and 50,000 civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Nofi2001-13">[9]</a> J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.<a href="#cite_note-Hacker2011-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[245]</a> A novel way of calculating casualties, by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm, through analysis of census data, found at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died in the war.<a href="#cite_note-259">[246]</a> This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.<a href="#cite_note-260">[247]</a> As McPherson notes, the war's "cost in American lives was as great as in all of the nation's other wars combined through <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988854-261">[248]</a> Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white men aged 13–43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinovskis19907-262">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox2008-263">[250]</a> About 56,000 soldiers <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">died in prison camps</a> during the War.<a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographic2003-264">[251]</a> An estimated 60,000 soldiers lost limbs.<a href="#cite_note-265">[252]</a> Of the 359,528 Union Army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served:<a href="#cite_note-Fox1889-7">[5]</a> <ul><li>110,070 were killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).</li> <li>199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)</li> <li>24,866 died in Confederate prison camps</li> <li>9,058 were killed by accidents or drowning</li> <li>15,741 other/unknown deaths</li></ul> In addition, there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).<a href="#cite_note-DCAS-8">[6]</a> After the Emancipation Proclamation authorized freed slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States", former slaves who escaped from plantations or were liberated by the Union Army were recruited into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a> regiments of the Union Army, as were black men who had not been slaves. The US Colored Troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll—15 percent of Union deaths from disease and less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.<a href="#cite_note-Fox1889-7">[5]</a> Losses among <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a> were high. In the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military died during the war. Their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers. While 15 percent of US Volunteers and just 9 percent of white Regular Army troops died, 21 percent of US Colored Troops died.<a href="#cite_note-266">[253]</a>: 16 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg/220px-Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4152" data-file-height="2487"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 132px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg/220px-Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="132" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg/330px-Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg/440px-Burial_of_the_dead_on_the_Antietam_battlefield_army.mil-2008-09-10-145638.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An illustration of the war dead following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a> battlefield in 1862</figcaption></figure> While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only days or weeks later. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a>, superintendent of the 1870 census, used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, a total of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 percent and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.<a href="#cite_note-Hacker2011-16">[12]</a> Losses were far higher than during the war with Mexico, which saw roughly 13,000 American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths in the civil war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">charging</a>. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, <a href="/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_ball" title="Minié ball">Minié balls</a>, and (near the end of the war for the Union) repeating firearms such as the <a href="/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle" title="Spencer repeating rifle">Spencer repeating rifle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Henry_repeating_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry repeating rifle">Henry repeating rifle</a>, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-267">[254]</a> Deaths among former slaves has proven hard to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in areas where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. Professor <a href="/wiki/Jim_Downs" title="Jim Downs">Jim Downs</a> states that tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, or exposure, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.<a href="#cite_note-268">[255]</a> It is estimated that during the war, of the <a href="/wiki/Equines" class="mw-redirect" title="Equines">equines</a> killed, including horses, mules, donkeys and even confiscated children's <a href="/wiki/Ponies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponies">ponies</a>, over 32,600 of them belonged to the Union and 45,800 the Confederacy. However, other estimates place the total at 1,000,000.<a href="#cite_note-269">[256]</a> It is estimated that 544 <a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America" title="Flags of the Confederate States of America">Confederate flags</a> were captured during the war by the Union. The flags were sent to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> in Washington.<a href="#cite_note-270">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[258]</a> The Union flags captured by the Confederates were sent to Richmond.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Emancipation">Emancipation</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/440px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="595"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 440px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/440px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png" data-width="440" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/660px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/880px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Abolition of slavery in the various states over time:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Abolition of slavery during or shortly after the American Revolution</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> The Northwest Ordinance, 1787</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Gradual emancipation in New York (starting 1799, completed 1827) and New Jersey (starting 1804, completed by Thirteenth Amendment, 1865)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> The Missouri Compromise, 1821</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Effective abolition of slavery by Mexican or joint US/British authority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1862</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Emancipation Proclamation as originally issued, January 1, 1863</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Subsequent operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Abolition of slavery by state action during the Civil War</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1864</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Thirteenth Amendment to the US constitution, December 18, 1865</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Territory incorporated into the US after the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment</div></figcaption></figure> Abolishing slavery was not a Union war goal from the outset, but quickly became one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii-272">[259]</a> Lincoln's initial claims were that preserving the Union was the central goal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner201074-273">[260]</a> In contrast, the South fought to preserve slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii-272">[259]</a> While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery, most officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_274-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1981%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-274">[261]</a> However, as the war dragged on, and it became clear slavery was central to the conflict, and that emancipation was (to quote the Emancipation Proclamation) "a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing [the] rebellion," Lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal, culminating in the Emancipation Proclamation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii-272">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988506%E2%80%93508-275">[262]</a> Lincoln's decision to issue the Proclamation angered <a href="/wiki/Peace_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Democrats">Peace Democrats</a> ("Copperheads") and <a href="/wiki/War_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="War Democrats">War Democrats</a>, but energized most Republicans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988506%E2%80%93508-275">[262]</a> By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the <a href="/wiki/1862_congressional_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1862 congressional elections">1862 elections</a>, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the Northern state of Ohio, when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988686-276">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emancipation_Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></div> The Emancipation Proclamation legally freed the slaves in states "in rebellion," but, as a practical matter, slavery for the 3.5 million black people in the South effectively ended in each area when Union armies arrived. The last Confederate slaves were freed on June 19, 1865, celebrated as the modern holiday of Juneteenth. Slaves in the border states and those in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[265]</a> The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of undermining the legitimacy of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-280">[n]</a> During the war, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement, and emancipation in the United States was divided. Lincoln's fears of making slavery a war issue were based on a harsh reality: abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west, the territories, and the border states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonald1995417%E2%80%93419-281">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-282">[o]</a> In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."<a href="#cite_note-:4-282">[o]</a> Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of the total war needed to save the Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker2003-283">[268]</a> At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Simon_Cameron" title="Simon Cameron">Simon Cameron</a> and Generals <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Hunter" title="David Hunter">David Hunter</a>, to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his plan of gradual compensated emancipation and <a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">voluntary colonization</a> was rejected.<a href="#cite_note-284">[269]</a> But compensated emancipation occurred only in the District of Columbia, where Congress had the power to enact it. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, which would apply to the states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a Union military victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".<a href="#cite_note-285">[270]</a> Walter Stahr, however, writes, "There are contemporary sources, however, that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay", and Stahr quotes them.<a href="#cite_note-286">[271]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:334px;max-width:334px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg/332px-Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg" decoding="async" width="332" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1245" data-file-height="782"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 332px;height: 209px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg/332px-Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="332" data-height="209" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg/498px-Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg/664px-Contrabands_at_Headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_by_Mathew_Brady.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contrabands</a>, who were fugitive slaves, including cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews, fled to the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>, but were not legally freed until the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, which Lincoln signed on January 1, 1863, more than two years before the end of the Civil War.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg/152px-Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="711"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 152px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg/152px-Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="152" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg/228px-Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg/304px-Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">In 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> accepted <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">Freedmen</a>; seen here are black and white teenaged soldiers who volunteered to fight for the Union.</div></div></div></div></div> Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in response to <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a>'s "The Prayer of Twenty Millions"; the letter stated that Lincoln's goal was to save the Union, and that, if he freed the slaves, it would be as a means to that end.<a href="#cite_note-287">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[274]</a> He also had a meeting at the White House with five African American representatives on August 14, 1862. Arranging for a reporter to be present, he urged his visitors to agree to the voluntary colonization of black people. Lincoln's motive for both his letter to Greeley and his statement to the black visitors was apparently to make his forthcoming Emancipation Proclamation more palatable to racist <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[275]</a> A Union victory in the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, provided Lincoln with an opportunity to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, and the <a href="/wiki/War_Governors%27_Conference" title="War Governors' Conference">War Governors' Conference</a> added support for the proclamation.<a href="#cite_note-291">[276]</a> Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862. It stated that slaves in all states in rebellion on January 1, 1863, would be free. He issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, keeping his promise. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong .... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling .... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."<a href="#cite_note-292">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[p]</a> Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing the border states to remain in the Union and War Democrats to support the Union. The border states, which included Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware, and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk, Virginia</a>, and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. Nor was Tennessee, which had come under Union control.<a href="#cite_note-295">[279]</a> Missouri and Maryland abolished slavery on their own; Kentucky and Delaware did not.<a href="#cite_note-296">[280]</a> Still, the proclamation did not enjoy universal support. It caused much unrest in what were then considered western states, where racist sentiments led to a great fear of abolition. There was some concern that the proclamation would lead to the secession of western states, and its issuance prompted the stationing of Union troops in Illinois in case of rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonald1995417%E2%80%93419-281">[267]</a> Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it applied only in territory held by Confederates at the time it was issued. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.<a href="#cite_note-297">[281]</a> The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of being recognized or otherwise aided by Britain or France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsanteMazama200482-298">[282]</a> By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting the House of Representatives to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which mandated the ending of chattel slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolzerGabbard2007172%E2%80%93174-299">[283]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Reconstruction">Reconstruction</h2></div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/220px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1467" data-file-height="1118"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 168px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/220px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="168" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/330px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/440px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Through the supervision of the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a>, Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.</figcaption></figure> The war devastated the South and posed serious questions of how it would be reintegrated into the Union. The war destroyed much of the South's wealth, in part because wealth held in enslaved people (at least $1,000 each for a healthy adult prior to the war) was wiped off the books.<a href="#cite_note-300">[284]</a> All accumulated investment in Confederate bonds was forfeited; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. The income per person dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, and that lasted into the 20th century. Southern influence in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Economist2011-301">[285]</a> Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863, and it continued until 1877.<a href="#cite_note-302">[286]</a> It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the aftermath, the most important of which were the three "<a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a>" to the Constitution: the 13th outlawing slavery (1865), the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to former slaves (1868), and the 15th ensuring voting rights to former male slaves (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate victory by reuniting the Union, to guarantee a "republican form of government" for the ex-Confederate states, and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.<a href="#cite_note-303">[287]</a> President Johnson, who took office in April 1865, took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau_bills" title="Freedmen's Bureau bills">overrode Johnson's vetoes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">civil rights legislation</a>, and the House <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">impeached</a> him, although the Senate did not convict him. In 1868 and 1872, the Republican candidate Grant won the presidency. In 1872, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">"Liberal Republicans"</a> argued that the war goals had been achieved and Reconstruction should end. They chose <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley_1872_presidential_campaign" title="Horace Greeley 1872 presidential campaign">Horace Greeley</a> to head a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed further reconstruction. The <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a> closed with a national consensus, except on the part of former slaves, that the war had finally ended.<a href="#cite_note-304">[288]</a> With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature, and the Jim Crow era of <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a> and legal segregation was ushered in.<a href="#cite_note-305">[289]</a> The war had a demonstrable impact on American politics. Many veterans on both sides were elected to political office, including five U.S. Presidents: Ulysses Grant, <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-306">[290]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="Memory_and_historiography">Memory and historiography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:462px;max-width:462px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:221px;max-width:221px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/219px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg" decoding="async" width="219" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="585"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 219px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/219px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="219" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/329px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/438px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Stephenson_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_Memorial" title="Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial">Monument</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a>, a Union veteran organization</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:237px;max-width:237px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif/235px-Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif" decoding="async" width="235" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="353"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 235px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif/235px-Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif" data-alt="" data-width="235" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif/353px-Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif/470px-Cherokee_Confederates_Reunion.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee Confederates</a> reunion in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> in 1903</div></div></div></div></div> The war is a central event in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books, and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Joan_Waugh_and_Gary_W-307">[291]</a> The last theme includes moral evaluations of <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines, and issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Liberty" title="Empire of Liberty">Empire of Liberty</a>" influencing the world.<a href="#cite_note-Blight2001-308">[292]</a> Historians have paid more attention to the causes of the war than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns and who write for the general public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodworth1996208-309">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[294]</a> Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even the name used for the conflict has been controversial, with <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">many names used for it</a>. During and immediately after the war, Northern historians often used a term like "War of the Rebellion". Writers in rebel states often referred to the "War for Southern Independence". Some Southerners have described it as the "War of Northern Aggression".<a href="#cite_note-311">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lost_Cause">Lost Cause</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause of the Confederacy</a></div> The memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was just and heroic. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.<a href="#cite_note-Foster1988-312">[296]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_T._Nolan" title="Alan T. Nolan">Alan T. Nolan</a> notes that the Lost Cause was expressly a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery as a cause; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan200014%E2%80%9319-313">[297]</a> Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">"virulent racism" of the 19th century</a>, sacrificing black American progress to white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan200028%E2%80%9329-314">[298]</a> The Lost Cause myth was formalized by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, whose The Rise of American Civilization (1927) spawned "Beardian historiography". The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. Though this interpretation was abandoned by the Beards in the 1940s, and by historians generally by the 1950s, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.<a href="#cite_note-315">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title='Pinning the "formalization" of the Lost Cause myth on the Beards is a very bold claim; at best, other sources state that their orthogonal economic perspective served as an element for others to synthesize. (July 2023)'>additional citation(s) needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battlefield_preservation">Battlefield preservation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">American Civil War battlefield preservation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg/220px-Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="1617"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg/220px-Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg/330px-Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg/440px-Civil_War_centennial_issues.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Beginning in 1961, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">U.S. Post Office</a> released <a href="/wiki/Commemorative_stamp" title="Commemorative stamp">commemorative stamps</a> for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle.</figcaption></figure> The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war, with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861. The oldest surviving monument is the <a href="/wiki/Hazen_Brigade_Monument" title="Hazen Brigade Monument">Hazen Brigade Monument</a> near <a href="/wiki/Murfreesboro" class="mw-redirect" title="Murfreesboro">Murfreesboro</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Tennessee" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Tennessee">Central Tennessee</a>, built in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. <a href="/wiki/William_Babcock_Hazen" title="William Babcock Hazen">William B. Hazen's</a> brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead, following the Battle of Stones River.<a href="#cite_note-317">[301]</a> In the 1890s, the government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_and_Chattanooga_National_Military_Park" title="Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park">Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Oglethorpe,_Georgia" title="Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia">Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Antietam_National_Battlefield" title="Antietam National Battlefield">Antietam National Battlefield</a> in Sharpsburg, Maryland, in 1890. The <a href="/wiki/Shiloh_National_Military_Park" title="Shiloh National Military Park">Shiloh National Military Park</a> was established in 1894 in <a href="/wiki/Shiloh,_Hardin_County,_Tennessee" title="Shiloh, Hardin County, Tennessee">Shiloh, Tennessee</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_National_Military_Park" title="Gettysburg National Military Park">Gettysburg National Military Park</a> in 1895, and <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_National_Military_Park" title="Vicksburg National Military Park">Vicksburg National Military Park</a> in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the National Park Service.<a href="#cite_note-318">[302]</a> Chief among modern efforts to preserve Civil War sites has been the <a href="/wiki/American_Battlefield_Trust" title="American Battlefield Trust">American Battlefield Trust</a>, with more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.<a href="#cite_note-319">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[304]</a> The five major battlefield parks operated by the National Park Service had a combined 3 million visitors in 2018, down 70% from 10 million in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-321">[305]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemoration">Commemoration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration of the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War_on_postage_stamps" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps">Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG/218px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="761"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 218px;height: 140px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG/218px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG" data-alt="" data-width="218" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG/327px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG/436px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_issue_1948_3c.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Grand Army of the Republic (Union)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG/218px-United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="141" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="677"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 218px;height: 141px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG/218px-United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG" data-alt="" data-width="218" data-height="141" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG/327px-United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG/436px-United_Confederate_Veterans_1951_3c.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">United Confederate Veterans</div></div></div></div></div> The Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities, ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, films, stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. These commemorations occurred in greater numbers on the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Gallagher2008-322">[306]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Hollywood</a>'s take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as in such film classics as <a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a> (1915), <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a> (1939), and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_(film)" title="Lincoln (film)">Lincoln</a> (2012). <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Ken Burns</a>'s <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> television series <a href="/wiki/The_Civil_War_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Civil War (TV series)">The Civil War</a> (1990) is well-remembered, though criticized for its historical inaccuracy.<a href="#cite_note-323">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[308]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technological_significance">Technological significance</h3></div> Technological innovations during the war had a great impact on 19th-century science. The war was an early example of an "<a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial war</a>", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy.<a href="#cite_note-325">[309]</a> New inventions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Military_railways" title="Military railways">train</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses had been the fastest way to travel.<a href="#cite_note-326">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[311]</a> It was also in this war that aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance <a href="/wiki/History_of_aerial_warfare#American_Civil_War" title="History of aerial warfare">balloons</a>, was first used.<a href="#cite_note-328">[312]</a> It saw the first action involving steam-powered <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warships" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad warships">ironclad warships</a> in naval warfare history.