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<li id="toc-Copyright_in_government_works_prior_to_1895" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_in_government_works_prior_to_1895"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Copyright in government works prior to 1895</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_in_government_works_prior_to_1895-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Printing_Law_of_1895" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Printing_Law_of_1895"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The Printing Law of 1895</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Printing_Law_of_1895-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Copyright_Act_of_1909" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Copyright_Act_of_1909"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>The Copyright Act of 1909</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Copyright_Act_of_1909-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Copyright_Act_of_1976" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Copyright_Act_of_1976"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The Copyright Act of 1976</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Copyright_Act_of_1976-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Derivative_works_consisting_predominantly_of_government_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivative_works_consisting_predominantly_of_government_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Derivative works consisting predominantly of government works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivative_works_consisting_predominantly_of_government_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivative_works_after_the_Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivative_works_after_the_Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Derivative works after the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivative_works_after_the_Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> 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</a> <ul id="toc-Exemptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State,_territorial,_and_local_governments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State,_territorial,_and_local_governments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>State, territorial, and local governments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State,_territorial,_and_local_governments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_restrictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_restrictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Other restrictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_restrictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edicts_of_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edicts_of_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Edicts of government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edicts_of_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>In other countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%A0%95%EB%B6%80%EC%9D%98_%EC%A0%80%EC%9E%91%EB%AC%BC" title="미국 정부의 저작물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 정부의 저작물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_hak_cipta_karya_pemerintah_federal_Amerika_Serikat" title="Status hak cipta karya pemerintah federal Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Status hak cipta karya pemerintah federal Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="יצירה של הממשל הפדרלי של ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יצירה של הממשל הפדרלי של ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E3%81%AE%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="アメリカ合衆国政府の著作物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国政府の著作物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Авторские права работ правительства США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Авторские права работ правительства США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_status_of_work_by_the_U.S._government" title="Copyright status of work by the U.S. government – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Copyright status of work by the U.S. government" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li 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work by the U.S. government">Copyright status of work by the U.S. government</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p> A <b>work of the United States government</b> is defined by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">copyright law</a>, as "a work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States Government as part of that person's official duties".<sup id="cite_ref-USC|17|101_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USC|17|101-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under section 105 of the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17usc105_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17usc105-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such works are not entitled to domestic copyright protection under U.S. law and are therefore in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </p><p>This act only applies to U.S. domestic copyright as that is the extent of U.S. <i>federal</i> law. The U.S. government asserts that it can still hold the copyright to those works in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Publication of an otherwise protected work by the U.S. government does not put that work in the public domain. For example, government publications may include works copyrighted by a contractor or grantee; copyrighted material assigned to the U.S. Government; or copyrighted information from other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States">copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States</a> is governed by its own set of laws. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first Federal statute concerning copyright in government publications was the <a href="/wiki/Printing_Act_of_1895" title="Printing Act of 1895">Printing Law enacted in 1895</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 52 of that Act provided that copies of "Government Publications" could not be copyrighted. </p><p>Prior to 1895, no court decision had occasion to consider any claim of copyright on behalf of the Government itself. Courts had, however, considered whether copyright could be asserted as to the text of laws, court decisions, governmental rules, etc., and concluded that such material were not subject to copyright as a matter of public policy.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But other material prepared for State Governments by their employees, notably the headnotes, syllabi, annotations, etc. prepared by court reporters, had been held copyrightable on behalf of the States.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Copyright Act of 1909 was the first copyright statute to address government publications. Section 7 of the Act (later codified as Section 8 of title 17 U.S.C.) provided that "No copyright shall subsist<span class="nowrap"> </span>... in any publication of the United States Government, or any reprint, in whole or in part, thereof". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_in_government_works_prior_to_1895">Copyright in government works prior to 1895</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Copyright in government works prior to 1895"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the Printing Act of 1895, no statute governed copyright of U.S. government works. Court decisions had established that an employee of the Federal Government had no right to claim copyright in a work prepared by him for the Government.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other decisions had held that individuals could not have copyright in books consisting of the text of Federal or State court decisions, statutes, rules of judicial procedures, etc., i.e., governmental edicts and rulings.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copyright was denied on the grounds of public policy: such material as the laws and governmental rules and decisions must be freely available to the public and made known as widely as possible; hence there must be no restriction on the reproduction and dissemination of such documents.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While copyright was denied in the text of court decisions, material added by a court reporter on his own – such as leadnotes, syllabi, annotations, indexes, etc. – was deemed copyrightable by him, although he was employed by the government to take down and compile the court decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cases may be said to have established the principle that material prepared by a government employee outside of the scope of the public policy rule was copyrightable; and that the employee who prepared such material on his own could secure copyright therein.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There appears to be no court decision before 1895 dealing directly with the question of whether the United States Government might obtain or hold copyright in material not within the public policy rule.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the question did arise with respect to State Governments. In the nineteenth century much of the public printing for the States was done under contract by private publishers. The publisher would not bear the expense of printing and publishing, however, unless he could be given exclusive rights. To enable the State to give exclusive rights to a publisher, a number of States enacted statutes providing that court reporters or other State officials who prepared copyrightable material in their official capacity should secure copyright in trust for or on behalf of the State. Such copyrights for the benefit of the State were sustained by the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two cases before 1895 may also be noted with regard to the question of the rights of individual authors (or their successors) in material prepared for, or acquired by, the United States Government. In <i>Heine v. Appleton</i>, an artist was held to have no right to secure copyright in drawings prepared by him as a member of Commodore Perry's expedition, since the drawings belonged to the Government. In <i>Folsom v. Marsh</i>, where a collection of letters and other private writings of George Washington had been published and copyrighted by his successors, the purchase of the manuscripts by the United States Government was held not to affect the copyright. The contention of the defendant that the Government's ownership of the manuscripts made them available for publication by anyone was denied.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Printing_Law_of_1895">The Printing Law of 1895</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Printing Law of 1895"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Printing Law of 1895, which was designed to centralize in the Government Printing Office, the printing, binding, and distribution of Government documents, contained the first statutory prohibition of copyright in Government publications.<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 52 of that Law provides for the sale by the Public Printer of "duplicate stereotype or electrotype plates from which any Government publication is printed", with the proviso "that no publication reprinted from such stereotype or electrotype plates and no other Government publication shall be copyrighted". </p><p>The provision in the Printing Act concerning copyright of government works was probably the result of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_Act_of_1895#The_Richardson_Affair_and_prohibition_on_copyright_of_government_works" title="Printing Act of 1895">"Richardson Affair"</a>, which involved an effort in the late 1890s by Representative <a href="/wiki/James_D._Richardson" title="James D. Richardson">James D. Richardson</a> (1843–1914) to privately copyright a government-published set of Presidential proclamations.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Copyright_Act_of_1909">The Copyright Act of 1909</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Copyright Act of 1909"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Section 7 of the Copyright Act of 1909 (later codified as Section 8 of title 17 U.S.C.) provided that "No copyright shall subsist ... in any publication of the United States Government, or any reprint, in whole or in part, thereof ..." Section 7 also contained a "savings clause", which stated that "The publication or republication by the Government, either separately or in a public document, of any material in which copyright is subsisting shall not be taken to cause any abridgment or annulment of the copyright or to authorize any use or appropriation of such copyright material without the consent of the copyright proprietor."<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee report on the bill that became the Act of 1909 explains that the savings clause was inserted "for the reason that the Government often desires to make use in its publications of copyrighted material, with the consent of the owner of the copyright, and it has been regarded heretofore as necessary to pass a special act every time this was done, providing that such use by the Government should not be taken to give to anyone the right to use the copyrighted material found in the Government publication".<sup id="cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Copyright_Act_of_1976">The Copyright Act of 1976</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Copyright Act of 1976"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sections of the Copyright Act that now govern U.S. Government work were enacted in 1976 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a>. The House Report to the enacted legislation stated that "the basic premise of section 105 of the bill is the same" as section 8 of the former title 17.<sup id="cite_ref-hr_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hr-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Derivative_works_consisting_predominantly_of_government_works">Derivative works consisting predominantly of government works</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Derivative works consisting predominantly of government works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Section 403 of the 1976 Act introduced a new provision concerning documents consisting preponderantly of one or more government works. In essence, such works would be denied copyright protection unless the required <a href="/wiki/Copyright_notice" title="Copyright notice">copyright notice</a> included a statement specifically identifying those parts of the work that were <i>not</i> U.S. Government work, and therefore subject to copyright protection. According to the House Report, this provision was </p> <blockquote> <p>aimed at a publishing practice that, while technically justified under the present law, has been the object of considerable criticism. In cases where a Government work is published or republished commercially, it has frequently been the practice to add some "new matter" in the form of an introduction, editing, illustrations, etc., and to include a general copyright notice in the name of the commercial publisher. This in no way suggests to the public that the bulk of the work is uncopyrightable and therefore free for use.