<a href="#cite_note-329">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Repeating_rifle" title="Repeating rifle">Repeating firearms</a> such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, <a href="/wiki/Colt_revolving_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Colt revolving rifle">Colt revolving rifle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triplett_%26_Scott_carbine" title="Triplett & Scott carbine">Triplett & Scott carbine</a> and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace <a href="/wiki/Muzzle-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Muzzle-loading">muzzle-loading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Single-shot" title="Single-shot">single-shot</a> firearms. The war saw the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Agar_gun" title="Agar gun">Agar gun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan200975-330">[314]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(16)"><h2 id="In_works_of_culture_and_art">In works of culture and art</h2></div><section class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg/220px-The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2254"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg/220px-The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg" data-alt="Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers"." data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg/330px-The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg/440px-The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Peacemakers" title="The Peacemakers">The Peacemakers</a> by <a href="/wiki/George_Peter_Alexander_Healy" title="George Peter Alexander Healy">George Peter Alexander Healy</a> portrays, from left to right, Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and <a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">Porter</a> discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer <a href="/wiki/River_Queen_(steamboat)" title="River Queen (steamboat)">River Queen</a> in March 1865. It currently hangs in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a> dining room.</figcaption></figure> The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous.<a href="#cite_note-331">[315]</a> This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/When_Lilacs_Last_in_the_Dooryard_Bloom%27d" title="When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd">When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd</a> and <a href="/wiki/O_Captain!_My_Captain!" title="O Captain! My Captain!">O Captain! My Captain!</a> (1865) by <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman_and_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln">Walt Whitman</a>, famous eulogies to Lincoln</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle-Pieces_and_Aspects_of_the_War" title="Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War">Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War</a> (1866) poetry by <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Confederate_Government" title="The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government">The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government</a> (1881) by <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Private_History_of_a_Campaign_That_Failed" title="The Private History of a Campaign That Failed">The Private History of a Campaign That Failed</a> (1885) by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texar%27s_Revenge,_or,_North_Against_South" title="Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South">Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South</a> (1887) by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Occurrence_at_Owl_Creek_Bridge" title="An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge">An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge</a> (1890) by <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Bierce" title="Ambrose Bierce">Ambrose Bierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Red_Badge_of_Courage" title="The Red Badge of Courage">The Red Badge of Courage</a> (1895) by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Crane" title="Stephen Crane">Stephen Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Challenge_to_Sirius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Challenge to Sirius (page does not exist)">The Challenge to Sirius</a> (1917) by <a href="/wiki/Sheila_Kaye-Smith" title="Sheila Kaye-Smith">Sheila Kaye-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(novel)" title="Gone with the Wind (novel)">Gone with the Wind</a> (1936) by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell" title="Margaret Mitchell">Margaret Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_and_South_(trilogy)" title="North and South (trilogy)">North and South</a> (1982) by <a href="/wiki/John_Jakes" title="John Jakes">John Jakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_March_(novel)" title="The March (novel)">The March: A Novel</a> (2005) by <a href="/wiki/E._L._Doctorow" title="E. L. Doctorow">E. L. Doctorow</a>, fictionalized account of <a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March to the Sea</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a> (1915, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_(1926_film)" title="The General (1926 film)">The General</a> (1926, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operator_13" title="Operator 13">Operator 13</a> (1934, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a> (1939, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Red_Badge_of_Courage_(1951_film)" title="The Red Badge of Courage (1951 film)">The Red Badge of Courage</a> (1951, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse_Soldiers" title="The Horse Soldiers">The Horse Soldiers</a> (1959, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_(film)" title="Shenandoah (film)">Shenandoah</a> (1965, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good,_the_Bad_and_the_Ugly" title="The Good, the Bad and the Ugly">The Good, the Bad and the Ugly</a> (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beguiled_(1971_film)" title="The Beguiled (1971 film)">The Beguiled</a> (1971, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Outlaw_Josey_Wales" title="The Outlaw Josey Wales">The Outlaw Josey Wales</a> (1976, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_and_South_(miniseries)" title="North and South (miniseries)">North and South</a> (miniseries; 1985–1994, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(1989_film)" title="Glory (1989 film)">Glory</a> (1989, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Civil_War_(miniseries)" title="The Civil War (miniseries)">The Civil War</a> (1990, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_(1993_film)" title="Gettysburg (1993 film)">Gettysburg</a> (1993, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Outlaw_(1993_film)" title="The Last Outlaw (1993 film)">The Last Outlaw</a> (1993, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Mountain_(film)" title="Cold Mountain (film)">Cold Mountain</a> (2003, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gods_and_Generals_(film)" title="Gods and Generals (film)">Gods and Generals</a> (2003, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_(film)" title="Lincoln (film)">Lincoln</a> (2012, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Jones_(film)" title="Free State of Jones (film)">Free State of Jones</a> (2016, US)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music of the American Civil War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 28em;"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom" title="Battle Cry of Freedom">Battle Cry of Freedom</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Bonnie_Blue_Flag" title="The Bonnie Blue Flag">The Bonnie Blue Flag</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Night_They_Drove_Old_Dixie_Down" title="The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down">The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down</a>"</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_games">Video games</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_%26_South_(video_game)" title="North & South (video game)">North & South</a> (1989, FR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sid_Meier%27s_Gettysburg!" title="Sid Meier's Gettysburg!">Sid Meier's Gettysburg!</a> (1997, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sid_Meier%27s_Antietam!" title="Sid Meier's Antietam!">Sid Meier's Antietam!</a> (1999, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Conquest:_Divided_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="American Conquest: Divided Nation">American Conquest: Divided Nation</a> (2006, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forge_of_Freedom:_The_American_Civil_War" title="Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War">Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War</a> (2006, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_Channel:_Civil_War_%E2%80%93_A_Nation_Divided" title="The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided">The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided</a> (2006, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AGEOD%27s_American_Civil_War" title="AGEOD's American Civil War">AGEOD's American Civil War</a> (2007, US/FR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_Civil_War:_Secret_Missions" title="History Civil War: Secret Missions">History Civil War: Secret Missions</a> (2008, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_of_Juarez:_Bound_in_Blood" title="Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood">Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood</a> (2009, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkest_of_Days" title="Darkest of Days">Darkest of Days</a> (2009, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_II:_A_House_Divided" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria II: A House Divided">Victoria II: A House Divided</a> (2011, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AGEOD%27s_American_Civil_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="AGEOD's American Civil War II">AGEOD's American Civil War II</a> (2013, US/FR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_General:_Gettysburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate General: Gettysburg">Ultimate General: Gettysburg</a> (2014, UKR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_General:_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate General: Civil War">Ultimate General: Civil War</a> (2016, UKR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Rights" title="War of Rights">War of Rights</a> (TBD, US)</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(17)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-17 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-17"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/28px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1875"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 28px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/28px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png" data-alt="" data-width="28" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/42px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/56px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">American Civil War portal</a></li></ul></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_Civil_War_by_state" title="Category:American Civil War by state">American Civil War by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_enlistment_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War">Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hispanics in the American Civil War">Hispanics in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans in the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Outline of the American Civil War">Outline of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(18)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-18 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-18"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-End1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-End1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-End1_1-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180915002358/https://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/29/archives/end-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html">"End of the Rebellion; The Last Rebel Army Disbands. Kirby Smith Surrenders the Land and Naval Forces Under His Command. The Confederate Flag Disappears from the Continent. The Era of Peace Begins. Military Prisoners During the War to be Discharged. Deserters to be Released from Confinement. [Official.] From Secretary Stanton to Gen. Dix"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">United States Department of War</a>. May 29, 1865. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/29/archives/end-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html">the original</a> on September 15, 2018. Retrieved July 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=End+of+the+Rebellion%3B+The+Last+Rebel+Army+Disbands.+Kirby+Smith+Surrenders+the+Land+and+Naval+Forces+Under+His+Command.+The+Confederate+Flag+Disappears+from+the+Continent.+The+Era+of+Peace+Begins.+Military+Prisoners+During+the+War+to+be+Discharged.+Deserters+to+be+Released+from+Confinement.+%5BOfficial.%5D+From+Secretary+Stanton+to+Gen.+Dix.&rft.date=1865-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1865%2F05%2F29%2Farchives%2Fend-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFGreeley1866">Greeley 1866</a>, p. 757. "Though the war on land ceased, and the Confederate flag utterly disappeared from this continent with the collapse and dispersion of Kirby Smith's command...."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFDraper1870">Draper 1870</a>, p. 618. "On the 26th of the same month General Kirby Smith surrendered his entire command west of the Mississippi to General Canby. With this, all military opposition to the government ended."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFDavis1881">Davis 1881</a>, p. 630. "With General E. K. Smith's surrender the Confederate flag no longer floated on the land."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFDavis1881">Davis 1881</a>, p. 663. "When the Confederate soldiers laid down their arms and went home, all hostilities against the power of the Government of the United States ceased."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFGrant1886">Grant 1886</a>, p. 522. "General E. Kirby Smith surrendered the trans-Mississippi department on the 26th of May, leaving no other Confederate army at liberty to continue the war."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFDyer1908">Dyer 1908</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/08697590.3359.emory.edu/page/n13/mode/2up">7</a>. "Alphabetical Index of Campaigns, Battles, Engagements, Actions, Combats, Sieges, Skirmishes, Reconnaissances, Scouts and Other Military Events Connected with the "War of the Rebellion" During the Period of Actual Hostilities, From April 12, 1861, to May 26, 1865"</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFStephenson1919">Stephenson 1919</a>, p. 202. "The surrender of the forces of the Trans-Mississippi on May 26, 1865, brought the war to a definite conclusion."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFRobertson1963">Robertson 1963</a>, p. 31. "Lee's surrender left Johnston with no place to go. On April 26, near Durham, N.C., the Army of Tennessee laid down its arms before Sherman's forces. With the surrender of isolated forces in the Trans-Mississippi West on May 4, 11, and 26, the most costly war in American history came to an end."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFCatton1965">Catton 1965</a>, p. 445. "and on May 26 he [E. Kirby Smith] surrendered and the war was over"</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFGallagherEngleKrickGlatthaar2003">Gallagher et al. 2003</a>, p. 308. "By 26 May, General Edward Kirby Smith had surrendered the Rebel forces in the trans-Mississippi west. The war was over."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFBlair2015">Blair 2015</a>, p. 9. "The sheer weight of scholarship has leaned toward portraying the surrenders of the Confederate armies as the end of the war."</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-End2-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-End2_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-End2_2-1">b</a> Among the many other contemporary sources and later historians citing May 26, 1865 as the end date for the American Civil War hostilities are <a href="/wiki/George_Templeton_Strong" title="George Templeton Strong">George Templeton Strong</a>, who was a prominent New York lawyer; a founder, treasurer, and member of the Executive Committee of United States Sanitary Commission throughout the war; and a diarist. A diary excerpt is published in Gienapp, William E. (ed.). The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, pp. 313–314 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97555-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97555-0">978-0-393-97555-0</a>. A footnote in Gienapp shows the excerpt was taken from an edited version of the diaries by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong, vol. 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company), pp. 600–601, which differs from the volume and page numbers of the original diaries; the page in Strong's original handwriting is shown at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249">"Volume 4, pages 124–125: diary entries for May 23 (continued)–June 7, 1865"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151714/https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2022 – via New-York Historical Society Museum & Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volume+4%2C+pages+124%E2%80%93125%3A+diary+entries+for+May+23+%28continued%29%E2%80%93June+7%2C+1865.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nyhistory.org%2Fislandora%2Fobject%2Fnyhs%253A55249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The Union was the U.S. government and included the states that remained loyal to it, both the non-slave states and the <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border states</a> (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) where slavery was legal. Missouri and Kentucky were also claimed by the Confederacy and given full state delegations in the Confederate Congress for the duration of the war. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Appomattox is referred to symbolically as the <a href="/wiki/Conclusion_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Conclusion of the American Civil War">end of the war</a>, although arguably there are different dates for the war's conclusion. Lee's surrender to Grant set off a wave of Confederate surrenders. The last military department of the Confederacy, the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Department" title="Trans-Mississippi Department">Trans-Mississippi Department</a> disbanded on May 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> This assumes that Union and Confederate casualties are counted together; more Americans were killed in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> than in either the Union or Confederate Armies if their casualty totals are counted separately. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Historians disagree as to whether Roger Taney heard Ex parte Merryman as a U.S. circuit judge or as a Supreme Court justice in chambers.<a href="#cite_note-70">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Columbus,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Columbus, Georgia">Battle of Columbus, Georgia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Point" title="Battle of West Point">Battle of West Point</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><a href="#CITEREFMurray1967">Murray 1967</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/northcarolinahis1967nort/page/336/mode/1up">336</a></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFNeff2010">Neff 2010</a>, p. 207</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFTrudeau1994">Trudeau 1994</a>, p. 396. In United States v. Anderson, 76 U.S. 56 (1869), "The U.S. attorneys argued that the Rebellion had been suppressed following the surrender of the Trans-Mississippi Department, as established in the surrender document negotiated on May 26, 1865."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFTrudeau1994">Trudeau 1994</a>, p. 397. The Supreme Court decided that the "legal end of the American Civil War had been decided by Congress to be August 20, 1866—the date of Andrew Johnson's final proclamation on the conclusion of the Rebellion."</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnionPop-239"><a href="#cite_ref-UnionPop_239-0">^</a> "Union population 1864" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded. </li> <li id="cite_note-CSASlaves-241"><a href="#cite_ref-CSASlaves_241-0">^</a> "Slave 1864, CSA" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> "Total Union railroad miles" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.<a href="#cite_note-243">[231]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As <a href="/wiki/Howell_Cobb" title="Howell Cobb">Howell Cobb</a> said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Cleburne" title="Patrick Cleburne">Patrick Cleburne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at <a href="/wiki/Appomattox,_Virginia" title="Appomattox, Virginia">Appomattox</a> before this plan could be implemented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988831%E2%80%93837-279">[266]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_282-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;">Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861.</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFWittke1952">Wittke 1952</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. "Sentiment among <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a> was largely antislavery especially among <a href="/wiki/Forty-Eighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Forty-Eighters">Forty-Eighters</a>, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFKeller2009">Keller 2009</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;">for primary sources, see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds., Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). "On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFBaker2003">Baker 2003</a>. "Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class <a href="/wiki/Irish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish American">Irish Catholics</a> generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched <a href="/wiki/New_York_Draft_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Draft Riots">a major riot in New York City</a> that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFSchecter2007">Schecter 2007</a>, ch. 6. "Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and suffering high casualties, especially at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a>; their volunteering fell off after 1862."</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> In late March 1864 Lincoln met with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Bramlette" title="Thomas E. Bramlette">Governor Bramlette</a>, Archibald Dixon, and Albert G. Hodges, to discuss recruitment of African American soldiers in the state of Kentucky. In a letter dated April 4, 1864, Lincoln summarized his stance on slavery, at Hodges' request.<a href="#cite_note-293">[278]</a> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(19)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-19 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-19"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm">"Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160130034407/http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 30, 2016. <q>Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Size+of+the+Union+Army+in+the+American+Civil+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oocities.org%2Flittlegreenmen.geo%2FUASize.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NationalParkService-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NationalParkService_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NationalParkService_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NationalParkService_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NationalParkService_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/civilwar/facts.htm">"Facts"</a>. National Park Service.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Facts&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fcivilwar%2Ffacts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170725221244/http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=abstract;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0128;didno=waro0128;view=image;seq=0542">"The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2"</a>. United States War Dept. 1900. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=abstract;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0128;didno=waro0128;view=image;seq=0542">the original</a> on July 25, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+war+of+the+rebellion%3A+a+compilation+of+the+official+records+of+the+Union+and+Confederate+armies%3B+Series+4+%E2%80%93+Volume+2&rft.pub=United+States+War+Dept.&rft.date=1900&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febooks.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Fpageviewer-idx%3Fc%3Dmoawar%3Bcc%3Dmoawar%3Bq1%3Dabstract%3Brgn%3Dfull%2520text%3Bidno%3Dwaro0128%3Bdidno%3Dwaro0128%3Bview%3Dimage%3Bseq%3D0542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971705-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1971705_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLong1971">Long 1971</a>, p. 705. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fox1889-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fox1889_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox1889_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox1889_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox1889_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox1889_7-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1889" class="citation book cs1">Fox, William F. (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525214736/http://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html">Regimental losses in the American Civil War</a>. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regimental+losses+in+the+American+Civil+War&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilwarhome.com%2Ffoxspref.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-DCAS-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DCAS_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCAS_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCAS_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCAS_8-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/app/summaryData/casualties/principalWars">"U.S. Military Casualties: Principal Wars 1775–1991"</a>. Defence Casuality Analysis System (DCAS).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Defence+Casuality+Analysis+System+%28DCAS%29&rft.atitle=U.S.+Military+Casualties%3A+Principal+Wars+1775%E2%80%931991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdcas.dmdc.osd.mil%2Fdcas%2Fapp%2FsummaryData%2Fcasualties%2FprincipalWars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersAnderson1999849-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersAnderson1999849_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersAnderson1999">Chambers & Anderson 1999</a>, p. 849. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhodes1893-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1893_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1893_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1893" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, James Ford (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/historyunitedst20unkngoog">History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850</a>. New York: Harper & Bros. pp. 507–508.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+United+States+from+the+Compromise+of+1850&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=507-508&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Bros.&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=James+Ford&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryunitedst20unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nofi2001-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nofi2001_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nofi2001_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNofi2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Nofi" title="Albert Nofi">Nofi, Al</a> (June 13, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070711050249/http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm">"Statistics on the War's Costs"</a>. Louisiana State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm">the original</a> on July 11, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistics+on+the+War%27s+Costs&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University&rft.date=2001-06-13&rft.aulast=Nofi&rft.aufirst=Al&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cwc.lsu.edu%2Fother%2Fstats%2Fwarcost.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowns2012">Downs 2012</a>. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hacker2011-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hacker2011_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hacker2011_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hacker2011_16-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHacker2011" class="citation news cs1">Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/">"Recounting the Dead"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110925090025/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/">Archived</a> from the original on September 25, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Recounting+the+Dead&rft.date=2011-09-20&rft.aulast=Hacker&rft.aufirst=J.+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F09%2F20%2Frecounting-the-dead%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowns2012">Downs 2012</a>. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ...". </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states">"The Declaration of Causes of Seceding States. Primary Sources"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Battlefield_Trust" title="American Battlefield Trust">American Battlefield Trust</a>. Retrieved December 30, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Declaration+of+Causes+of+Seceding+States.+Primary+Sources&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Fprimary-sources%2Fdeclaration-causes-seceding-states&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woods2012-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woods2012_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods2012_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2012" class="citation journal cs1">Woods, Michael E. (August 20, 2012). "What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a>. 99 (2): 415–439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjahist%2Fjas272">10.1093/jahist/jas272</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723">0021-8723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=What+Twenty-First-Century+Historians+Have+Said+about+the+Causes+of+Disunion%3A+A+Civil+War+Sesquicentennial+Review+of+the+Recent+Literature&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=415-439&rft.date=2012-08-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjahist%2Fjas272&rft.issn=0021-8723&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan-Dean2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sheehan-Dean, Aaron (2005). "A Book for Every Perspective: Current Civil War and Reconstruction Textbooks". Civil War History. 51 (3): 317–324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.2005.0051">10.1353/cwh.2005.0051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=A+Book+for+Every+Perspective%3A+Current+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction+Textbooks&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=317-324&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.2005.0051&rft.aulast=Sheehan-Dean&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Loewen, James W. (2011). "Using Confederate Documents to Teach About Secession, Slavery, and the Origins of the Civil War". OAH Magazine of History. 25 (2): 35–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar002">10.1093/oahmag/oar002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-228X">0882-228X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210244">23210244</a>. <q>Confederate leaders themselves made it plain that slavery was the key issue sparking secession.