<sup id="cite_ref-1976Act403_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1976Act403-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>"To make the notice meaningful rather than misleading", section 403 of the 1976 Act required that, when the copies consist <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'preponderantly of one or more works of the United States Government', the copyright notice (if any) identify those parts of the work in which copyright is claimed. A failure to meet this requirement would be treated as an omission of the notice", resulting, absent the application of some exception, in the loss of copyright protection.<sup id="cite_ref-1976Act403_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1976Act403-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PubL94553_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PubL94553-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivative_works_after_the_Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988">Derivative works after the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Derivative works after the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988</a> amended the law to make the use of a copyright notice optional on copies of works published on and after March 1, 1989 and also revised Section 403. After the adoption of this act, a copyright notice was no longer necessary to secure copyright protection. Including the notice, however, does continue to confer certain benefits, notably in the challenging a defendant's claim of innocent infringement, where the question of proper notice may be a factor in assessing damages in infringement actions. Under the revised Section 403, these benefits are denied to a work consisting predominantly U.S. Government works "unless the notice of copyright appearing on the published copies or phonorecords to which a defendant in the copyright infringement suit had access includes a statement identifying, either affirmatively or negatively, those portions of the copies or phonorecords embodying any work or works protected under this title". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_produced_by_contractors">Works produced by contractors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Works produced by contractors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike works of the U.S. government, works produced by contractors under government contracts are protected under U.S. copyright law<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement"><span title="This claim has reliable sources with contradicting facts (July 2014)">disputed</span></a> (for: only true at times)  – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States#Works_Made_for_Hire_for_the_US_Government" title="Talk:Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">discuss</a></i>]</sup>. The holdership of the copyright depends on the terms of the contract and the type of work undertaken. Contract terms and conditions vary between agencies; contracts to <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._military" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. military">military</a> may differ significantly from civilian agency contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Civilian agencies and NASA are guided by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Acquisition_Regulations" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Acquisition Regulations">Federal Acquisition Regulations</a> (FAR). There are a number of FAR provisions that can affect the ownership of the copyright. <i>FAR Subpart 27.4—Rights in Data and Copyright</i> provides copyright guidance for the civilian agencies and NASA. Additionally, some agencies may have their own FAR Supplements that they follow. </p><p>Under the FAR general data rights clause (FAR 52.227-14), the government has unlimited rights in all data first produced in performance of or delivered under a contract, unless the contractor asserts a claim to copyright or the contract provides otherwise. Unless provided otherwise by an Agency FAR Supplement, a contractor may assert claim to copyright in scientific and technical articles based on or containing data first produced in the performance of a contract and published in academic, technical or professional journals, symposia proceedings, or the like. The express written permission of the Contracting Officer is required before the contractor may assert or enforce the copyright in all other works first produced in the performance of a contract. However, if a contract includes Alternate IV of the clause, the Contracting Officer's approval is not required to assert claim to copyright. Whenever the contractor asserts claim to copyright in works other than computer software, the government, and others acting on its behalf, are granted a license to reproduce, prepare <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>, distribute, perform and display the copyrighted work. For computer software produced under FAR contract, the scope of the government's license does not include the right to distribute to the public,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but for "<a href="/wiki/Commercial_off_the_shelf" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial off the shelf">commercial off the shelf</a> software", the government typically obtains no better license than would any other customer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transfers">Transfers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transfers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The federal <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> can hold copyrights that are transferred to it.<sup id="cite_ref-17usc105_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17usc105-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copyright law's definition of work of the United States government does not include work that the government owns but did not create.<sup id="cite_ref-USC|17|101_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USC|17|101-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in 1837, the federal government purchased former U.S. President <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>'s manuscripts from his widow, <a href="/wiki/Dolley_Madison" title="Dolley Madison">Dolley Madison</a>, for $30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this is construed as covering copyright as well as the physical papers, it would be an example of such a transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exemptions">Exemptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Exemptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Works by certain independent agencies, corporations and federal subsidiaries may not be considered "government works" and may, therefore, be copyrightable. For instance, material produced by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">United States Postal Service</a> are typically subject to normal copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most USPS materials, artwork, and design and all postage stamps as of January 1, 1978, or after are subject to copyright laws. Works of the former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="United States Post Office Department">United States Post Office Department</a> are in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain_in_the_United_States" title="Public domain in the United States">public domain</a> (due to its former position as a cabinet department). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/290e">§ 290e</a> authorizes <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">U.S. Secretary of Commerce</a> to secure copyright for works produced by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a> under the Standard Reference Data Act.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), FY2020, granted civilian members of the faculty at twelve federal government institutions the authority to retain and own copyright of works produced in the course of employment for publication by a scholarly press or journal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State,_territorial,_and_local_governments"><span id="State.2C_territorial.2C_and_local_governments"></span>State, territorial, and local governments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: State, territorial, and local governments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For details regarding every state, locality and organized territory, see <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_work_by_U.S._subnational_governments" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright status of work by U.S. subnational governments">Copyright status of work by U.S. subnational governments</a>.</div> <p>The lack of copyright protection for works of the United States government does not apply to works of U.S. subnational governments. Thus, works created by a state or local government may be subject to copyright. Some states have placed much of their work into the public domain by waiving some or all of their rights under copyright law. For example, the constitution and laws of Florida<sup id="cite_ref-fl-constitution_art24_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fl-constitution_art24-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have placed its government's works in the public domain. <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Unorganized territories</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> and the former <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands">Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are treated, for copyright purposes, as the U.S. government. Their works therefore fall under § 105 and lack copyright protection.<sup id="cite_ref-206.02e_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206.02e-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_restrictions">Other restrictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other restrictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain works, particularly <a href="/wiki/Logotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Logotype">logos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emblem" title="Emblem">emblems</a> of government agencies, while not copyrightable, are still protected by other laws that are similar in effect to <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> laws. Such laws are intended to protect indicators of source or quality. For example, some uses of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> logo, name, and <a href="/wiki/Initialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Initialism">initialism</a> are regulated under the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency_Act" title="Central Intelligence Agency Act">CIA Act</a> of 1949 (<a href="/wiki/Title_50_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 50 of the United States Code">50 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/403m">§ 403m</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Edicts_of_government">Edicts of government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Edicts of government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_government" title="Edict of government">Edict of government</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a> considers "edicts of government", such as <a href="/wiki/Judicial_opinion" title="Judicial opinion">judicial opinions</a>, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents, not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are federal, state, or local as well as to those of foreign governments.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classified_information_in_the_United_States" title="Classified information in the United States">Classified information in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public.Resource.Org" title="Public.Resource.Org">Public.Resource.Org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States">Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)" title="Freedom of Information Act (United States)">Freedom of Information Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_data_in_the_United_States" title="Open data in the United States">Open data in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_other_countries">In other countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In other countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_copyright" title="Crown copyright">Crown copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Data_Sharing_and_Accessibility_Policy_%E2%80%93_Government_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy – Government of India">National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy – Government of India</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-USC|17|101-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USC|17|101_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USC|17|101_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/101">§ 101</a>: "A 'work of the United States Government' is a work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States Government as part of that person's official duties."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17usc105-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-17usc105_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-17usc105_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/105">§ 105</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cendi.gov/pdf/FAQ_Copyright_30jan18.pdf#page=17">"Frequently Asked Questions about Copyright"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. CENDI. section 3.1.7<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+about+Copyright&rft.pages=section+3.1.7&rft.pub=CENDI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cendi.gov%2Fpdf%2FFAQ_Copyright_30jan18.pdf%23page%3D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Copyright%20Law%20Revision%20(House%20Report%20No.%2094-1476)">"Copyright Law Revision (House Report No. 94-1476)"</a>. <i>Wikisource</i>. United States House of Representatives. p. 59. <q>The prohibition on copyright protection for United States Government works is not intended to have any effect on protection of these works abroad. Works of the governments of most other countries are copyrighted. There are no valid policy reasons for denying such protection to United States Government works in foreign countries, or for precluding the Government from making licenses for the use of its works abroad.