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OAH+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Using+Confederate+Documents+to+Teach+About+Secession%2C+Slavery%2C+and+the+Origins+of+the+Civil+War&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=35-44&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0882-228X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23210244%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar002&rft.aulast=Loewen&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA184">Atlas of World History</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0"><bdi>978-0-19-521921-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521921-0&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffZy5tDjaUkC%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> John McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860 (1981) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Susan-Mary Grant, North Over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh" class="citation conference cs1">Walsh, David A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hnn.us/articles/137673.html">Highlights from the 2011 Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians in Houston, Texas</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111204081355/http://hnn.us/articles/137673.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2011. <q><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Varon" title="Elizabeth Varon">Elizabeth Varon</a>, Bruce Levine, Marc Egnal, and Michael Holt at a plenary session of the organization of American Historians, March 17, 2011</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Highlights+from+the+2011+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Organization+of+American+Historians+in+Houston%2C+Texas&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hnn.us%2Farticles%2F137673.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher197644–45-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher197644%E2%80%9345_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotterFehrenbacher1976">Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976</a>, pp. 44–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976485-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976485_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotterFehrenbacher1976">Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976</a>, p. 485. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988254–255-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988254%E2%80%93255_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 254–255. </li> <li id="cite_note-NegativesPrints-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NegativesPrints_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NegativesPrints_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-war-glass-negatives/articles-and-essays/time-line-of-the-civil-war/1861">"1861 Time Line"</a>. Civil War Glass Negatives and Related Prints. Library of Congress. Retrieved January 22, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+Glass+Negatives+and+Related+Prints&rft.atitle=1861+Time+Line&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcollections%2Fcivil-war-glass-negatives%2Farticles-and-essays%2Ftime-line-of-the-civil-war%2F1861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffa2004" class="citation book cs1">Jaffa, Harry V. (2004). A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9953-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9953-7"><bdi>978-0-8476-9953-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Birth+of+Freedom%3A+Abraham+Lincoln+and+the+Coming+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9953-7&rft.aulast=Jaffa&rft.aufirst=Harry+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040611023102/http://civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp">"Ordinances of Secession of the 13 Confederate States of America"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp">the original</a> on June 11, 2004. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ordinances+of+Secession+of+the+13+Confederate+States+of+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civil-war.net%2Fpages%2Fordinances_secession.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp">"Confederate States of America – Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union"</a>. The Avalon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190220121942/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp">Archived</a> from the original on February 20, 2019. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=Confederate+States+of+America+%E2%80%93+Declaration+of+the+Immediate+Causes+which+Induce+and+Justify+the+Secession+of+South+Carolina+from+the+Federal+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fcsa_scarsec.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp">"A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union"</a>. The Avalon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141010225636/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp">Archived</a> from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=A+Declaration+of+the+Immediate+Causes+which+Induce+and+Justify+the+Secession+of+the+State+of+Mississippi+from+the+Federal+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fcsa_missec.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp">"Confederate States of America – Georgia Secession"</a>. The Avalon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714154731/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp">Archived</a> from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=Confederate+States+of+America+%E2%80%93+Georgia+Secession&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fcsa_geosec.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp">"Confederate States of America – A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union"</a>. The Avalon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811013053/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp">Archived</a> from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=Confederate+States+of+America+%E2%80%93+A+Declaration+of+the+Causes+which+Impel+the+State+of+Texas+to+Secede+from+the+Federal+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fcsa_texsec.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson198824-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson198824_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchanan1860-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Buchanan1860_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchanan1860" class="citation web cs1">Buchanan, James (December 3, 1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501">"Fourth Annual Message"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220011320/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501">Archived</a> from the original on December 20, 2008. Retrieved November 28, 2012 – via The American Presidency Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fourth+Annual+Message&rft.date=1860-12-03&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D29501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinters196328-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinters196328_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinters1963">Winters 1963</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4608/">"Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. 1865. Retrieved July 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profile+Showing+the+Grades+upon+the+Different+Routes+Surveyed+for+the+Union+Pacific+Rail+Road+Between+the+Missouri+River+and+the+Valley+of+the+Platte+River&rft.pub=World+Digital+Library&rft.date=1865&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F4608%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lincoln-imposes-first-federal-income-tax">"Abraham Lincoln imposes first federal income tax"</a>. History.com. Retrieved June 12, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Abraham+Lincoln+imposes+first+federal+income+tax&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Flincoln-imposes-first-federal-income-tax&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988252–254-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988252%E2%80%93254_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 252–254. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988253-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988253_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988234–266-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988234%E2%80%93266_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 234–266. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lincoln1861-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lincoln1861_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lincoln1861_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lincoln1861_47-2">c</a> Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988262-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988262_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 262. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976572–573-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976572%E2%80%93573_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterFehrenbacher1976572%E2%80%93573_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotterFehrenbacher1976">Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976</a>, pp. 572–573. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2000" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, William C. (Winter 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.2629860.0021.104">"The Hampton Roads Peace Conference: A Final Test of Lincoln's Presidential Leadership"</a>. Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association. 21 (1). <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.2629860.0021.104">2027/spo.2629860.0021.104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1945-7987">1945-7987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Abraham+Lincoln+Association&rft.atitle=The+Hampton+Roads+Peace+Conference%3A+A+Final+Test+of+Lincoln%27s+Presidential+Leadership&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.2629860.0021.104&rft.issn=1945-7987&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fspo.2629860.0021.104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardyman2016" class="citation book cs1">Hardyman, Robyn (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D11iDwAAQBAJ">What Caused the Civil War?</a>. Gareth Stevens. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4824-5180-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4824-5180-1"><bdi>978-1-4824-5180-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Caused+the+Civil+War%3F&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Gareth+Stevens&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4824-5180-1&rft.aulast=Hardyman&rft.aufirst=Robyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD11iDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988264-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988264_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988265-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988265_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988266-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988266_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988267-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988267_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988267_55-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988268-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988268_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988272-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988272_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273–274-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988273%E2%80%93274_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 273–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988274-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988274_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-Presidency.ucsb.edu-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Presidency.ucsb.edu_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=70123">"Abraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy"</a>. Presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved November 3, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln%3A+Proclamation+83+%E2%80%93+Increasing+the+Size+of+the+Army+and+Navy&rft.pub=Presidency.ucsb.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D70123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988278-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988278_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 278. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988276–307-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988276%E2%80%93307_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 276–307. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011203–204-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2011203%E2%80%93204_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2011">Jones 2011</a>, pp. 203–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201121-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201121_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2011">Jones 2011</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/stagser/s1259/121/7590/html/0000.html">"Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly"</a>. Maryland State Archives. Retrieved May 28, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maryland+State+Archives&rft.atitle=Civil+War+and+the+Maryland+General+Assembly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsa.maryland.gov%2Fmsa%2Fstagser%2Fs1259%2F121%2F7590%2Fhtml%2F0000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarylandArchives2005-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MarylandArchives2005_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarylandArchives2005_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080111110628/http://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html">"Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861"</a>. Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html">the original</a> on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Teaching+American+History+in+Maryland+%E2%80%93+Documents+for+the+Classroom%3A+Arrest+of+the+Maryland+Legislature%2C+1861&rft.pub=Maryland+State+Archives&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistorymd.net%2F000001%2F000000%2F000017%2Fhtml%2Ft17.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988284–287-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988284%E2%80%93287_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 284–287. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2011" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William C. (2011). Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union. University Press of Kansas. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln+and+the+Border+States%3A+Preserving+the+Union&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2011" class="citation book cs1">White, Jonathan W. (2011). Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 38–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+Treason+in+the+Civil+War%3A+The+Trials+of+John+Merryman&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=38-39&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVladeck2007" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Vladeck" title="Steve Vladeck">Vladeck, Stephen I.</a> (Summer 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/">"The Field Theory: Martial Law, The Suspension Power, and The Insurrection Act"</a>. Temple Law Review. Vol. 80, no. 2. p. 391, n. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220927142538/https://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Temple+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Field+Theory%3A+Martial+Law%2C+The+Suspension+Power%2C+and+The+Insurrection+Act&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391%2C+n.+2&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Vladeck&rft.aufirst=Stephen+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.templelawreview.org%2Farticle%2F80-2_vladeck%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1863" class="citation book cs1">Howard, F. K. (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fourteenmonthsin00inhowa">Fourteen Months in American Bastiles</a>. London: H. F. Mackintosh. Retrieved August 18, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fourteen+Months+in+American+Bastiles&rft.place=London&rft.pub=H.+F.+Mackintosh&rft.date=1863&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=F.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffourteenmonthsin00inhowa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._119–129-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Nevins1959_pp._119%E2%80%93129_74-0">^</a> Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._129–136-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Nevins1959_pp._129%E2%80%93136_75-0">^</a> Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120518153656/http://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html">"A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia"</a>. West Virginia Archives & History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html">the original</a> on May 18, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+State+of+Convenience%2C+The+Creation+of+West+Virginia&rft.pub=West+Virginia+Archives+%26+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2FHistory%2Fstatehood%2Fstatehood10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curry1964-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Curry1964_77-0">^</a> Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided: A Study of the Statehood Politics and the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988303-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988303_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeigley200455-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeigley200455_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeigley2004">Weigley 2004</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-Snell2011-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Snell2011_80-0">^</a> Snell, Mark A. (2011), West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeely199310–11-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeely199310%E2%80%9311_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeely1993">Neely 1993</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, p. 73. "Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee." </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Gabor Boritt (ed.). War Comes Again (1995), p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf">"The Civil War, 1861"</a> (PDF). American Military History. pp. 199–221. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121017195124/http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 17, 2012. <q>With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Civil+War%2C+1861&rft.btitle=American+Military+History&rft.pages=199-221&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbookshelves%2Fresmat%2Fcivil_war%2Fextracts%2Fthe_civil_war_1861_%28pg_199-221%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolayHay1890" class="citation book cs1">Nicolay, John George; Hay, John (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9lAfAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA264">Abraham Lincoln: A History</a>. Century. p. 264.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln%3A+A+History&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Century&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Nicolay&rft.aufirst=John+George&rft.au=Hay%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9lAfAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulter1950308-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulter1950308_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulter1950">Coulter 1950</a>, p. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust1909" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Albert Bernhardt (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA523">The German Element in the United States: With Special Reference to Its Political, Moral, Social, and Educational Influence</a>. Houghton Mifflin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Element+in+the+United+States%3A+With+Special+Reference+to+Its+Political%2C+Moral%2C+Social%2C+and+Educational+Influence&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Albert+Bernhardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4xgOAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2014" class="citation book cs1">Reid, Richard M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bi9nAwAAQBAJ">African Canadians in Union Blue: Volunteering for the Cause in the Civil War</a>. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. pp. 4–5, 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-2745-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-2745-4"><bdi>978-0-7748-2745-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Canadians+in+Union+Blue%3A+Volunteering+for+the+Cause+in+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=4-5%2C+40&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-2745-4&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbi9nAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTESchecter2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-89'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchecter2007%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchecter2007">Schecter 2007</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-Murdock1971-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Murdock1971_90-0">^</a> Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971). </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallock1983" class="citation journal cs1">Hallock, Judith Lee (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mtw160-198.ippl.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v029/29.2.hallock.pdf">"The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion"</a> (PDF). Civil War History. 29 (2): 123–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1983.0013">10.1353/cwh.1983.0013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+the+Community+in+Civil+War+Desertion&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-134&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.1983.0013&rft.aulast=Hallock&rft.aufirst=Judith+Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmtw160-198.ippl.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fcivil_war_history%2Fv029%2F29.2.hallock.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Bearman, Peter S. (1991). "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War". Social Forces. 70 (2): 321–342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fsf%2F70.2.321">10.1093/sf/70.2.321</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2580242">2580242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Forces&rft.atitle=Desertion+as+Localism%3A+Army+Unit+Solidarity+and+Group+Norms+in+the+U.S.+Civil+War&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=321-342&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fsf%2F70.2.321&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2580242%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bearman&rft.aufirst=Peter+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fantina2006-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Fantina2006_93-0">^</a> Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadeau2015" class="citation web cs1">Nadeau, Ryan (January 5, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gettysburgcompiler.org/2015/01/05/a-prussian-observes-the-american-civil-war/">"A Prussian Observes the American Civil War"</a>. The Gettysburg Compiler. Retrieved January 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Gettysburg+Compiler&rft.atitle=A+Prussian+Observes+the+American+Civil+War&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.aulast=Nadeau&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgettysburgcompiler.org%2F2015%2F01%2F05%2Fa-prussian-observes-the-american-civil-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan200957-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan200957_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Scott, E. Carole. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/southerner-vs-southerner-union-supporters-below-the-mason-dixon-line/">Southerner vs. Southerner: Union Supporters Below the Mason-Dixon Line</a>. Warfare History Network. Retrieved November 11, 2024. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickenpaugh2013" class="citation book cs1">Pickenpaugh, Roger (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWOfsOceCNUC&pg=PA57">Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy</a>. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1783-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1783-6"><bdi>978-0-8173-1783-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captives+in+Blue%3A+The+Civil+War+Prisons+of+the+Confederacy&rft.pages=57-73&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1783-6&rft.aulast=Pickenpaugh&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWOfsOceCNUC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite20101466-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite20101466_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTuckerPierpaoliWhite2010">Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010</a>, p. 1466. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard1999165,_310–311-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonard1999165,_310%E2%80%93311_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeonard1999">Leonard 1999</a>, pp. 165, 310–311. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard1999240-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonard1999240_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeonard1999">Leonard 1999</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130403045042/http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html">"Highlights in the History of Military Women"</a>. Women In Military Service For America Memorial. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html">the original</a> on April 3, 2013. Retrieved June 22, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Women+In+Military+Service+For+America+Memorial&rft.atitle=Highlights+in+the+History+of+Military+Women&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.womensmemorial.org%2FEducation%2Ftimeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennington2003" class="citation book cs1">Pennington, Reina (2003). Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women. Vol. 2. Greenwood. pp. 474–475. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32708-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32708-4"><bdi>0-313-32708-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amazons+to+Fighter+Pilots%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Military+Women&rft.pages=474-475&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-313-32708-4&rft.aulast=Pennington&rft.aufirst=Reina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1977/06/04/archives/the-case-of-dr-walker-only-woman-to-win-and-lose-the-medal-of-honor.html">"The Case of Dr. Walker, Only Woman to Win (and Lose) the Medal of Honor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. June 4, 1977. Retrieved January 6, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Case+of+Dr.+Walker%2C+Only+Woman+to+Win+%28and+Lose%29+the+Medal+of+Honor&rft.date=1977-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1977%2F06%2F04%2Farchives%2Fthe-case-of-dr-walker-only-woman-to-win-and-lose-the-medal-of-honor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Blanton, DeAnne, "A Life on His Own Terns: Albert D. J. Cashier, 95th Illinois Infantry", in Brian Matthew Jordan and Jonathan W. White, eds., Final Resting Places: Reflections on the Meaning of Civil War Graves. Athen, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 2023, pp. 47-53. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelles1865" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles, Gideon</a> (January 1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4gfAAAAYAAJ">"Secretary of the Navy's Report"</a>. The Sailors' Magazine and Seamen's Friend. Vol. 37, no. 5. American Seamen's Friend Society. p. 152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sailors%27+Magazine+and+Seamen%27s+Friend&rft.atitle=Secretary+of+the+Navy%27s+Report&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=152&rft.date=1865-01&rft.aulast=Welles&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4gfAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite2010462-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerPierpaoliWhite2010462_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTuckerPierpaoliWhite2010">Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010</a>, p. 462. </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTECanney1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-107'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanney1998%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanney1998">Canney 1998</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/The-naval-war">"American Civil War: The naval war"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 24, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Civil+War%3A+The+naval+war&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FAmerican-Civil-War%2FThe-naval-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson200592-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson200592_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelson2005">Nelson 2005</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989300-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989300_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989300_110-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson1989">Anderson 1989</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2005345-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson2005345_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelson2005">Nelson 2005</a>, p. 345. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller200836-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuller200836_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFuller2008">Fuller 2008</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichter200949-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichter200949_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichter2009">Richter 2009</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1998228-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1998228_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1998">Johnson 1998</a>, p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989288–289,_296–298-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1989288%E2%80%93289,_296%E2%80%93298_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson1989">Anderson 1989</a>, pp. 288–289, 296–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWise199149-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWise199149_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWise1991">Wise 1991</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelsohn201243–44-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelsohn201243%E2%80%9344_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMendelsohn2012">Mendelsohn 2012</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern1962224–225-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern1962224%E2%80%93225_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern1962">Stern 1962</a>, pp. 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeely1986" class="citation journal cs1">Neely, Mark E. (June 1986). "The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War". Civil War History. 32 (2): 101–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1986.0012">10.1353/cwh.1986.0012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=The+Perils+of+Running+the+Blockade%3A+The+Influence+of+International+Law+in+an+Era+of+Total+War&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-118&rft.date=1986-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.1986.0012&rft.aulast=Neely&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTEWise1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-122'>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWise1991%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWise1991%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWise1991">Wise 1991</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurdam1998" class="citation journal cs1">Surdam, David G. (1998). "The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered". Naval War College Review. 51 (4): 85–107.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naval+War+College+Review&rft.atitle=The+Union+Navy%27s+blockade+reconsidered&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=85-107&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Surdam&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurdam2001" class="citation book cs1">Surdam, David G. (2001). Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War. University of South Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Naval+Superiority+and+the+Economics+of+the+American+Civil+War&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Surdam&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeys2014" class="citation news cs1">Keys, David (June 24, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/historians-reveal-secrets-of-uk-gunrunning-which-lengthened-the-american-civil-war-by-two-years-9557937.html">"Historians reveal secrets of UK gun-running which lengthened the American civil war by two years"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Historians+reveal+secrets+of+UK+gun-running+which+lengthened+the+American+civil+war+by+two+years&rft.date=2014-06-24&rft.aulast=Keys&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Farchaeology%2Fhistorians-reveal-secrets-of-uk-gunrunning-which-lengthened-the-american-civil-war-by-two-years-9557937.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Dougherty2010" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Dougherty (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2pMqE2E63XgC&pg=PA87">Weapons of Mississippi</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a>. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-7816-0473-4522" title="Special:BookSources/9-7816-0473-4522"><bdi>9-7816-0473-4522</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+Mississippi&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9-7816-0473-4522&rft.au=Kevin+Dougherty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2pMqE2E63XgC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2002225-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2002225_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2002">Jones 2002</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDinçaslan202273-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDin%C3%A7aslan202273_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDin%C3%A7aslan2022">Dinçaslan 2022</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988546–557-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988546%E2%80%93557_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 546–557. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2011237-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2011237_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2011">Herring 2011</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988386-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988386_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988386_131-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 386. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nevins1959_pp._263–264-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nevins1959_pp._263%E2%80%93264_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nevins1959_pp._263%E2%80%93264_132-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a>, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle201569–70-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle201569%E2%80%9370_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoyle2015">Doyle 2015</a>, pp. 69–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle20158-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle20158_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoyle2015">Doyle 2015</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle201570–74-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle201570%E2%80%9374_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoyle2015">Doyle 2015</a>, pp. 70–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013). </li> <li id="cite_note-Oates-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oates_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oates_137-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Stephen B. Oates</a>, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diplomacy.state.gov/u-s-diplomacy-stories/the-trent-affair-diplomacy-britain-and-the-american-civil-war/">"The Trent Affair: Diplomacy, Britain, and the American Civil War – National Museum of American Diplomacy"</a>. January 5, 2022. Retrieved January 18, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Trent+Affair%3A+Diplomacy%2C+Britain%2C+and+the+American+Civil+War+%E2%80%93+National+Museum+of+American+Diplomacy&rft.date=2022-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiplomacy.state.gov%2Fu-s-diplomacy-stories%2Fthe-trent-affair-diplomacy-britain-and-the-american-civil-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Shawcross,_Edward" class="mw-redirect" title="Shawcross, Edward">Shawcross, Edward</a> (2021). The Last Emperor of Mexico: The Dramatic Story of the Habsburg Archduke Who Created a Kingdom in the New World. New York: Basic Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1541-674196" title="Special:BookSources/978-1541-674196">978-1541-674196</a>. Also titled The Last Emperor of Mexico: A Disaster in the New World. London: Faber & Faber, 2022. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2011261-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2011261_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2011">Herring 2011</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie, eds. Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914. Columbia, Missouri, and London, UK: University of Missouri Press, p. 95. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826210975" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826210975">978-0826210975</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-easterntheater/">"Eastern Theater of the Civil War"</a>. Legends of America. Retrieved April 22, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legends+of+America&rft.atitle=Eastern+Theater+of+the+Civil+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legendsofamerica.com%2Fah-easterntheater%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson198991-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson198991_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson1989">Anderson 1989</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1934" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Douglas Southall (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html">R. E. Lee: A Biography</a>. Vol. II. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 78 and footnote 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=R.+E.+Lee%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=78+and+footnote+6&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Southall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FGazetteer%2FPeople%2FRobert_E_Lee%2FFREREL%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoote1974464–519-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoote1974464%E2%80%93519_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoote1974">Foote 1974</a>, pp. 464–519. </li> <li id="cite_note-Catton-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Catton_146-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Catton" title="Bruce Catton">Bruce Catton</a>, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–296. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988424–427-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988424%E2%80%93427_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 424–427. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988538–544-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988538%E2%80%93544_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988538%E2%80%93544_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 538–544. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988528–533-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988528%E2%80%93533_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 528–533. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/books/Staff-Rides/2Manassas/2mns-ov.htm">"Overview of the Battle"</a>. history.army.mil. Retrieved September 13, 2024. <q>On 3 August, General Halleck directed General McClellan to begin his final withdrawal from the Peninsula and to return to Northern Virginia to support Pope. McClellan protested and did not begin his redeployment until 14 August. The situation created an opportunity for General Lee. The removal of the Army of the Potomac as a threat meant that there would be a short period when he could turn on Pope's force and actually outnumber it before the merger of the two Federal armies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.army.mil&rft.atitle=Overview+of+the+Battle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fbooks%2FStaff-Rides%2F2Manassas%2F2mns-ov.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988543–545-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988543%E2%80%93545_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 543–545. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988557–558-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988557%E2%80%93558_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 557–558. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988571–574-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988571%E2%80%93574_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 571–574. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Matteson,_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Matteson, John">Matteson, John</a>, A Worse Place Than Hell: How the Civil War Battle of Fredericksburg Changed a Nation, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2006" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Wilmer L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=neq3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237">Generals in Blue and Gray: Lincoln's Generals</a>. Stackpole. pp. 237–238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-5106-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-5106-9"><bdi>978-1-4617-5106-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generals+in+Blue+and+Gray%3A+Lincoln%27s+Generals&rft.pages=237-238&rft.pub=Stackpole&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4617-5106-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Wilmer+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dneq3DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988639–645-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988639%E2%80%93645_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 639–645. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoyalas2010" class="citation book cs1">Noyalas, Jonathan A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EHRDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign</a>. Arcadia. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61423-040-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61423-040-3"><bdi>978-1-61423-040-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stonewall+Jackson%27s+1862+Valley+Campaign&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Arcadia&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61423-040-3&rft.aulast=Noyalas&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEHRDCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Emory M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2tJZ_TCHUjAC&pg=PA287">Robert E. Lee: A Biography</a>. W. W. Norton. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31631-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31631-5"><bdi>978-0-393-31631-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+E.+Lee%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31631-5&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Emory+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2tJZ_TCHUjAC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/frsp/learn/historyculture/sc.htm">"Salem Church"</a>. National Park Service. October 5, 2021. Retrieved March 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Salem+Church&rft.date=2021-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Ffrsp%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fsc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988653–663-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988653%E2%80%93663_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 653–663. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988664-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988664_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 664. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowery2014-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowery2014_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowery2014_162-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowery2014" class="citation book cs1">Bowery, Charles R. (2014). The Civil War in the Western Theater, 1862. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History. pp. 58–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0160923166" title="Special:BookSources/978-0160923166"><bdi>978-0160923166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+in+the+Western+Theater%2C+1862&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=58-72&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0160923166&rft.aulast=Bowery&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BattlefieldTrust-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BattlefieldTrust_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BattlefieldTrust_163-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/vicksburg">"Vicksburg"</a>. American Battlefield Trust. Retrieved September 27, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vicksburg&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Fcivil-war%2Fbattles%2Fvicksburg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988405–413-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988405%E2%80%93413_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 405–413. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitsell1963" class="citation journal cs1">Whitsell, Robert D. (1963). "Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus". Register of the Kentucky Historical Society. 62 (2): 107–121.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Register+of+the+Kentucky+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Military+and+Naval+Activity+between+Cairo+and+Columbus&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=107-121&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Whitsell&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankReaves2003170-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankReaves2003170_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrankReaves2003">Frank & Reaves 2003</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/places/death-of-albert-sidney-johnston-tour-stop-17.htm">"Death of Albert Sidney Johnston – Tour Stop #17"</a>. National Park Service. Retrieved March 12, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Death+of+Albert+Sidney+Johnston+%E2%80%93+Tour+Stop+%2317&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fplaces%2Fdeath-of-albert-sidney-johnston-tour-stop-17.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988418–420-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988418%E2%80%93420_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988418%E2%80%93420_168-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 418–420. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Kennedy, p. 58.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESymondsClipson200192-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESymondsClipson200192_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSymondsClipson2001">Symonds & Clipson 2001</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/10-facts-vicksburg-campaign">"10 Facts: The Vicksburg Campaign"</a>. American Battlefield Trust. January 31, 2013. Retrieved September 13, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=10+Facts%3A+The+Vicksburg+Campaign&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.date=2013-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2F10-facts-vicksburg-campaign&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2000" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Kent Masterson (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilwarinkentuc0000unse/mode/2up">The Civil War in Kentucky: Battle for the Bluegrass State</a>. Mason City, IA: Savas. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-882810-47-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-882810-47-5"><bdi>978-1-882810-47-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+in+Kentucky%3A+Battle+for+the+Bluegrass+State&rft.place=Mason+City%2C+IA&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Savas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-882810-47-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Kent+Masterson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilwarinkentuc0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988419–420-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988419%E2%80%93420_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 419–420. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988480–483-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988480%E2%80%93483_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 480–483. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMangum1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mangum, Ronald Scott (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121127192600/https://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf">"The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations"</a> (PDF). Parameters: U.S. Army War College. 21 (3): 74–86. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on November 27, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parameters%3A+U.S.+Army+War+College&rft.atitle=The+Vicksburg+Campaign%3A+A+Study+In+Joint+Operations&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=74-86&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mangum&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcarlisle-www.army.mil%2Fusawc%2FParameters%2FArticles%2F1991%2F1991%2520mangum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Miller" title="Donald L. Miller">Miller, Donald L.</a> Vicksburg: Grant's Campaign that Broke the Confederacy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4137-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4137-0">978-1-4516-4137-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988677–680-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988677%E2%80%93680_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 677–680. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/shermans-march-sea">"Sherman's March to the Sea"</a>. American Battlefield Trust. September 17, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sherman%27s+March+to+the+Sea&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.date=2014-09-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fshermans-march-sea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20111476-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20111476_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2011">Jones 2011</a>, p. 1476. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009100-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009100_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988404–405-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988404%E2%80%93405_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 404–405. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2012" class="citation book cs1">Martin, James B. (2012). Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865. Leavenworth papers. Vol. 23. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1029877004">1029877004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Third+War%3A+Irregular+Warfare+on+the+Western+Border+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.place=Fort+Leavenworth%2C+KS&rft.series=Leavenworth+papers&rft.pub=Combat+Studies+Institute+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1029877004&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFellman1989" class="citation book cs1">Fellman, Michael (1989). Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. <q>Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+War%3A+The+Guerrilla+Conflict+in+Missouri+during+the+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Fellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohl2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bohl, Sarah (2004). "A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri". Prologue. 36 (1): 44–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prologue&rft.atitle=A+War+on+Civilians%3A+Order+Number+11+and+the+Evacuation+of+Western+Missouri&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=44-51&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Bohl&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009270-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009270_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, p. 270. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraves1991" class="citation journal cs1">Graves, William H. (1991). "Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 69 (2): 134–145.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Indian+Soldiers+for+the+Gray+Army%3A+Confederate+Recruitment+in+Indian+Territory&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=134-145&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeet1996" class="citation journal cs1">Neet, J. Frederick Jr. (1996). "Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation". Great Plains Journal. 6 (1): 36–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Great+Plains+Journal&rft.atitle=Stand+Watie%3A+Confederate+General+in+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-51&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Neet&rft.aufirst=J.+Frederick+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009220–221-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan2009220%E2%80%93221_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, pp. 220–221. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign">"Red River Campaign"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220327234657/https://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign">Archived</a> from the original on March 27, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Red+River+Campaign&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FRed-River-Campaign&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymonds2012" class="citation book cs1">Symonds, Craig L. (2012). The Civil War at Sea. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993168-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993168-2"><bdi>978-0-19-993168-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+at+Sea&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993168-2&rft.aulast=Symonds&rft.aufirst=Craig+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner">"Second Battle of Fort Wagner"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Second+Battle+of+Fort+Wagner&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSecond-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLattimore" class="citation web cs1">Lattimore, Ralston B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/historyculture/battle-for-fort-pulaski.htm">"Battle for Fort Pulaski – Fort Pulaski National Monument"</a>. National Park Service. Retrieved April 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Battle+for+Fort+Pulaski+%E2%80%93+Fort+Pulaski+National+Monument&rft.aulast=Lattimore&rft.aufirst=Ralston+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Ffopu%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fbattle-for-fort-pulaski.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefousse1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_L._Trefousse" title="Hans L. Trefousse">Trefousse, Hans L.</a> (1957). Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast!. New York: Twayne. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/371213">371213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ben+Butler%3A+The+South+Called+Him+Beast%21&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Twayne&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F371213&rft.aulast=Trefousse&rft.aufirst=Hans+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu/exhibits/show/civilwar/war-in-the-west/war-in-the-west">"War in the West · Civil War · Digital Exhibits"</a>. digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu. Retrieved March 7, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu&rft.atitle=War+in+the+West+%C2%B7+Civil+War+%C2%B7+Digital+Exhibits&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fshow%2Fcivilwar%2Fwar-in-the-west%2Fwar-in-the-west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeely2004" class="citation journal cs1">Neely, Mark E. (December 2004). "Was the Civil War a Total War?". Civil War History. 50 (4): 434–458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.2004.0073">10.1353/cwh.2004.0073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=Was+the+Civil+War+a+Total+War%3F&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=434-458&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.2004.0073&rft.aulast=Neely&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1990" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Ulysses S. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0">Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters</a>. Library of America. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0/page/247">247</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940450-58-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940450-58-5"><bdi>978-0-940450-58-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Memoirs+of+U.S.+Grant%3B+Selected+Letters&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=Library+of+America&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-940450-58-5&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Ulysses+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoirsselectedl00gran_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFField2013" class="citation book cs1">Field, Ron (2013). Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege. Osprey. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-0305-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-0305-4"><bdi>978-1-4728-0305-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petersburg+1864%E2%80%9365%3A+The+Longest+Siege&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4728-0305-4&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724–735-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724%E2%80%93735_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 724–735. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988728-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988728_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 728. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724–742-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988724%E2%80%93742_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 724–742. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988778–779-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988778%E2%80%93779_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 778–779. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988773–776-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988773%E2%80%93776_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 773–776. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988812–815-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988812%E2%80%93815_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 812–815. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988825–830-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988825%E2%80%93830_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 825–830. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988846–847-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988846%E2%80%93847_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 846–847. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-apr-10-1865-p-1/">"Union / Victory! / Peace! / Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army"</a>. The New York Times. April 10, 1865. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Union+%2F+Victory%21+%2F+Peace%21+%2F+Surrender+of+General+Lee+and+His+Whole+Army&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1865-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspaperarchive.com%2Fnew-york-times-apr-10-1865-p-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/savannah-daily-herald-apr-16-1865-p-1/">"Most Glorious News of the War / Lee Has Surrendered to Grant ! / All Lee's Officers and Men Are Paroled"</a>. Savannah Daily Herald. Savannah, GA. April 16, 1865. pp. 1, 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Savannah+Daily+Herald&rft.atitle=Most+Glorious+News+of+the+War+%2F+Lee+Has+Surrendered+to+Grant+%21+%2F+All+Lee%27s+Officers+and+Men+Are+Paroled&rft.pages=1%2C+4&rft.date=1865-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspaperarchive.com%2Fsavannah-daily-herald-apr-16-1865-p-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1991" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Brooks D. (1991). Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Let+Us+Have+Peace%3A+Ulysses+S.+Grant+and+the+Politics+of+War+and+Reconstruction%2C+1861%E2%80%931868&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brooks+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> William Marvel (2002) Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox, pp. 158–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinik2001" class="citation book cs1">Winik, Jay (2001). April 1865: the month that saved America. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 188–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-018723-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-018723-9"><bdi>0-06-018723-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=April+1865%3A+the+month+that+saved+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=188-189&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-06-018723-9&rft.aulast=Winik&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971685-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1971685_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLong1971">Long 1971</a>, p. 685. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnoldWiener2016" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, James R.; Wiener, Roberta (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=35LvCgAAQBAJ">Understanding U.S. Military Conflicts through Primary Sources [4 volumes]</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-934-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-934-1"><bdi>978-1-61069-934-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+U.S.+Military+Conflicts+through+Primary+Sources+%5B4+volumes%5D&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-934-1&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft.au=Wiener%2C+Roberta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D35LvCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971688-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1971688_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLong1971">Long 1971</a>, p. 688. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201568-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201568_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley2015">Bradley 2015</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt20155-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunt20155_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHunt2015">Hunt 2015</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971690-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1971690_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLong1971">Long 1971</a>, p. 690. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunkerly2015117-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunkerly2015117_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunkerly2015">Dunkerly 2015</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1971692-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1971692_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLong1971">Long 1971</a>, p. 692. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207004144/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html">"Ulysses S. Grant: The Myth of 'Unconditional Surrender' Begins at Fort Donelson"</a>. American Battlefield Trust. April 17, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/ulysses-s-grant-myth-unconditional-surrender-begins-fort-donelson">the original</a> on February 7, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ulysses+S.