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wikisource&rft.atitle=Copyright+Law+Revision+%28House+Report+No.+94-1476%29&rft.pages=59&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FCopyright%2520Law%2520Revision%2520%28House%2520Report%2520No.%252094-1476%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCENDI_Copyright_Working_Group2008" class="citation web cs1">CENDI Copyright Working Group (October 8, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090304232445/http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#316">"Frequently Asked Questions About Copyright: Issues Affecting the US Government"</a>. Oak Ridge, TN: CENDI Secretariat. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#316">the original</a> on March 4, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+About+Copyright%3A+Issues+Affecting+the+US+Government&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+TN&rft.pub=CENDI+Secretariat&rft.date=2008-10-08&rft.au=CENDI+Copyright+Working+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cendi.gov%2Fpublications%2F04-8copyright.html%23316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BergerStudy33-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergerStudy33_6-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Copyright in Government Publications, in: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/history/studies/study33.pdf">Copyright Law Revision: Studies Prepared for the Subcomm. on Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights of the Senate Comm. on the Judiciary</a>", 86th Cong., 2d Sess. 29-30 (Comm. Print 1961)(Study 33), pp. 23-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1976" class="citation journal cs1">Price, Brian (Fall 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA392794.pdf">"Copyright in government publications: Historical background, judicial interpretation, and legislative clarification"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Military Law Review</i>. <b>74</b>: 19–65. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207113844/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA392794.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on December 7, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Copyright+in+government+publications%3A+Historical+background%2C+judicial+interpretation%2C+and+legislative+clarification&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=74&rft.pages=19-65&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA392794.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hr-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hr_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/105">"17 U.S. Code § 105 - Subject matter of copyright: United States Government works - House Report No. 94–1476"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240204114424/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/105">Archived</a> from the original on February 4, 2024. <q>The basic premise of section 105 of the bill is the same as that of section 8 of the present law [section 8 of former title 17]—that works produced for the U.S. Government by its officers and employees should not be subject to copyright. The provision applies the principle equally to unpublished and published works. The general prohibition against copyright in section 105 applies to "any work of the United States Government," which is defined in section 101 as "a work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States Government as part of that person's official duties." Under this definition a Government official or employee would not be prevented from securing copyright in a work written at that person's own volition and outside his or her duties, even though the subject matter involves the Government work or professional field of the official or employee. Although the wording of the definition of "work of the United States Government" differs somewhat from that of the definition of "work made for hire," the concepts are intended to be construed in the same way. A more difficult and far-reaching problem is whether the definition should be broadened to prohibit copyright in works prepared under U.S. Government contract or grant. As the bill is written, the Government agency concerned could determine in each case whether to allow an independent contractor or grantee, to secure copyright in works prepared in whole or in part with the use of Government funds. The argument that has been made against allowing copyright in this situation is that the public should not be required to pay a "double subsidy," and that it is inconsistent to prohibit copyright in works by Government employees while permitting private copyrights in a growing body of works created by persons who are paid with Government funds. Those arguing in favor of potential copyright protection have stressed the importance of copyright as an incentive to creation and dissemination in this situation, and the basically different policy considerations, applicable to works written by Government employees and those applicable to works prepared by private organizations with the use of Federal funds. The bill deliberately avoids making any sort of outright, unqualified prohibition against copyright in works prepared under Government contract or grant. There may well be cases where it would be in the public interest to deny copyright in the writings generated by Government research contracts and the like; it can be assumed that, where a Government agency commissions a work for its own use merely as an alternative to having one of its own employees prepare the work, the right to secure a private copyright would be withheld. However, there are almost certainly many other cases where the denial of copyright protection would be unfair or would hamper the production and publication of important works. Where, under the particular circumstances, Congress or the agency involved finds that the need to have a work freely available outweighs the need of the private author to secure copyright, the problem can be dealt with by specific legislation, agency regulations, or contractual restrictions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=17+U.S.+Code+%C2%A7+105+-+Subject+matter+of+copyright%3A+United+States+Government+works+-+House+Report+No.+94%E2%80%931476&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F17%2F105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1976Act403-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1976Act403_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1976Act403_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/403">"17 U.S. Code § 403 - Notice of copyright: Publications incorporating United States Government works - Historical and Revision Notes"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231117195943/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/403">Archived</a> from the original on November 17, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=17+U.S.+Code+%C2%A7+403+-+Notice+of+copyright%3A+Publications+incorporating+United+States+Government+works+-+Historical+and+Revision+Notes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F17%2F403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PubL94553-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PubL94553_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">§ 403 Pub. L. 94-553 (Oct. 19, 1976) <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/94/553">94–553</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCENDI_Copyright_Working_Group2004" class="citation web cs1">CENDI Copyright Working Group (August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421201200/http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html">"Frequently Asked Questions About Copyright"</a>. <i>Commerce, Energy, NASA, Defense Information Managers Group</i>. Oak Ridge, TN: CENDI Secretariat, Information International Associates, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commerce%2C+Energy%2C+NASA%2C+Defense+Information+Managers+Group&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+About+Copyright&rft.date=2004-08&rft.au=CENDI+Copyright+Working+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcendi.gov%2Fpublications%2F04-8copyright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+status+of+works+by+the+federal+government+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See definitions of data and unlimited rights and 27.404-1 at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://acquisition.gov/far/current/html/Subpart%2027_4.html">https://acquisition.gov/far/current/html/Subpart%2027_4.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602020051/http://www.acquisition.gov/far/current/html/Subpart%2027_4.html">Archived</a> 2013-06-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>An Act making appropriations for the civil and diplomatic expenses of Government for the year eighteen hundred and thirty-seven</i>, 24th Cong., Sess. II, Ch. 33, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=2">5. Stat. </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=200">163</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=208">171</a>, March 3, 1837</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The following year, Congress authorized publication of the papers, suggesting that the transaction did include copyright. <i>An Act authorizing the printing of the Madison papers,</i> 25th Cong., Sess. II, Ch. 264, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=2">5. Stat. </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=346">309</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=005/llsl005.db&recNum=347">310</a>, July 9, 1838</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Compendium_II:_Copyright_Office_Practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices">Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices</a>, § <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">206.02(b)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110211214553/http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">Archived</a> February 11, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/290e">§ 290e</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Compendium_II:_Copyright_Office_Practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices">Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices</a>, § <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">206.02(a)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110211214553/http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">Archived</a> February 11, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fl-constitution_art24-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fl-constitution_art24_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?Mode=Constitution&Submenu=3&Tab=statutes&CFID=3347894&CFTOKEN=65855692#A01S24">Florida Constitution Article I, §24(a)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices, § <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_1100.asp">1102.08(b)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512103203/http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_1100.asp">Archived</a> 2013-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206.02e-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206.02e_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Compendium_II:_Copyright_Office_Practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices">Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices</a>, § <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">206.02(e)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110211214553/http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">Archived</a> February 11, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Compendium_II:_Copyright_Office_Practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices">Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices</a>, § <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">206.01</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110211214553/http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp">Archived</a> February 11, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090304232445/http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#317">3.1.7 Does the Government have copyright protection in U.S. Government works in other countries?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usa.gov/government-works">U.S. government web portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_government_attribution_templates" title="Category:United States government attribution templates">Wikipedia: United States government attribution templates</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">Copyright law of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Compendium_of_U.S._Copyright_Office_Practices" title="Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices">Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Arbitration_Royalty_Panel" title="Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel">CARP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Royalty_Board" title="Copyright Royalty Board">CRB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Catalog" title="Copyright Catalog">Copyright Catalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_of_Copyrights" title="Register of Copyrights">Register of Copyrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_108_Study_Group" title="Section 108 Study Group">Section 108 Study Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States">Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-1976</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1790" title="Copyright Act of 1790">Copyright Act of 1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1831" title="Copyright Act of 1831">Copyright Act of 1831</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1870" title="Copyright Act of 1870">Copyright Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Copyright_Act_of_1891" title="International Copyright Act of 1891">International Copyright Act of 1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_Act_of_1895" title="Printing Act of 1895">Printing Act of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1909" title="Copyright Act of 1909">Copyright Act of 1909</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988" title="Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988">Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Artists_Rights_Act" title="Visual Artists Rights Act">Visual Artists Rights Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Remedy_Clarification_Act" title="Copyright Remedy Clarification Act">Copyright Remedy Clarification Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Renewal_Act_of_1992" title="Copyright Renewal Act of 1992">Copyright Renewal Act of 1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round_Agreements_Act" title="Uruguay Round Agreements