+Grant%3A+The+Myth+of+%27Unconditional+Surrender%27+Begins+at+Fort+Donelson&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.date=2009-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fulysses-s-grant-myth-unconditional-surrender-begins-fort-donelson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1977" class="citation book cs1">Morris, John Wesley (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fSqmnpHFEF0C&pg=PA68">Ghost Towns of Oklahoma</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1420-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1420-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-1420-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghost+Towns+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-1420-0&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=John+Wesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSqmnpHFEF0C%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley2015">Bradley 2015</a>, p. 69. "The 58-year-old Cherokee chieftain was the last Confederate general to lay down his arms. The last Confederate-affiliated tribe to surrender was the Chickasaw nation, which capitulated on 14 July." </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Conner, Robert C. General Gordon Granger: The Savior of Chickamauga and the Man Behind "Juneteenth". Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-186-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-186-9">978-1-61200-186-9</a>. p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGates2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Gates, Henry Louis Jr.</a> (January 16, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-is-juneteenth/">"What Is Juneteenth?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. Retrieved June 12, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Juneteenth%3F&rft.pub=PBS&rft.date=2013-01-16&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Henry+Louis+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwnet%2Fafrican-americans-many-rivers-to-cross%2Fhistory%2Fwhat-is-juneteenth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeff2010205-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeff2010205_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeff2010">Neff 2010</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-PresidencyProject1865a-226"><a href="#cite_ref-PresidencyProject1865a_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1865" class="citation web cs1">Lincoln, Abraham (April 11, 1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/202896">"Proclamation 128—Claiming Equality of Rights with All Maritime Nations"</a>. The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. University of California, Santa Barbara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151716/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-128-claiming-equality-rights-with-all-maritime-nations">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Proclamation+128%E2%80%94Claiming+Equality+of+Rights+with+All+Maritime+Nations&rft.date=1865-04-11&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fnode%2F202896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights". </li> <li id="cite_note-PresidencyProject1865b-227"><a href="#cite_ref-PresidencyProject1865b_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1865" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Andrew (May 10, 1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/203414">"Proclamation 132—Ordering the Arrest of Insurgent Cruisers"</a>. The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. University of California, Santa Barbara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221116151715/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-132-ordering-the-arrest-insurgent-cruisers">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Proclamation+132%E2%80%94Ordering+the+Arrest+of+Insurgent+Cruisers&rft.date=1865-05-10&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fnode%2F203414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights". </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-06-24_2_44">"Withdrawal of Belligerent Rights by Great Britain"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Army_and_Navy_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Army and Navy Journal">Army and Navy Journal</a>. 2 (44). New York: American News Company: 695. June 24, 1865. Retrieved July 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Army+and+Navy+Journal&rft.atitle=Withdrawal+of+Belligerent+Rights+by+Great+Britain&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=695&rft.date=1865-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_armed-forces-journal_1865-06-24_2_44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-07-22_2_48">"England and the Termination of the Rebellion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Army_and_Navy_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Army and Navy Journal">Army and Navy Journal</a>. 2 (48). New York: American News Company: 763. July 22, 1865. Retrieved July 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Army+and+Navy+Journal&rft.atitle=England+and+the+Termination+of+the+Rebellion&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=48&rft.pages=763&rft.date=1865-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_armed-forces-journal_1865-07-22_2_48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-11-04_3_11">"Withdrawal of British Restrictions Upon American Naval Vessels"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Army_and_Navy_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Army and Navy Journal">Army and Navy Journal</a>. 3 (11). New York: American News Company: 172. November 4, 1865. Retrieved July 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Army+and+Navy+Journal&rft.atitle=Withdrawal+of+British+Restrictions+Upon+American+Naval+Vessels&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=172&rft.date=1865-11-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_armed-forces-journal_1865-11-04_3_11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes2002703–706-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes2002703%E2%80%93706_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeidlerHeidlerColes2002">Heidler, Heidler & Coles 2002</a>, pp. 703–706. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988851-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988851_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 851. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988855-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988855_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 855. </li> <li id="cite_note-Boritt-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boritt_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boritt_235-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabor_S._Boritt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabor S. Boritt">Gabor S. Boritt</a> (ed.). Why the Confederacy Lost. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988771–772-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988771%E2%80%93772_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 771–772. </li> <li id="cite_note-Manufactures1860-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Manufactures1860_237-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170817153653/https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf">"Manufactures of the United States in 1860; Compiled from the original returns of the Eight Census"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 17, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manufactures+of+the+United+States+in+1860%3B+Compiled+from+the+original+returns+of+the+Eight+Census&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Fprod2%2Fdecennial%2Fdocuments%2F1860c-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carter2006-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Carter2006_238-0">^</a> Carter, Susan B. (ed.). The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartis1994" class="citation book cs1">Martis, Kenneth C. (1994). The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865. Simon & Schuster. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-389115-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-389115-7"><bdi>978-0-13-389115-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Atlas+of+the+Congresses+of+the+Confederate+States+of+America%3A+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-13-389115-7&rft.aulast=Martis&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepew1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chauncey_Depew" title="Chauncey Depew">Depew, Chauncey</a>, ed. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/17951895onehundr0001unse/page/111/mode/2up">One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895</a>. New York: Greenwood. p. 111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Years+of+American+Commerce+1795%E2%80%931895&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F17951895onehundr0001unse%2Fpage%2F111%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg">"U.S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880"</a>. Digital History Reader. Virginia Tech. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160611102443/http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2016. Retrieved August 21, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+History+Reader&rft.atitle=U.S.+Railroad+Construction%2C+1860%E2%80%931880&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhr.history.vt.edu%2Fmodules%2Fus%2Fmod05_industry%2Fimages%2Frailroad_construction.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayBernsteinKnox1996235-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurrayBernsteinKnox1996235_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMurrayBernsteinKnox1996">Murray, Bernstein & Knox 1996</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes20021207–1210-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeidlerHeidlerColes20021207%E2%80%931210_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeidlerHeidlerColes2002">Heidler, Heidler & Coles 2002</a>, pp. 1207–1210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard1990272-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard1990272_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWard1990">Ward 1990</a>, p. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulter1950566-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulter1950566_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoulter1950">Coulter 1950</a>, p. 566. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeringerHattawayJonesStill1991" class="citation book cs1">Beringer, Richard E.; Hattaway, Herman; Jones, Archer; Still, William N. Jr. (1991). Why the South Lost the Civil War. ch. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+South+Lost+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=ch.+1&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Beringer&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Hattaway%2C+Herman&rft.au=Jones%2C+Archer&rft.au=Still%2C+William+N.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer2005" class="citation web cs1">Farmer, Alan (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140323165319/http://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated">"Why was the Confederacy Defeated?"</a>. History Review. pp. 15–20. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated">the original</a> on March 23, 2014 – via History Today.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Review&rft.atitle=Why+was+the+Confederacy+Defeated%3F&rft.pages=15-20&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Farmer&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Falan-farmer%2Fwhy-was-confederacy-defeated&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1997169–172-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1997169%E2%80%93172_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1997">McPherson 1997</a>, pp. 169–172. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagher1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher" title="Gary W. Gallagher">Gallagher, Gary W.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QHNEtpvEB30C&pg=PA57">The Confederate War</a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-16056-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-16056-9"><bdi>978-0-674-16056-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confederate+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-16056-9&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQHNEtpvEB30C%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fehrenbacher2004-253"><a href="#cite_ref-Fehrenbacher2004_253-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehrenbacher2004" class="citation journal cs1">Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=jala;view=text;rgn=main;idno=2629860.0009.103">"Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days"</a>. Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association. 9 (1). University of Illinois. Retrieved October 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Abraham+Lincoln+Association&rft.atitle=Lincoln%27s+Wartime+Leadership%3A+The+First+Hundred+Days&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Fehrenbacher&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Djala%3Bview%3Dtext%3Brgn%3Dmain%3Bidno%3D2629860.0009.103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988382–388-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988382%E2%80%93388_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 382–388. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle2015-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle2015_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoyle2015">Doyle 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordewich2015" class="citation web cs1">Bordewich, Fergus M. (February 6, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658">"The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221081620/https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+World+Was+Watching%3A+America%27s+Civil+War+slowly+came+to+be+seen+as+part+of+a+global+struggle+against+oppressive+privilege&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft.aulast=Bordewich&rft.aufirst=Fergus+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fbook-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dupont2018-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dupont2018_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dupont2018_257-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dupont2018_257-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupontRosenbloom2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dupont, Brandon; Rosenbloom, Joshua L. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_las_pubs/644">"The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite"</a>. Explorations in Economic History. 68: 119–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eeh.2017.09.002">10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Explorations+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Origins+of+the+Postwar+Southern+Elite&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=119-131&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eeh.2017.09.002&rft.aulast=Dupont&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Rosenbloom%2C+Joshua+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flib.dr.iastate.edu%2Fecon_las_pubs%2F644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110921120124.htm">"U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests"</a>. Science Daily. September 22, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=U.S.+Civil+War+Took+Bigger+Toll+Than+Previously+Estimated%2C+New+Analysis+Suggests&rft.date=2011-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2011%2F09%2F110921120124.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHacker2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hacker, J. David (December 2011). "A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead". Civil War History. 57 (4): 307–348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.2011.0061">10.1353/cwh.2011.0061</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22512048">22512048</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30195230">30195230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=A+Census-Based+Count+of+the+Civil+War+Dead&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=307-348&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30195230%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22512048&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.2011.0061&rft.aulast=Hacker&rft.aufirst=J.+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/civil-war-casualties">"Civil War Casualties"</a>. American Battlefield Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.atitle=Civil+War+Casualties&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fcivil-war-casualties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988854-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988854_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 854. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinovskis19907-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVinovskis19907_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVinovskis1990">Vinovskis 1990</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fox2008-263"><a href="#cite_ref-Fox2008_263-0">^</a> Richard Wightman Fox (2008). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716083839/http://www.slate.com/toolbar.aspx?action=read&id=2180856">National Life After Death</a>". <a href="/wiki/Slate.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Slate.com">Slate</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-NationalGeographic2003-264"><a href="#cite_ref-NationalGeographic2003_264-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYancey_Hall2003" class="citation web cs1">Yancey Hall (July 1, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030707041320/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html">"U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands"</a>. National Geographic News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html">the original</a> on July 7, 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+News&rft.atitle=U.S.+Civil+War+Prison+Camps+Claimed+Thousands&rft.date=2003-07-01&rft.au=Yancey+Hall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2003%2F07%2F0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiordan2004" class="citation news cs1">Riordan, Teresa (March 8, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/08/business/technology-when-necessity-meets-ingenuity-art-of-restoring-what-s-missing.html">"When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. Retrieved December 23, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=When+Necessity+Meets+Ingenuity%3A+Art+of+Restoring+What%27s+Missing&rft.date=2004-03-08&rft.aulast=Riordan&rft.aufirst=Teresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F03%2F08%2Fbusiness%2Ftechnology-when-necessity-meets-ingenuity-art-of-restoring-what-s-missing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Herbert Aptheker, "Negro Casualties in the Civil War", The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 32, No. 1. (January 1947). </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ospreypublishing.com/american-civil-war-fortifications-2">"American Civil War Fortifications"</a>. Osprey.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Osprey&rft.atitle=American+Civil+War+Fortifications&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fospreypublishing.com%2Famerican-civil-war-fortifications-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehorsemenscorral.com/2013/06/25/the-battle-of-gettysburg-the-history-of-the-cival-war-horse/">"The Battle of Gettysburg & the History of the Civil War Horse"</a>. June 25, 2013. Retrieved January 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Battle+of+Gettysburg+%26+the+History+of+the+Civil+War+Horse&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehorsemenscorral.com%2F2013%2F06%2F25%2Fthe-battle-of-gettysburg-the-history-of-the-cival-war-horse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones" class="citation book cs1">Jones, J. William (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2001.05.0290:chapter=1.37">"1.37: Confederate States' flags"</a>. Southern Historical Society Papers. Vol. 32. Retrieved January 9, 2024 – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.37%3A+Confederate+States%27+flags&rft.btitle=Southern+Historical+Society+Papers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A2001.05.0290%3Achapter%3D1.37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ket-history-civilwar58/returned-flags-booklet/">"Returned Flags Booklet, 1905"</a>. Retrieved January 9, 2024 – via PBS LearningMedia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Returned+Flags+Booklet%2C+1905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbslearningmedia.org%2Fresource%2Fket-history-civilwar58%2Freturned-flags-booklet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii–viii-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii_272-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988vii%E2%80%93viii_272-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. vii–viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner201074-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner201074_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoner2010">Foner 2010</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1981[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-274'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1981%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2024%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2024)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoner1981">Foner 1981</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988506–508-275">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988506%E2%80%93508_275-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988506%E2%80%93508_275-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 506–508. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988686-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988686_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, p. 686. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathey2021" class="citation news cs1">Cathey, Libby (June 17, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/biden-sign-bill-making-juneteenth-federal-holiday-commemorating/story?id=78335485">"Biden signs bill making Juneteenth, marking the end of slavery, a federal holiday"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a>. Retrieved June 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Biden+signs+bill+making+Juneteenth%2C+marking+the+end+of+slavery%2C+a+federal+holiday&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft.aulast=Cathey&rft.aufirst=Libby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FPolitics%2Fbiden-sign-bill-making-juneteenth-federal-holiday-commemorating%2Fstory%3Fid%3D78335485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Goldin" title="Claudia Goldin">Claudia Goldin</a>, "The economics of emancipation." The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988831–837-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988831%E2%80%93837_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 831–837. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonald1995417–419-281">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonald1995417%E2%80%93419_281-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonald1995417%E2%80%93419_281-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonald1995">Donald 1995</a>, pp. 417–419. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker2003-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker2003_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaker2003">Baker 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> McPherson, James M., "Lincoln and the Strategy of Unconditional Surrender", in <a href="/wiki/Gabor_Boritt" title="Gabor Boritt">Boritt, Gabor S.</a> (ed.). Lincoln, the War President, pp. 52–54; also in McPherson, James M., Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution, pp. 83–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Oates, Stephen B.</a>, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Stahr, Walter, Stanton: Lincoln's War Secretary, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bartleby.com/400/prose/1279.html">"Horace Greeley (1811–1872). "The Prayer of Twenty Millions". Stedman and Hutchinson, eds. 1891. A Library of American Literature: An Anthology in 11 Volumes"</a>. www.bartleby.com. June 14, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bartleby.com&rft.atitle=Horace+Greeley+%281811%E2%80%931872%29.+%22The+Prayer+of+Twenty+Millions%22.+Stedman+and+Hutchinson%2C+eds.+1891.+A+Library+of+American+Literature%3A+An+Anthology+in+11+Volumes&rft.date=2022-06-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F400%2Fprose%2F1279.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> Lincoln's letter was published first in the Washington National Intelligencer on August 23, 1862. <a href="/wiki/Holzer,_Harold" class="mw-redirect" title="Holzer, Harold">Holzer, Harold</a>, Lincoln and the Power of the Press: The War for Public Opinion, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014, p. 401. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Lincoln1862" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (August 24, 1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1862/08/24/archives/a-letter-from-president-lincoln-reply-to-horace-greeley-slavery-and.html">"A LETTER FROM PRESIDENT LINCOLN.; Reply to Horace Greeley. Slavery and the Union The Restoration of the Union the Paramount Object"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116965145" class="extiw" title="d:Q116965145">Q116965145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+LETTER+FROM+PRESIDENT+LINCOLN.%26%2359%3B+Reply+to+Horace+Greeley.+Slavery+and+the+Union+The+Restoration+of+the+Union+the+Paramount+Object.&rft.date=1862-08-24&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.au=Abraham+Lincoln&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1862%2F08%2F24%2Farchives%2Fa-letter-from-president-lincoln-reply-to-horace-greeley-slavery-and.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> White, Jonathan W., A House Built by Slaves: African American Visitors to the Lincoln White House, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2022, ch. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Pulling, Sr. Anne Frances, Altoona: Images of America, Arcadia Publishing, 2001, 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.legislature.ky.gov/LegislativeMoments/moments08RS/49_web_leg_moments.htm">"Lincoln Lore – Albert G. Hodges"</a>. Kentucky Legislature. Retrieved January 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kentucky+Legislature&rft.atitle=Lincoln+Lore+%E2%80%93+Albert+G.+Hodges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.legislature.ky.gov%2FLegislativeMoments%2Fmoments08RS%2F49_web_leg_moments.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/johnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm">"Andrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee – Andrew Johnson National Historic Site"</a>. National Park Service.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Andrew+Johnson+and+Emancipation+in+Tennessee+%E2%80%93+Andrew+Johnson+National+Historic+Site&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fanjo%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fjohnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2003" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slavenorth.com/delaware.htm">"Slavery in Delaware"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071016062740/http://slavenorth.com/delaware.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Delaware&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slavenorth.com%2Fdelaware.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1990" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">McPherson, James</a> (March 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanheritage.com/war-never-goes-away">"A War that Never Goes Away"</a>. American Heritage Magazine. Vol. 41, no. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+War+that+Never+Goes+Away&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1990-03&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fwar-never-goes-away&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsanteMazama200482-298"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsanteMazama200482_298-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsanteMazama2004">Asante & Mazama 2004</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolzerGabbard2007172–174-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolzerGabbard2007172%E2%80%93174_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolzerGabbard2007">Holzer & Gabbard 2007</a>, pp. 172–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes-Pitts2014" class="citation news cs1">Rhodes-Pitts, Sharifa (October 9, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/magazine/the-worth-of-black-men-from-slavery-to-ferguson.html">"The Worth of Black Men, From Slavery to Ferguson"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved December 25, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Worth+of+Black+Men%2C+From+Slavery+to+Ferguson&rft.date=2014-10-09&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Rhodes-Pitts&rft.aufirst=Sharifa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F10%2F12%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-worth-of-black-men-from-slavery-to-ferguson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Economist2011-301"><a href="#cite_ref-Economist2011_301-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110420045142/http://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id=18486035">"Finally Passing"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. March 31, 2011. pp. 23–25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id=18486035">the original</a> on April 20, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Finally+Passing&rft.pages=23-25&rft.date=2011-03-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F18486035%3Fstory_id%3D18486035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_L._Trefousse" title="Hans L. Trefousse">Hans L. Trefousse</a>, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders. </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">C. Vann Woodward</a>, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd ed. 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsHoffius2011" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Susan Millar; Hoffius, Stephen G. (2011). Upheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3715-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3715-9"><bdi>978-0-8203-3715-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46nc9q">j.ctt46nc9q</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upheaval+in+Charleston%3A+Earthquake+and+Murder+on+the+Eve+of+Jim+Crow&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt46nc9q%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3715-9&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Susan+Millar&rft.au=Hoffius%2C+Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/presidents-who-were-civil-war-veterans.html">"Presidents Who Were Civil War Veterans"</a>. Essential Civil War Curriculum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Essential+Civil+War+Curriculum&rft.atitle=Presidents+Who+Were+Civil+War+Veterans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com%2Fpresidents-who-were-civil-war-veterans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joan_Waugh_and_Gary_W-307"><a href="#cite_ref-Joan_Waugh_and_Gary_W_307-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joan_Waugh" title="Joan Waugh">Joan Waugh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher" title="Gary W. Gallagher">Gary W. Gallagher</a>, eds. (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press). </li> <li id="cite_note-Blight2001-308"><a href="#cite_ref-Blight2001_308-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a> (2001) Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodworth1996208-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodworth1996208_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodworth1996">Woodworth 1996</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushman2014" class="citation book cs1">Cushman, Stephen (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=95l6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War</a>. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1878-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1878-4"><bdi>978-1-4696-1878-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belligerent+Muse%3A+Five+Northern+Writers+and+How+They+Shaped+Our+Understanding+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-1878-4&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D95l6BAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOscar_HandlinArthur_M._Schlesinger_Sr.Samuel_Eliot_MorisonFrederick_Merk1954" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Handlin" title="Oscar Handlin">Oscar Handlin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Sr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison" title="Samuel Eliot Morison">Samuel Eliot Morison</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Merk" title="Frederick Merk">Frederick Merk</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Herman_Buck" title="Paul Herman Buck">Paul Herman Buck</a> (1954), Harvard Guide to American History, Belknap Press, pp. 385–398, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q118746838" class="extiw" title="d:Q118746838">Q118746838</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvard+Guide+to+American+History&rft.pages=385-398&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.au=Oscar+Handlin&rft.au=Arthur+M.+Schlesinger+Sr.&rft.au=Samuel+Eliot+Morison&rft.au=Frederick+Merk&rft.au=Arthur+M.+Schlesinger&rft.au=Paul+Herman+Buck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foster1988-312"><a href="#cite_ref-Foster1988_312-0">^</a> Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan200014–19-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan200014%E2%80%9319_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNolan2000">Nolan 2000</a>, pp. 14–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan200028–29-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan200028%E2%80%9329_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNolan2000">Nolan 2000</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter2012" class="citation book cs1">Hofstadter, Richard (2012) [1968]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iLdMzbv2IDQC&pg=PA459">Progressive Historians</a>. Knopf Doubleday. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-80960-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-80960-5"><bdi>978-0-307-80960-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progressive+Historians&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-307-80960-5&rft.aulast=Hofstadter&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiLdMzbv2IDQC%26pg%3DPA459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2007" class="citation news cs1">West, Mike (April 27, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181118185935/https://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html">"Hazen's Monument a rare, historic treasure"</a>. Murfreesboro Post. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html">the original</a> on November 18, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Murfreesboro+Post&rft.atitle=Hazen%27s+Monument+a+rare%2C+historic+treasure&rft.date=2007-04-27&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.murfreesboropost.com%2Fcommunity%2Fhazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure%2Farticle_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Timothy B. Smith, "The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press). </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> Bob Zeller, "Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust", (2017: Knox Press) </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190812162007/https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land">"Saved Land"</a>. American Battlefield Trust. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land">the original</a> on August 12, 2019. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saved+Land&rft.pub=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Fpreserve%2Fsaved-land&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcWhirter2019" class="citation news cs1">McWhirter, Cameron (May 25, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191010233320/https://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=2">"Civil War Battlefields Lose Ground as Tourist Draws"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=2">the original</a> on October 10, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Civil+War+Battlefields+Lose+Ground+as+Tourist+Draws&rft.date=2019-05-25&rft.aulast=McWhirter&rft.aufirst=Cameron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fcivil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600%3Fmod%3Dsearchresults%26page%3D1%26pos%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallagher2008-322"><a href="#cite_ref-Gallagher2008_322-0">^</a> Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/nov/04/debate-over-ken-burns-civil-war-doc-continues-over/">"Debate over Ken Burns Civil War doc continues over decades"</a>. The Spokesman-Review. Retrieved May 4, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Spokesman-Review&rft.atitle=Debate+over+Ken+Burns+Civil+War+doc+continues+over+decades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spokesman.com%2Fstories%2F2017%2Fnov%2F04%2Fdebate-over-ken-burns-civil-war-doc-continues-over%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerritt" class="citation magazine cs1">Merritt, Keri Leigh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-we-need-new-civil-war-documentary-180971996/">"Why We Need a New Civil War Documentary"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved May 4, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Why+We+Need+a+New+Civil+War+Documentary&rft.aulast=Merritt&rft.aufirst=Keri+Leigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fwhy-we-need-new-civil-war-documentary-180971996%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaileyKennedy1987" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Thomas; Kennedy, David (1987). The American Pageant. p. 434.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Pageant&rft.pages=434&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDome1974" class="citation journal cs1">Dome, Steam (1974). "A Civil War Iron Clad Car". Railroad History. 130 (Spring 1974). The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society: 51–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Railroad+History&rft.atitle=A+Civil+War+Iron+Clad+Car&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=Spring+1974&rft.pages=51-53&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Dome&rft.aufirst=Steam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, Christopher H. Sterling (ed.) (New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1 p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckley2006" class="citation book cs1">Buckley, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Air Power in the Age of Total War</a>. Routledge. pp. 6, 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36275-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36275-1"><bdi>978-1-135-36275-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Air+Power+in+the+Age+of+Total+War&rft.pages=6%2C+24&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-135-36275-1&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYSSPAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan200975-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan200975_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan2009">Keegan 2009</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchison2015" class="citation book cs1">Hutchison, Coleman (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovYTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278">A History of American Civil War Literature</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-43241-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-43241-9"><bdi>978-1-316-43241-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Civil+War+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-316-43241-9&rft.aulast=Hutchison&rft.aufirst=Coleman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DovYTCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography of the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_early_American_naval_history#American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of early American naval history">Bibliography of American Civil War naval history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sources_referenced">Sources referenced</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1989" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Bern (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=41-3swEACAAJ">By Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War</a>. Hachette. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80367-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80367-3"><bdi>978-0-306-80367-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Sea+and+By+River%3A+The+naval+history+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80367-3&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Bern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D41-3swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsanteMazama2004" class="citation book cs1">Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RcBkDlJ7qjwC&pg=PA82">Encyclopedia of Black Studies</a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2762-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2762-4"><bdi>978-0-7619-2762-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Black+Studies&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2762-4&rft.aulast=Asante&rft.aufirst=Molefi+Kete&rft.au=Mazama%2C+Ama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRcBkDlJ7qjwC%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Baker, Kevin (February–March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101019000238/http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml">"Violent City"</a>. American Heritage Magazine. Vol. 54, no. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml">the original</a> on October 19, 2010. Retrieved July 29, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=Violent+City&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2003-02%2F2003-03&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanheritage.com%2Farticles%2Fmagazine%2Fah%2F2003%2F1%2F2003_1_17.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlair2015" class="citation journal cs1">Blair, William A. (2015). "Finding the Ending of America's Civil War". The American Historical Review. 120 (5). Oxford University Press: 1753–1766. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F120.5.1753">10.1093/ahr/120.5.1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43697075">43697075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Finding+the+Ending+of+America%27s+Civil+War&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1753-1766&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43697075%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F120.5.1753&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2015" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Mark L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf">The Civil War Ends</a> (PDF). US Army, Center of Military History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220526083556/https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved May 26, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+Ends&rft.pub=US+Army%2C+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Mark+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F075%2F75-17%2FcmhPub_75-17.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanney1998" class="citation book cs1">Canney, Donald L. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_fB_SD5QhIC">Lincoln's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, 1861–65</a>. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-519-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-519-4"><bdi>978-1-55750-519-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln%27s+Navy%3A+The+Ships%2C+Men+and+Organization%2C+1861%E2%80%9365&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-55750-519-4&rft.aulast=Canney&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_fB_SD5QhIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambersAnderson1999" class="citation book cs1">Chambers, John W.; Anderson, Fred (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC">The Oxford Companion to American Military History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507198-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507198-6"><bdi>978-0-19-507198-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507198-6&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Rzy_yNMKbcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatton1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Catton" title="Bruce Catton">Catton, Bruce</a> (1965). The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3: Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Centennial+History+of+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Catton&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulter1950" class="citation book cs1">Coulter, E. Merton (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2_ZM0dWVrsC&pg=PA308">The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865: A History of the South</a>. Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0007-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0007-3"><bdi>978-0-8071-0007-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confederate+States+of+America%2C+1861%E2%80%931865%3A+A+History+of+the+South&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-0007-3&rft.aulast=Coulter&rft.aufirst=E.+Merton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2_ZM0dWVrsC%26pg%3DPA308&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis, Jefferson</a> (1881). The Rise And Fall Of The Confederate Government. Vol. II. New York: D. Appleton & Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1249017603">1249017603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+And+Fall+Of+The+Confederate+Government&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1881&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1249017603&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Jefferson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDinçaslan2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dinçaslan, M. Bahadırhan (2022). Amerikan İç Savaşı El Kitabı [American Civil War Handbook] (in Turkish). Ankara: Altınordu Yayınları Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-6-257-61066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-6-257-61066-7"><bdi>978-6-257-61066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amerikan+%C4%B0%C3%A7+Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1+El+Kitab%C4%B1&rft.place=Ankara&rft.pub=Alt%C4%B1nordu+Yay%C4%B1nlar%C4%B1+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-6-257-61066-7&rft.aulast=Din%C3%A7aslan&rft.aufirst=M.+Bahad%C4%B1rhan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Herbert_Donald" title="David Herbert Donald">Donald, David Herbert</a> (1995). Lincoln. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80846-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80846-8"><bdi>978-0-684-80846-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80846-8&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2015" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, Don H. (2015). The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War. New York: Basic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cause+of+All+Nations%3A+An+International+History+of+the+American+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=Don+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDraper1870" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">Draper, John William</a> (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.278844">History of the American Civil War</a>. Vol. 3. New York: Harper & Brothers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/830251756">830251756</a>. Retrieved July 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+American+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1870&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F830251756&rft.aulast=Draper&rft.aufirst=John+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.278844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunkerly2015" class="citation book cs1">Dunkerly, Robert M. (2015). To the Bitter End: Appomattox, Bennett Place and the Surrenders of the Confederacy. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61121-252-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61121-252-5"><bdi>978-1-61121-252-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+the+Bitter+End%3A+Appomattox%2C+Bennett+Place+and+the+Surrenders+of+the+Confederacy&rft.place=El+Dorado+Hills%2C+CA&rft.pub=Savas+Beatie&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61121-252-5&rft.aulast=Dunkerly&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer1908" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_H._Dyer" title="Frederick H. Dyer">Dyer, Frederick H.</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/08697590.3359.emory.edu">A compendium of the War of the Rebellion</a>. Des Moines, IA: Dyer. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8697590">8697590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+compendium+of+the+War+of+the+Rebellion&rft.place=Des+Moines%2C+IA&rft.pub=Dyer&rft.date=1908&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8697590&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Frederick+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F08697590.3359.emory.edu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rQSYk-LWTxcC">Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502926-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502926-0"><bdi>978-0-19-502926-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved April 20, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Ideology+in+the+Age+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502926-0&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrQSYk-LWTxcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2010" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=earytjxi6pEC">The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery</a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-34066-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-34066-2"><bdi>978-0-393-34066-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fiery+Trial%3A+Abraham+Lincoln+and+American+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-393-34066-2&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dearytjxi6pEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoote1974" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Foote, Shelby (1974). <a href="/wiki/The_Civil_War:_A_Narrative" title="The Civil War: A Narrative">The Civil War: A Narrative</a>. Vol. 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville. New York: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-74623-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-74623-4"><bdi>978-0-394-74623-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War%3A+A+Narrative&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-394-74623-4&rft.aulast=Foote&rft.aufirst=Shelby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankReaves2003" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Joseph Allan; Reaves, George A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J_GlcVOb374C&pg=PA170">Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh</a>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07126-3"><bdi>978-0-252-07126-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeing+the+Elephant%3A+Raw+Recruits+at+the+Battle+of+Shiloh&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-252-07126-3&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Allan&rft.au=Reaves%2C+George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ_GlcVOb374C%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller2008" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, Howard J. (2008). Clad in Iron: The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-297-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-297-3"><bdi>978-1-59114-297-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clad+in+Iron%3A+The+American+Civil+War+and+the+Challenge+of+British+Naval+Power&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-297-3&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Howard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagherEngleKrickGlatthaar2003" class="citation book cs1">Gallagher, Gary W.; Engle, Stephen D.; Krick, Robert K.; Glatthaar, Joseph T. (2003). The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War. New York: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-736-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-736-9"><bdi>978-1-84176-736-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Civil+War%3A+This+Mighty+Scourge+of+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-736-9&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rft.au=Engle%2C+Stephen+D.&rft.au=Krick%2C+Robert+K.&rft.au=Glatthaar%2C+Joseph+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1886" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant, Ulysses S.</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.160835">Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant</a>. Vol. 2. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/255136538">255136538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Memoirs+of+U.S.+Grant&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+L.+Webster+%26+Co.&rft.date=1886&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F255136538&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Ulysses+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.160835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeley1866" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley, Horace</a> (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanconflic00greegoog">The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 1860–'65</a>. Vol. II. Hartford: O. D. Case & Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936872302">936872302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Conflict%3A+A+History+of+the+Great+Rebellion+in+the+United+States%2C+1860%E2%80%93%2765&rft.place=Hartford&rft.pub=O.+D.+Case+%26+Co.&rft.date=1866&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936872302&rft.aulast=Greeley&rft.aufirst=Horace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanconflic00greegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidlerHeidlerColes2002" class="citation book cs1">Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T.; Coles, David J. (2002). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-382-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-382-7"><bdi>978-1-57607-382-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+American+Civil+War%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-382-7&rft.aulast=Heidler&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft.au=Heidler%2C+Jeanne+T.&rft.au=Coles%2C+David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2011" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2011). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976553-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976553-9"><bdi>978-0-19-976553-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3A+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976553-9&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzerGabbard2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Holzer" title="Harold Holzer">Holzer, Harold</a>; Gabbard, Sara Vaughn, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xLbkXsn6xHAC&pg=PA174">Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment</a>. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-2764-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-2764-5"><bdi>978-0-8093-2764-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln+and+Freedom%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation%2C+and+the+Thirteenth+Amendment&rft.place=Carbondale&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8093-2764-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxLbkXsn6xHAC%26pg%3DPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2015" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Jeffrey Willaim (2015). The Last Battle of the Civil War: Palmetto Ranch. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-73461-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-73461-6"><bdi>978-0-292-73461-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Battle+of+the+Civil+War%3A+Palmetto+Ranch&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-292-73461-6&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+Willaim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1998" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Timothy D. (1998). Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0914-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0914-7"><bdi>978-0-7006-0914-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Winfield+Scott%3A+The+Quest+for+Military+Glory&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0914-7&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Timothy+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2002" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Howard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TFyLOUrdGFwC&pg=PA225">Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913</a>. Wilmington, DE: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2916-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2916-2"><bdi>978-0-8420-2916-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucible+of+Power%3A+A+History+of+American+Foreign+Relations+to+1913&rft.place=Wilmington%2C+DE&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8420-2916-2&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTFyLOUrdGFwC%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Terry L. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ET6CDfczq9gC&pg=PA203">Historical Dictionary of the Civil War</a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7953-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7953-9"><bdi>978-0-8108-7953-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7953-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Terry+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DET6CDfczq9gC%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan2009" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americancivilwar00keeg">The American Civil War: A Military History</a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26343-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26343-8"><bdi>978-0-307-26343-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Civil+War%3A+A+Military+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-307-26343-8&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericancivilwar00keeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2009" class="citation journal cs1">Keller, Christian B. (January 2009). "Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers". Journal of Military History. 73 (1): 117–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0194">10.1353/jmh.0.0194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Flying+Dutchmen+and+Drunken+Irishmen%3A+The+Myths+and+Realities+of+Ethnic+Civil+War+Soldiers&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=117-145&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0194&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Christian+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard1999" class="citation book cs1">Leonard, Elizabeth D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alldaringofsoldi00leon/page/165/mode/1up">All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies</a>. W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3930-4712-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-3930-4712-1"><bdi>0-3930-4712-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+the+Daring+of+the+Soldier%3A+Women+of+the+Civil+War+Armies&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-3930-4712-1&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falldaringofsoldi00leon%2Fpage%2F165%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong1971" class="citation book cs1">Long, E. B. (1971). The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/68283123">68283123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+Day+by+Day%3A+An+Almanac%2C+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F68283123&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1988" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James M. (1988). <a href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom:_The_Civil_War_Era" title="Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era">Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503863-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503863-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503863-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Cry+of+Freedom%3A+The+Civil+War+Era&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503863-7&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1997" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qhEHVki8tEC">For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War</a>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974105-2"><bdi>978-0-19-974105-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+Cause+and+Comrades%3A+Why+Men+Fought+in+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974105-2&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1qhEHVki8tEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendelsohn2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mendelsohn, Adam (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf">"Samuel and Saul Isaac: International Jewish Arms Dealers, Blockade Runners, and Civil War Profiteers"</a> (PDF). Journal of the Southern Jewish Historical Society. 15. Southern Jewish Historical Society: 41–79. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Southern+Jewish+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Samuel+and+Saul+Isaac%3A+International+Jewish+Arms+Dealers%2C+Blockade+Runners%2C+and+Civil+War+Profiteers&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=41-79&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mendelsohn&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishsouth.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fsjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1967" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Robert B. (Autumn 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/northcarolinahis1967nort">The End of the Rebellion</a>. The North Carolina Historical Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Rebellion&rft.pub=The+North+Carolina+Historical+Review&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnorthcarolinahis1967nort&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayBernsteinKnox1996" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, MacGregor (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ld8NPYqqUnMC&pg=PA235">The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56627-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56627-8"><bdi>978-0-521-56627-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Strategy%3A+Rulers%2C+States%2C+and+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56627-8&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Williamson&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+Alvin&rft.au=Knox%2C+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dld8NPYqqUnMC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeely1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_E._Neely_Jr." title="Mark E. Neely Jr.">Neely, Mark E.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zPV2AAAAMAAJ">Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties</a>. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87462-325-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87462-325-3"><bdi>978-0-87462-325-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confederate+Bastille%3A+Jefferson+Davis+and+Civil+Liberties&rft.place=Milwaukee%2C+WI&rft.pub=Marquette+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87462-325-3&rft.aulast=Neely&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzPV2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeff2010" class="citation book cs1">Neff, Stephen C. (2010). Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61121-252-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61121-252-5"><bdi>978-1-61121-252-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justice+in+Blue+and+Gray%3A+A+Legal+History+of+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61121-252-5&rft.aulast=Neff&rft.aufirst=Stephen+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2005" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, James L. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d8XD-j--EVsC&pg=PA149">Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack</a>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-052404-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-052404-3"><bdi>978-0-06-052404-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reign+of+Iron%3A+The+Story+of+the+First+Battling+Ironclads%2C+the+Monitor+and+the+Merrimack&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-06-052404-3&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd8XD-j--EVsC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan2000" class="citation book cs1">Nolan, Alan T. (2000). Gallagher, Gary W.; Nolan, Alan T. (eds.). The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Lost+Cause+and+Civil+War+History&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Alan+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotterFehrenbacher1976" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David M.; Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott">The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861</a>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-013403-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-013403-7"><bdi>978-0-06-013403-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impending+Crisis%2C+1848%E2%80%931861&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-06-013403-7&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Fehrenbacher%2C+Don+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimpendingcrisis00pott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichter2009" class="citation book cs1">Richter, William L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=obFt-MmS6ygC&pg=PA49">The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction</a>. Lanham: Scarecrow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6336-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6336-1"><bdi>978-0-8108-6336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6336-1&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DobFt-MmS6ygC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_I._Robertson_Jr." title="James I. Robertson Jr.">Robertson, James I. Jr.</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/58549/58549-h/58549-h.htm#c10">The Civil War</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Civil War Centennial Commission</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/299955768">299955768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Civil+War+Centennial+Commission&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F299955768&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=James+I.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F58549%2F58549-h%2F58549-h.htm%23c10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchecter2007" class="citation book cs1">Schecter, Barnet (2007). The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devil%27s+Own+Work%3A+The+Civil+War+Draft+Riots+and+the+Fight+to+Reconstruct+America&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Schecter&rft.aufirst=Barnet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson1919" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Nathaniel W. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dayconfederacya01stepgoog/page/n220/mode/2up?ref=ol&view=theater">The Day of the Confederacy. Vol. 30, A Chronicle of the Embattled South</a>. The Chronicles Of America Series. New Haven: Yale University Press; Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.; London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Day+of+the+Confederacy.+Vol.+30%2C+A+Chronicle+of+the+Embattled+South&rft.series=The+Chronicles+Of+America+Series&rft.pub=New+Haven%3A+Yale+University+Press%3B+Toronto%3A+Glasgow%2C+Brook+%26+Co.%3B+London%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdayconfederacya01stepgoog%2Fpage%2Fn220%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fref%3Dol%26view%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Van_Doren_Stern" title="Philip Van Doren Stern">Stern, Phillip Van Doren</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GDeqAAAAIAAJ">The Confederate Navy</a>. Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confederate+Navy&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Phillip+Van+Doren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGDeqAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymondsClipson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Craig_Symonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Craig Symonds">Symonds, Craig L.</a>; Clipson, William J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C">The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy</a>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-984-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-984-0"><bdi>978-1-55750-984-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naval+Institute+Historical+Atlas+of+the+U.S.+Navy&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-55750-984-0&rft.aulast=Symonds&rft.aufirst=Craig+L.&rft.au=Clipson%2C+William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq_HIcc8n3K4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudeau1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Noah_Andre_Trudeau" title="Noah Andre Trudeau">Trudeau, Noah Andre</a> (1994). Out of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April–June 1865. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-85328-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-85328-6"><bdi>978-0-316-85328-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Storm%3A+The+End+of+the+Civil+War%2C+April%E2%80%93June+1865&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+%26+Co.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-316-85328-6&rft.aulast=Trudeau&rft.aufirst=Noah+Andre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerPierpaoliWhite2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4mwAtj2r3UC&pg=PA462">The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia</a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-338-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-338-5"><bdi>978-1-59884-338-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+Naval+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-338-5&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.&rft.au=Pierpaoli%2C+Paul+G.&rft.au=White%2C+William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq4mwAtj2r3UC%26pg%3DPA462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinovskis1990" class="citation book cs1">Vinovskis, Maris (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9D4TAwc93VoC">Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39559-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39559-5"><bdi>978-0-521-39559-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+Social+History+of+the+American+Civil+War%3A+Exploratory+Essays&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-39559-5&rft.aulast=Vinovskis&rft.aufirst=Maris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9D4TAwc93VoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1990" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Geoffrey R. (1990). The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-56285-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-56285-8"><bdi>978-0-394-56285-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War%3A+An+Illustrated+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-394-56285-8&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigley2004" class="citation book cs1">Weigley, Frank Russell (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatcivilwarmil00russ">A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865</a>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33738-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33738-2"><bdi>978-0-253-33738-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Great+Civil+War%3A+A+Military+and+Political+History%2C+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33738-2&rft.aulast=Weigley&rft.aufirst=Frank+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatcivilwarmil00russ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinters1963" class="citation book cs1">Winters, John D. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PjicJWUQhPYC&pg=PR3">The Civil War in Louisiana</a>. Baton Rouge: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0834-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0834-5"><bdi>978-0-8071-0834-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+in+Louisiana&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-0834-5&rft.aulast=Winters&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjicJWUQhPYC%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise1991" class="citation book cs1">Wise, Stephen R. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0i-KzgEACAAJ">Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War</a>. University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8724-97993" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8724-97993"><bdi>978-0-8724-97993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lifeline+of+the+Confederacy%3A+Blockade+Running+During+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8724-97993&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0i-KzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittke1952" class="citation book cs1">Wittke, Carl (1952). Refugees of Revolution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-0874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-0874-2"><bdi>978-1-5128-0874-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Refugees+of+Revolution&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=978-1-5128-0874-2&rft.aulast=Wittke&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodworth1996" class="citation book cs1">Woodworth, Steven E. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rb3ANWoZt1YC">The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research</a>. Wesport, CT: Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29019-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29019-0"><bdi>978-0-313-29019-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Civil+War%3A+A+Handbook+of+Literature+and+Research&rft.place=Wesport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29019-0&rft.aulast=Woodworth&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drb3ANWoZt1YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_sources">Web sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowns2012" class="citation web cs1">Downs, James (April 13, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/">"Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War"</a>. Oxford University Press blog. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180119065611/https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/">Archived</a> from the original on January 19, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+University+Press+blog&rft.atitle=Colorblindness+in+the+demographic+death+toll+of+the+Civil+War&rft.date=2012-04-13&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.oup.com%2F2012%2F04%2Fblack-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhlstrom1972" class="citation book cs1">Ahlstrom, Sydney E. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC">A Religious History of the American People</a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01762-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01762-5"><bdi>978-0-300-01762-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Religious+History+of+the+American+People&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-300-01762-5&rft.aulast=Ahlstrom&rft.aufirst=Sydney+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5kFF6a1viGcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeringerHattawayJonesStill1986" class="citation book cs1">Beringer, Richard E.; Hattaway, Herman; Jones, Archer; Still, William N. Jr. (1986). Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820308159" title="Special:BookSources/9780820308159"><bdi>9780820308159</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+South+Lost+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780820308159&rft.aulast=Beringer&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Hattaway%2C+Herman&rft.au=Jones%2C+Archer&rft.au=Still%2C+William+N.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> Influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeringer1988" class="citation book cs1">Beringer, Richard E. (1988). The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820310770" title="Special:BookSources/9780820310770"><bdi>9780820310770</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Confederate+Defeat%3A+Nationalism%2C+War+Aims%2C+and+Religion&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780820310770&rft.aulast=Beringer&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBestor1964" class="citation journal cs1">Bestor, Arthur (1964). "The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis". <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 69 (2): 327–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1844986">10.2307/1844986</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844986">1844986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+American+Civil+War+as+a+Constitutional+Crisis&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=327-352&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1844986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1844986%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bestor&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagher2011" class="citation book cs1">Gallagher, Gary W. (2011). The Union War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06608-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06608-3"><bdi>978-0-674-06608-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Union+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06608-3&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagherVaron2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher" title="Gary W. Gallagher">Gallagher, Gary W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_R._Varon" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth R. Varon">Varon, Elizabeth R.</a>, eds. (2019). New Perspectives on the Union War. New York: Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvh1dnpx">10.2307/j.ctvh1dnpx</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823284566" title="Special:BookSources/9780823284566"><bdi>9780823284566</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dnpx">j.ctvh1dnpx</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+the+Union+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvh1dnpx%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvh1dnpx&rft.isbn=9780823284566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGara1964" class="citation book cs1">Gara, Larry (1964). "The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox". In <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Unger" title="Irwin Unger">Unger, Irwin</a> (ed.). Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (published 1970). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780030796401" title="Special:BookSources/9780030796401"><bdi>9780030796401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Fugitive+Slave+Law%3A+A+Double+Paradox&rft.btitle=Essays+on+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=9780030796401&rft.aulast=Gara&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> (originally published in Civil War History, Vol. 10, No. 3, September 1964, pp. 229–240).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter1938" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter, Richard</a> (1938). "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War". <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 44 (1): 50–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1840850">10.2307/1840850</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">1840850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Tariff+Issue+on+the+Eve+of+the+Civil+War&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-55&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1840850&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1840850%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hofstadter&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohannsen1973" class="citation book cs1">Johannsen, Robert W. (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-501620-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-501620-8"><bdi>978-0-19-501620-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stephen+A.+Douglas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-19-501620-8&rft.aulast=Johannsen&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrannawitter2008" class="citation book cs1">Krannawitter, Thomas L. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vindicatinglinco00kran">Vindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president</a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5972-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5972-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-5972-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vindicating+Lincoln%3A+defending+the+politics+of+our+greatest+president&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5972-1&rft.aulast=Krannawitter&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvindicatinglinco00kran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">McPherson, James M.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313666">This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539242-5"><bdi>978-0-19-539242-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+Mighty+Scourge%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539242-5&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195313666&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ordeal_of_the_Union" title="Ordeal of the Union">Ordeal of the Union</a>, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner. <ol><li>Ordeal of the Union: Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ordealofunion00nevi">online</a>;</li> <li>Ordeal of the Union: A House Dividing, 1852–1857;</li> <li>The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859;</li> <li>The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861;</li> <li>War for the Union: The Improvised War, 1861–1862;</li> <li>War for the Union: War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warforunionvol202nevi">online</a>;</li> <li>War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864;</li> <li>War for the Union: The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865</li></ol></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2002" class="citation book cs1">Olsen, Christopher J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RrBb2ThDuCkC&pg=PA237">Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516097-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516097-0"><bdi>978-0-19-516097-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Culture+and+Secession+in+Mississippi%3A+Masculinity%2C+Honor%2C+and+the+Antiparty+Tradition%2C+1830%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516097-0&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRrBb2ThDuCkC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1962" class="citation journal cs1">Potter, David M. (1962). "The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa". <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 67 (4): 924–950. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1845246">10.2307/1845246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845246">1845246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Historian%27s+Use+of+Nationalism+and+Vice+Versa&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=924-950&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1845246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1845246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitterWakelyn1998" class="citation book cs1">Ritter, Charles F.; Wakelyn, Jon L., eds. (1998). Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leaders+of+the+American+Civil+War%3A+A+Biographical+and+Historiographical+Dictionary&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> Provides short biographies and historiographical summaries.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1966" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, Robert R. (1966). "Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern History">Journal of Southern History</a>. 32 (4): 466–486. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2204926">10.2307/2204926</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2204926">2204926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Doctrines+with+Regard+to+Slavery+in+Territories&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=466-486&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2204926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2204926%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan-Dean2014" class="citation book cs1">Sheehan-Dean, Aaron (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/A+Companion+to+the+U+S+Civil+War%2C+2+Volume+Set-p-9781444351316">A Companion to the U.S. Civil War</a>. 2-Volume Set. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35131-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35131-6"><bdi>978-1-444-35131-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+U.S.+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=2-Volume+Set&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2014-04&rft.isbn=978-1-444-35131-6&rft.aulast=Sheehan-Dean&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiley.com%2Fen-us%2FA%2BCompanion%2Bto%2Bthe%2BU%2BS%2BCivil%2BWar%252C%2B2%2BVolume%2BSet-p-9781444351316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"> 1232 pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampp1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Stampp, Kenneth M.</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americain185700kenn">America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503902-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503902-3"><bdi>978-0-19-503902-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+in+1857%3A+A+Nation+on+the+Brink&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503902-3&rft.aulast=Stampp&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericain185700kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorntonEkelund2004" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tv_ZLOx8_ywC">Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War</a>. Wilmington, DE: SR. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2961-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2961-2"><bdi>978-0-8420-2961-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tariffs%2C+Blockades%2C+and+Inflation%3A+The+Economics+of+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Wilmington%2C+DE&rft.pub=SR&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8420-2961-2&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Ekelund%2C+Robert+Burton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTv_ZLOx8_ywC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaron2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_R._Varon" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth R. Varon">Varon, Elizabeth R.</a> (2008). Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3232-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3232-5"><bdi>978-0-8078-3232-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disunion%21%3A+The+Coming+of+the+American+Civil+War%2C+1789%E2%80%931859&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3232-5&rft.aulast=Varon&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks2013" class="citation book cs1">Weeks, William E. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e3thBAAAQBAJ">The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations</a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00590-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00590-7"><bdi>978-1-107-00590-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+American+Foreign+Relations&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00590-7&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De3thBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soldier_life:_North_and_South">Soldier life: North and South</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_S._Carmichael" title="Peter S. Carmichael">Carmichael, Peter S.</a> The War for the Common Soldier: How Men Thought, Fought, and Survived in Civil War Armies (UNC Press Books, 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lfp1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">online</a></li> <li>Frank, Joseph Allan, and George A. Reaves. Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh (Greenwood, 1989)</li> <li>Hesseltine, William Best (ed.). Civil War Prisons. (Kent State University Press, 1972)</li> <li>Linderman, Gerald. Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (Free Press, 1987)</li> <li>Livermore, Thomas Leonard. Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America, 1861–65 (Houghton, Mifflin, 1900) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qw8pAAAAYAAJ&dq=Numbers+ansd+losses+in+the+civil+war+livermore&pg=PA1">online</a></li> <li>McPherson, James M. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (Oxford University Press, 1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qhEHVki8tEC&dq=for+cause+and+comrades+james&pg=PA181">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra_Manning" title="Chandra Manning">Manning, Chandra</a>. What This Cruel War Was Over. (Vintage, 2007) Uses letters, diaries, and regimental newspapers to probe the world view of soldiers—black and white, Yankee and Rebel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.lsu.edu/cwbr/vol9/iss3/2">Interview with author</a></li> <li>Mitchell, Reid. Civil War Soldiers: Their Expectations and Their Experiences (Penguin, 1997)</li> <li>Robertson, James I. Soldiers Blue and Gray (University of South Carolina Press, 1988)</li> <li>Shively, Kathryn J. Nature's Civil War: Common Soldiers and the Environment in 1862 Virginia (UNC Press Books, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IbEJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_I._Wiley" title="Bell I. Wiley">Wiley, Bell I.</a> The Life of Johnny Reb and The Life of Billy Yank (1943 and 1951; reprint 1994), two standard scholarly histories combined; 960pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofjohnnyrebt0000bell">online</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(20)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-20 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-20"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> American Civil War at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/American Civil War">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="20" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="c:American Civil War">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:US_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="n:Category:US Civil War">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="q:American Civil War">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 26px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="26" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/American Civil War">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/American Civil War">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 22px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="22" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/American Civil War">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="voy:American Civil War">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/american-civil-war">West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818205335/http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html">Civil War photos</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?st=grid&c=100&co=cwp">View images</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/">Civil War Photographs Collection</a> at the Library of Congress</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.54756">A House Divided (1960)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject">"American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">Cornell University Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states">Statements of each state as to why they were seceding</a>, battlefields.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/places.htm">National Park Service Civil War Places</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/battlefields/civil-war.htm">Civil War Battlefield Places</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.battlefields.org/">American Battlefield Trust</a> – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gettysburg.