Act">Uruguay Round Agreements Act</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Electronic_Theft_Act" title="No Electronic Theft Act">No Electronic Theft Act</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairness_in_Music_Licensing_Act_of_1998" title="Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998">Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> (1998) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_Copyright_Infringement_Liability_Limitation_Act" title="Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act">Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_and_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaties_Implementation_Act" title="WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act">WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_Entertainment_and_Copyright_Act" title="Family Entertainment and Copyright Act">Family Entertainment and Copyright Act</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_Consumer_Choice_and_Wireless_Competition_Act" title="Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act">Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_Modernization_Act" title="Music Modernization Act">Music Modernization Act</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alternative_in_Small-Claims_Enforcement_Act_of_2020" title="Copyright Alternative in Small-Claims Enforcement Act of 2020">CASE Act</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents<br />and rulings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_copyright_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court copyright case law">Supreme Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wheaton_v._Peters" title="Wheaton v. Peters">Wheaton v. Peters</a></i> (1834)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Selden" title="Baker v. Selden">Baker v. Selden</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trade-Mark_Cases" title="Trade-Mark Cases">Trade-Mark Cases</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burrow-Giles_Lithographic_Co._v._Sarony" title="Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony">Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Banks_v._Manchester" title="Banks v. Manchester">Banks v. Manchester</a></i> (1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Callaghan_v._Myers" title="Callaghan v. Myers">Callaghan v. Myers</a></i> (1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bobbs-Merrill_Co._v._Straus" title="Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus">Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White-Smith_Music_Publishing_Co._v._Apollo_Co." title="White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.">White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_%26_Wilkins_Co._v._United_States" title="Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States">Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sony_Corp._of_America_v._Universal_City_Studios,_Inc." title="Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.">Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feist_Publications,_Inc.,_v._Rural_Telephone_Service_Co." title="Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.">Feist v. Rural</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campbell_v._Acuff-Rose_Music,_Inc." title="Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.">Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quality_King_Distributors_Inc.,_v._L%27anza_Research_International_Inc." title="Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.">Quality King v. L'anza</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MGM_Studios,_Inc._v._Grokster,_Ltd." title="MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.">MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Costco_Wholesale_Corp._v._Omega,_S._A." title="Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.">Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Golan_v._Holder" title="Golan v. Holder">Golan v. Holder</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kirtsaeng_v._John_Wiley_%26_Sons,_Inc." title="Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.">Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Cos.,_Inc._v._Aereo,_Inc." title="American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.">American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Star_Athletica,_LLC_v._Varsity_Brands,_Inc." title="Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc.">Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate_Public_Benefit_Corp._v._Wall-Street.com" title="Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com">Fourth Estate v. Wall-Street.com</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Public.Resource.Org,_Inc." title="Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.">Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Google_LLC_v._Oracle_America,_Inc." title="Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.">Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol_Foundation_for_the_Visual_Arts,_Inc._v._Goldsmith" title="Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith">Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals courts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berlin_v._E.C._Publications,_Inc." title="Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.">Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roth_Greeting_Cards_v._United_Card_Co." title="Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.">Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.</a></i> (9th Cir. 1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eltra_Corp._v._Ringer" title="Eltra Corp. v. Ringer">Eltra Corp. v. Ringer</a></i> (4th Cir. 1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Productions_v._Air_Pirates" title="Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates">Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates</a></i> (9th Cir. 1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Midway_Manufacturing_Co._v._Artic_International,_Inc." title="Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.">Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.</a></i> (7th Cir. 1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer,_Inc._v._Franklin_Computer_Corp." title="Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.">Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.</a></i> (3d Cir. 1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._Dees" title="Fisher v. Dees">Fisher v. Dees</a></i> (9th Cir. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whelan_v._Jaslow" title="Whelan v. Jaslow">Whelan v. Jaslow</a></i> (3d Cir. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vault_Corp._v._Quaid_Software_Ltd." title="Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.">Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.</a></i> (5th Cir. 1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Koons" title="Rogers v. Koons">Rogers v. Koons</a></i> (2nd Cir. 1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Associates_International,_Inc._v._Altai,_Inc." title="Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.">Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union_v._Texaco,_Inc." title="American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.">American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dr._Seuss_Enters.,_L.P._v._Penguin_Books_USA,_Inc." title="Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.">Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.