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4016coll2">Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College</a> – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonofthesouth.net/">The Civil War</a> – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&oldid=1258374105">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&oldid=1258374105</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 19 November 2024, at 10:01 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanse_Burgeroorlog" title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sezessionskrieg" title="Sezessionskrieg – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sezessionskrieg" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%9C%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%AB_%E1%89%A5%E1%88%94%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8C%A6%E1%88%AD%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="የአሜሪካ ብሔራዊ ጦርነት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የአሜሪካ ብሔራዊ ጦርነት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="अमरीकी गृहयुद्ध – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अमरीकी गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanisce_Ingefeoht" title="Americanisce Ingefeoht – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Americanisce Ingefeoht" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_d%27os_Estaus_Unius" title="Guerra Civil d'os Estaus Unius – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Guerra Civil d'os Estaus Unius" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_de_los_Estaos_Xun%C3%ADos" title="Guerra Civil de los Estaos Xuníos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra Civil de los Estaos Xuníos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9rika_Ret%C3%A3voreku%C3%A9ra_Joaju_%C3%B1orair%C3%B5" title="Amérika Retãvorekuéra Joaju ñorairõ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Amérika Retãvorekuéra Joaju ñorairõ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E_v%C9%99t%C9%99nda%C5%9F_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="ABŞ vətəndaş müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ vətəndaş müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="آمریکا بیرلشمیش ایالتلرینده ایچ ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آمریکا بیرلشمیش ایالتلرینده ایچ ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের গৃহযুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের গৃহযুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2m-pak_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Lâm-pak Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lâm-pak Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%A0%D0%A8-%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B" title="АҠШ-тағы граждандар һуғышы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="АҠШ-тағы граждандар һуғышы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Грамадзянская вайна ў ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грамадзянская вайна ў ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Грамадзянская вайна ў ЗША – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Грамадзянская вайна ў ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gera_Sibil_nin_mga_Amerikano" title="Gera Sibil nin mga Amerikano – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Gera Sibil nin mga Amerikano" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Американска гражданска война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Американска гражданска война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sezessionsgriag" title="Sezessionsgriag – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sezessionsgriag" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C4%8Dki_gra%C4%91anski_rat" title="Američki građanski rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Američki građanski rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_diabarzh_Stado%C3%B9-Unanet_Amerika" title="Brezel diabarzh Stadoù-Unanet Amerika – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel diabarzh Stadoù-Unanet Amerika" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Америкын эрхэтэнэй дайн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Америкын эрхэтэнэй дайн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_dels_Estats_Units" title="Guerra Civil dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra Civil dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gubat_Patani_sa_Amerika" title="Gubat Patani sa Amerika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Gubat Patani sa Amerika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americk%C3%A1_ob%C4%8Dansk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Americká občanská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Americká občanská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civile_Americana" title="Guerra Civile Americana – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Guerra Civile Americana" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfel_Cartref_America" title="Rhyfel Cartref America – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfel Cartref America" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikanske_borgerkrig" title="Amerikanske borgerkrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Amerikanske borgerkrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sezessionskrieg" title="Sezessionskrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sezessionskrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_kodus%C3%B5da" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide kodusõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ameerika Ühendriikide kodusõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BC%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Αμερικανικός Εμφύλιος Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμερικανικός Εμφύλιος Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8ra_%27d_secesi%C3%B2%E1%B9%85_americ%C3%A0na" title="Guèra 'd secesiòṅ americàna – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Guèra 'd secesiòṅ americàna" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Secesi%C3%B3n" title="Guerra de Secesión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de Secesión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usona_Enlanda_Milito" title="Usona Enlanda Milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Usona Enlanda Milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuetako_Gerra_Zibila" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Gerra Zibila – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Gerra Zibila" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="جنگ داخلی آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ داخلی آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="American Civil War" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikanska_Borgarakr%C3%ADggi%C3%B0" title="Amerikanska Borgarakríggið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Amerikanska Borgarakríggið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_de_S%C3%A9cession" title="Guerre de Sécession – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre de Sécession" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanske_Boargeroarloch" title="Amerikaanske Boargeroarloch – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Amerikaanske Boargeroarloch" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_Cathartha_na_St%C3%A1t_Aontaithe" title="Cogadh Cathartha na Stát Aontaithe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogadh Cathartha na Stát Aontaithe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_Catharra_Ameireaganach" title="Cogadh Catharra Ameireaganach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cogadh Catharra Ameireaganach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_estadounidense" title="Guerra civil estadounidense – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra civil estadounidense" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="آمريکا داخلي جنگ – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="آمريکا داخلي جنگ" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%EB%B6%81_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="남북 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="남북 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya%C6%99in_basasar_Amurka" title="Yaƙin basasar Amurka – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yaƙin basasar Amurka" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A8_%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86-%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Քաղաքացիական պատերազմը ԱՄՆ-ում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղաքացիական պատերազմը ԱՄՆ-ում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="अमेरिकी गृहयुद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अमेरिकी गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C4%8Dki_gra%C4%91anski_rat" title="Američki građanski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Američki građanski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usana_interna_milito" title="Usana interna milito – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Usana interna milito" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agha_Obodo_America" title="Agha Obodo America – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Agha Obodo America" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibil_a_Gubat_ti_Amerikano" title="Sibil a Gubat ti Amerikano – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sibil a Gubat ti Amerikano" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Amerika" title="Perang Saudara Amerika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Saudara Amerika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_Statounitese" title="Guerra Civil Statounitese – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Guerra Civil Statounitese" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%A6lastr%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Þrælastríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þrælastríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civile_americana" title="Guerra civile americana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra civile americana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מלחמת האזרחים האמריקנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת האזרחים האמריקנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Sadulur_Am%C3%A9rika" title="Perang Sadulur Amérika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Perang Sadulur Amérika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89ama_t%C9%9By%CA%8A%CA%8A_you_(Guerre_de_S%C3%A9cession)" title="Ɖama tɛyʊʊ you (Guerre de Sécession) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖama tɛyʊʊ you (Guerre de Sécession)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%83%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B9" title="ಅಮೇರಿಕಾದ ಅಂತಃಕಲಹ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಮೇರಿಕಾದ ಅಂತಃಕಲಹ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%91%D0%A8-%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82" title="АБШ-да граждан къазауат – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="АБШ-да граждан къазауат" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A8-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="აშშ-ის სამოქალაქო ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აშშ-ის სამოქალაქო ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Америкадағы азамат соғысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Америкадағы азамат соғысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresel_Vredereth_Amerika" title="Bresel Vredereth Amerika – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bresel Vredereth Amerika" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_vya_wenyewe_kwa_wenyewe_nchini_Marekani" title="Vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe nchini Marekani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe nchini Marekani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eer%C3%AA_navxwey%C3%AE_y%C3%AA_Amer%C3%AEkay%C3%AA" title="Şerê navxweyî yê Amerîkayê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şerê navxweyî yê Amerîkayê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%A8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%88" title="АКШдагы жарандык согуш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="АКШдагы жарандык согуш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_Civile_Americanum" title="Bellum Civile Americanum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum Civile Americanum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikas_pilso%C5%86u_kar%C5%A1" title="Amerikas pilsoņu karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Amerikas pilsoņu karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sezessiounskrich" title="Sezessiounskrich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sezessiounskrich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%A1%D0%A8-%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="АСШ-дин граждан дяве – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="АСШ-дин граждан дяве" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungtini%C5%B3_Valstij%C5%B3_pilietinis_karas" title="Jungtinių Valstijų pilietinis karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jungtinių Valstijų pilietinis karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A6ra_de_secescion_america%C3%B1a" title="Guæra de secescion americaña – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Guæra de secescion americaña" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanse_Burgeroorlog" title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_Americana" title="Guerra Civil Americana – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Guerra Civil Americana" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikai_polg%C3%A1rh%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Amerikai polgárháború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Amerikai polgárháború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Американска граѓанска војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Американска граѓанска војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="അമേരിക്കൻ ആഭ്യന്തരയുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അമേരിക്കൻ ആഭ്യന്തരയുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwerra_%C4%8Aivili_Amerikana" title="Gwerra Ċivili Amerikana – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Gwerra Ċivili Amerikana" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="अमेरिकन यादवी युद्ध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अमेरिकन यादवी युद्ध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الحرب الاهلية الامريكيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الحرب الاهلية الامريكيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Amerika" title="Perang Saudara Amerika – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Saudara Amerika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parang_Sudaro_AS" title="Parang Sudaro AS – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Parang Sudaro AS" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Cebil_Amaricana" title="Guerra Cebil Amaricana – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Guerra Cebil Amaricana" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Америкийн иргэний дайн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Америкийн иргэний дайн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%99%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အမေရိကန် ပြည်တွင်းစစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အမေရိကန် ပြည်တွင်းစစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanse_Burgeroorlog" title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Amerikaanse Burgeroorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="अमेरिकी गृहयुद्ध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अमेरिकी गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83" title="अमेरिकी गृह हताः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अमेरिकी गृह हताः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="南北戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南北戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uerra_civile_ammerecana" title="Uerra civile ammerecana – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Uerra civile ammerecana" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%8A%DF%A1%DF%8D%DF%99%DF%8C%DF%9E%DF%8C%DF%AC_%DF%A3%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%AC%DF%95%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%AC_%DF%9E%DF%9F%DF%8D" title="ߊߡߍߙߌߞߌ߬ ߣߊ߲߬ߕߊ߲߬ ߞߟߍ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߊߡߍߙߌߞߌ߬ ߣߊ߲߬ߕߊ߲߬ ߞߟߍ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%A6%D0%A8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D3%80%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="АЦШ гражданийн тӀом – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="АЦШ гражданийн тӀом" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerikoons_B%C3%BCrgerkrich" title="Ameerikoons Bürgerkrich – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ameerikoons Bürgerkrich" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_amerikanske_borgerkrigen" title="Den amerikanske borgerkrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den amerikanske borgerkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgarkrigen_i_USA" title="Borgarkrigen i USA – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Borgarkrigen i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Americana" title="Guèrra Civila Americana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra Civila Americana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Civil_War" title="U.S. Civil War – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="U.S. Civil War" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQShda_fuqarolar_urushi" title="AQShda fuqarolar urushi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="AQShda fuqarolar urushi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7" title="ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਗ੍ਰਹਿ ਯੁੱਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਗ੍ਰਹਿ ਯੁੱਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="امریکی خانہ جنگی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="امریکی خانہ جنگی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د امریکا کورنۍ جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د امریکا کورنۍ جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaansche_B%C3%B6rgerkrieg" title="Amerikaansche Börgerkrieg – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Amerikaansche Börgerkrieg" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_secesyjna" title="Wojna secesyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna secesyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Secess%C3%A3o" title="Guerra de Secessão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra de Secessão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_grajdanl%C4%B1q_cenki" title="Amerika grajdanlıq cenki – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Amerika grajdanlıq cenki" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Civil_American" title="Războiul Civil American – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul Civil American" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Домова война в США – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Домова война в США" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Гражданская война в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гражданская война в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Америка гражданскай сэриитэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Америка гражданскай сэриитэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gherra_tzivile_americana" title="Gherra tzivile americana – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Gherra tzivile americana" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikoanske_Burgerkriech" title="Amerikoanske Burgerkriech – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Amerikoanske Burgerkriech" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_Civile_Amerikane" title="Lufta Civile Amerikane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta Civile Amerikane" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civili_miricana" title="Guerra civili miricana – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Guerra civili miricana" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BA" title="ඇමරිකානු සිවිල් යුද්ධය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇමරිකානු සිවිල් යුද්ධය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="American Civil War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%8A_%DA%AF%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%88%D9%8A%DA%99%D9%87%D9%87" title="آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آمريڪي گهرو ويڙهه" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americk%C3%A1_ob%C4%8Dianska_vojna" title="Americká občianska vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Americká občianska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C5%A1ka_dr%C5%BEavljanska_vojna" title="Ameriška državljanska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ameriška državljanska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D9%86%DB%8E%D9%88%D8%AE%DB%86%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="شەڕی نێوخۆییی ئەمریکا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی نێوخۆییی ئەمریکا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Амерички грађански рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Амерички грађански рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C4%8Dki_gra%C4%91anski_rat" title="Američki građanski rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Američki građanski rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_sis%C3%A4llissota" title="Yhdysvaltain sisällissota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhdysvaltain sisällissota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikanska_inb%C3%B6rdeskriget" title="Amerikanska inbördeskriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Amerikanska inbördeskriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digmaang_Sibil_ng_Amerika" title="Digmaang Sibil ng Amerika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Digmaang Sibil ng Amerika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="அமெரிக்க உள்நாட்டுப் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அமெரிக்க உள்நாட்டுப் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%A8_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B" title="АКШ ватандашлар сугышы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="АКШ ватандашлар сугышы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%82" title="అమెరికా అంతర్యుద్ధం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అమెరికా అంతర్యుద్ధం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2" title="สงครามกลางเมืองอเมริกา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามกลางเมืองอเมริกา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%B4%E1%8F%A9%E1%8F%81%E1%8E%AC_Civil_%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%84%E1%8F%A9" title="ᏴᏩᏁᎬ Civil ᏓᏄᏩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏴᏩᏁᎬ Civil ᏓᏄᏩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikan_%C4%B0%C3%A7_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Amerikan İç Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerikan İç Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E-daky_Ra%C3%BDatlyk_ur%C5%9Fy" title="ABŞ-daky Raýatlyk urşy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="ABŞ-daky Raýatlyk urşy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Громадянська війна в США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Громадянська війна в США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="امریکی خانہ جنگی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="امریکی خانہ جنگی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guera_de_secesion_americana" title="Guera de secesion americana – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Guera de secesion americana" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvahanikoiden_soda_A%C3%9CV:oi%C5%A1" title="Rahvahanikoiden soda AÜV:oiš – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Rahvahanikoiden soda AÜV:oiš" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E1%BB%99i_chi%E1%BA%BFn_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Nội chiến Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nội chiến Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameeriga_%C3%9Ctisriike_kodos%C3%B5da" title="Ameeriga Ütisriike kodosõda – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ameeriga Ütisriike kodosõda" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E7%BE%8E%E4%B9%8B%E5%BD%B9" title="南北美之役 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="南北美之役" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gera_Sibil_Amerikanhon" title="Gera Sibil Amerikanhon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Gera Sibil Amerikanhon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%86%85%E6%88%98" title="美国内战 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美国内战" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%92" title="אמעריקאנער בירגערקריג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אמעריקאנער בירגערקריג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogun_Ab%E1%BA%B9%CC%81l%C3%A9_Am%E1%BA%B9%CC%81r%C3%ADk%C3%A0" title="Ogun Abẹ́lé Amẹ́ríkà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ogun Abẹ́lé Amẹ́ríkà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="南北戰爭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="南北戰爭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAV_c%C4%97v%C4%97l%C4%97n%C4%97_vaina" title="JAV cėvėlėnė vaina – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="JAV cėvėlėnė vaina" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="南北战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="南北战争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porang_Sudaro_Amerika" title="Porang Sudaro Amerika – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Porang Sudaro Amerika" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 November 2024, at 10:01 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-88l8n","wgBackendResponseTime":307,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.403","walltime":"3.888","ppvisitednodes":{"value":29596,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":812595,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":47284,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":23,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":61,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":886291,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":5,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3222.529 1 -total"," 31.17% 1004.560 2 Template:Reflist"," 17.50% 563.971 115 Template:Cite_book"," 14.04% 452.287 134 Template:Sfn"," 13.65% 439.746 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"," 10.01% 322.665 55 Template:Cite_web"," 8.65% 278.672 14 Template:Efn"," 8.12% 261.653 3 Template:Multiref2"," 6.01% 193.683 2 Template:Cite_Q"," 5.33% 171.812 14 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.002","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":14150288,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAhlstrom1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnoldWiener2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsanteMazama2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaileyKennedy1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBearman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeringer1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeringerHattawayJonesStill1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeringerHattawayJonesStill1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBestor1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlair2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBohl2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBordewich2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowery2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuchanan1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuckley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCathey2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatton1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambersAnderson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulter1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCushman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDepew1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinçaslan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDome1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowns2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDraper1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunkerly2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupontRosenbloom2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyer1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarmer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaust1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFehrenbacher2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFellman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFField2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoote1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankReaves2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagher1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagher2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagherEngleKrickGlatthaar2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagherVaron2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGara1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGates2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraves1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreeley1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHacker2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHallock1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardyman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeidlerHeidlerColes2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerring2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstadter1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstadter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolzerGabbard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchison2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaffa2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohannsen1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeegan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeller2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKevin_Dougherty2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeys2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrannawitter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLattimore\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonard1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLincoln1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLong1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMangum1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcWhirter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendelsohn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerritt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrayBernsteinKnox1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNadeau2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeely1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeely1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeely2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeet1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeff2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolayHay1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNofi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoyalas2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPickenpaugh2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotterFehrenbacher1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReid2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes-Pitts2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiordan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRitterWakelyn1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertson1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchecter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheehan-Dean2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheehan-Dean2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStampp1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurdam1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurdam2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSymonds2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSymondsClipson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorntonEkelund2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefousse1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudeau1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuckerPierpaoliWhite2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaron2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinovskis1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVladeck2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeeks2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeigley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelles1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitsell1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsHoffius2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinik2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinters1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWise1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWittke1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoods2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodworth1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYancey_Hall2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Abbr\"] = 4,\n [\"Additional citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Age in years, months, weeks and days\"] = 1,\n [\"American Civil War\"] = 1,\n [\"American conflicts\"] = 1,\n [\"Assassinated\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Campaignbox American Civil War\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite Q\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 115,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 55,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Colend\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 14,\n [\"Flagcountry\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagicon\"] = 5,\n [\"Flatlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Foreign countries in the American Civil War\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Google books\"] = 35,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 23,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 5,\n [\"Indented plainlist\"] = 6,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive short film\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 24,\n [\"Main\"] = 16,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 5,\n [\"Multiref2\"] = 3,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 6,\n [\"Periods in US history\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 3,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"RMS\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 4,\n [\"Refend\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 2,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 134,\n [\"Ship\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Stack\"] = 1,\n [\"Surrender\"] = 2,\n [\"USS\"] = 5,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n1 1 Abraham Lincoln\n1 1 Oscar Handlin\n2 2 Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.\n3 3 Samuel Eliot Morison\n4 4 Frederick Merk\n5 5 Arthur M. Schlesinger\n6 6 Paul Herman Buck\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","17.3"],["?","360","16.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","200","9.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","120","5.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","80","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","3.6"],["[others]","580","26.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-ng8f6","timestamp":"20241124160756","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"American Civil War","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Civil_War","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8676","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8676","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-02T23:28:55Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T10:01:43Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c7\/CivilWarUSAColl.png","headline":"1861\u20131865 civil war in the United States between the North and the South over the enslavement of African-Americans"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>