</a></i>(9th Cir. 1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Itar-Tass_Russian_News_Agency_v._Russian_Kurier,_Inc." title="Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.">Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment,_Inc._v._Connectix_Corp." title="Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.">Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nunez_v._Caribbean_Int%27l_News_Corp." title="Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.">Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.</a></i> (1st Cir. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A%26M_Records,_Inc._v._Napster,_Inc." title="A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.">A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veeck_v._Southern_Building_Code_Congress_Int%27l" title="Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l">Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l</a></i> (5th Cir. 2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelly_v._Arriba_Soft_Corp." title="Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.">Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2002 / 2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Aimster_Copyright_Litigation" title="In re Aimster Copyright Litigation">In re Aimster Copyright Litigation</a></i> (7th Cir. 2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NXIVM_Corp._v._Ross_Institute" title="NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute">NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute</a></i> (2d Cir. 2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/BMG_Music_v._Gonzalez" title="BMG Music v. Gonzalez">BMG Music v. Gonzalez</a></i> (7th Cir. 2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bill_Graham_Archives_v._Dorling_Kindersley,_Ltd." title="Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.">Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blanch_v._Koons" title="Blanch v. Koons">Blanch v. Koons</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perfect_10,_Inc._v._Amazon.com,_Inc." title="Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.">Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cartoon_Network,_LP_v._CSC_Holdings,_Inc." title="Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.">Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahanchian_v._Xenon_Pictures,_Inc." title="Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.">Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group_(USA)_Inc._v._American_Buddha" title="Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha">Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha</a></i> (2d Cir. 2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monge_v._Maya_Magazines,_Inc." title="Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.">Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Viacom_International_Inc._v._YouTube,_Inc." title="Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.">Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seltzer_v._Green_Day,_Inc" title="Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc">Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc</a></i> (9th Cir. 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Authors_Guild,_Inc._v._Google,_Inc." title="Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.">Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lenz_v._Universal_Music_Corp." title="Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.">Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Naruto v. Slater</a></i> (9th Cir. 2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower courts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Folsom_v._Marsh" title="Folsom v. Marsh">Folsom v. Marsh</a></i> (C.C.D. Mass. 1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elektra_Records_Co._v._Gem_Electronic_Distributors,_Inc." title="Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.">Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.</a></i> (E.D.N.Y. 1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Broderbund_Software_Inc._v._Unison_World,_Inc." title="Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.">Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.</a></i> (N.D. Cal. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Playboy_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Frena" title="Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena">Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena</a></i> (M.D. Fla. 1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library_v._Corel_Corp." title="Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.">Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RealNetworks,_Inc._v._Streambox,_Inc." title="RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.">RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.</a></i> (W.D. Wash. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mannion_v._Coors_Brewing_Co." title="Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.">Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arista_Records_LLC_v._Lime_Group_LLC" title="Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC">Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Records,_LLC_v._ReDigi_Inc." title="Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.">Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Equals_Three,_LLC_v._Jukin_Media,_Inc." title="Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.">Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.</a></i> (C.D. Cal. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hachette_v._Internet_Archive" title="Hachette v. Internet Archive">Hachette v. Internet Archive</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round" title="Uruguay Round">Uruguay Round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Copy_That_Floppy" title="Don't Copy That Floppy">Don't Copy That Floppy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Recording_Rights_Coalition" title="Home Recording Rights Coalition">Home Recording Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nimmer_on_Copyright" title="Nimmer on Copyright">Nimmer on Copyright</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/You_Wouldn%27t_Steal_a_Car" title="You Wouldn't Steal a Car">You Wouldn't Steal a Car</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&oldid=1258165652">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States&oldid=1258165652</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_copyright_law" title="Category:United States copyright law">United States copyright law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_trademark_law" title="Category:United States trademark law">United States trademark law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_government_information" title="Category:United States government information">United States government information</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_November_2023" title="Category:Use mdy dates from November 2023">Use mdy dates from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_November_2023" title="Category:Use American English from November 2023">Use American English from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_July_2014" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from July 2014">Articles with disputed statements from July 2014</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 November 2024, at 13:46<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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