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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> 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Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ماهوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ماهوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Есенциализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Есенциализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essencialisme" title="Essencialisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Essencialisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencialismus" title="Esencialismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Esencialismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialisme" title="Essentialisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Essentialisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialismus" title="Essentialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Essentialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentsialism" title="Essentsialism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Essentsialism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ουσιοκρατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ουσιοκρατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencialismo" title="Esencialismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esencialismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencismo" title="Esencismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Esencismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esentzialismo" title="Esentzialismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Esentzialismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ذات‌باوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ذات‌باوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialisme" title="Essentialisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Essentialisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencialismo" title="Esencialismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Esencialismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%B8%EC%A7%88%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="본질주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="본질주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Էսենցիալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էսենցիալիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esensialisme" title="Esensialisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Esensialisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essenzialismo" title="Essenzialismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Essenzialismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מהותנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהותנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialismus" title="Essentialismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Essentialismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencializmas" title="Esencializmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Esencializmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esszencializmus" title="Esszencializmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Esszencializmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Есенцијализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Есенцијализам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialisme_(filosofie)" title="Essentialisme (filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Essentialisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B3%AA%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="本質主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="本質主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essensialisme" title="Essensialisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Essensialisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencjalizm" title="Esencjalizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Esencjalizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essencialismo" title="Essencialismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Essencialismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esen%C8%9Bialism" title="Esențialism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Esențialism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эссенциализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эссенциализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esencializmi" title="Esencializmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Esencializmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C" title="زاتباوەڕی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زاتباوەڕی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialismi" title="Essentialismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Essentialismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Essentialism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96zc%C3%BCl%C3%BCk" title="Özcülük – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Özcülük" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Есенціалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Есенціалізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B3%AA%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="本質主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="本質主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B4%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="本质主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="本质主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q391156#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early Western thought, <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a> held that all things have such an "<a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a>"—an <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">"idea" or "form"</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> similarly proposed that all objects have a <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> that, as <a href="/wiki/George_Lakoff" title="George Lakoff">George Lakoff</a> put it, "make the thing what it is, and without which it would be not <i>that</i> kind of thing".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contrary view—<a href="/wiki/Non-essentialism" title="Non-essentialism">non-essentialism</a>—denies the need to posit such an "essence". Essentialism has been controversial from its beginning. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)" title="Parmenides (dialogue)">Parmenides</a></i> dialogue, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> depicts <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> questioning the notion, suggesting that if we accept the idea that every beautiful thing or just action partakes of an essence to be beautiful or just, we must also accept the "existence of separate essences for hair, mud, and dirt".<sup id="cite_ref-platostanford_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platostanford-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Older <a href="/wiki/Social_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Social theories">social theories</a> were often conceptually essentialist.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, essentialism provided the rationale for <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> at least until the time of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role and importance of essentialism in modern biology is still a matter of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beliefs which posit that social identities such as <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> are essential characteristics have been central to many <a href="/wiki/Discriminatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Discriminatory">discriminatory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extremist" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremist">extremist</a> ideologies.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, psychological essentialism is correlated with <a href="/wiki/Racial_prejudice" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial prejudice">racial prejudice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentialist views about race have also been shown to diminish empathy when dealing with members of another racial group.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In medical sciences, essentialism can lead to a <a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">reified</a> view of identities, leading to fallacious conclusions and potentially unequal treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_philosophy">In philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <i><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a></i> characterizes a <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">form</a>, in the sense of the forms and ideas in <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a>. It is permanent, unalterable, and eternal, and is present in every possible world. Classical <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> has an essentialist conception of the human, in its endorsement of the notion of an eternal and unchangeable <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>. This has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sartre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sartre">Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badiou" class="mw-redirect" title="Badiou">Badiou</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existential</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">materialist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">anti-humanist</a> thinkers. Essentialism, in its broadest sense, is any philosophy that acknowledges the primacy of <i>essence</i>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, which posits "being" as the fundamental reality, the essentialist <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ontology" class="extiw" title="wikt:ontology">ontology</a> must be approached from a metaphysical perspective. Empirical knowledge is developed from experience of a relational universe whose components and attributes are defined and measured in terms of intellectually constructed laws. Thus, for the scientist, reality is explored as an evolutionary system of diverse entities, the order of which is determined by the principle of causality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s philosophy, in particular the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Philebus" title="Philebus">Philebus</a></i>, things were said to come into being by the action of a <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">demiurge</a> who works to form <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">chaos</a> into ordered entities. Many definitions of <i>essence</i> hark back to the ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylomorphic">hylomorphic</a> understanding of the formation of the things. According to that account, the structure and real existence of any thing can be understood by analogy to an artefact produced by a craftsperson. The craftsperson requires <i>hyle</i> (timber or wood) and a model, plan or idea in their own mind, according to which the wood is worked to give it the indicated contour or form (<i>morphe</i>). Aristotle was the first to use the terms <i>hyle</i> and <i>morphe</i>. According to <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">his explanation</a>, all entities have two aspects: "matter" and "form". It is the particular form imposed that gives some matter its identity—its <a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">quiddity</a> or "whatness" (i.e., "what it is"). Plato was one of the first essentialists, postulating the concept of ideal forms—an <a href="/wiki/Abstract_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract entity">abstract entity</a> of which individual objects are mere facsimiles. To give an example: the ideal form of a circle is a perfect circle, something that is physically impossible to make manifest; yet the circles we draw and observe clearly have some <i>idea</i> in common—the ideal form. Plato proposed that these ideas are eternal and vastly superior to their manifestations, and that we understand these manifestations in the material world by comparing and relating them to their respective ideal form. Plato's forms are regarded as patriarchs to essentialist dogma simply because they are a case of what is intrinsic and a-contextual of objects—the abstract properties that make them what they are. One example is <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_allegory_of_the_cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's allegory of the cave">Plato's parable of the cave</a>. Plato believed that the universe was perfect and that its observed imperfections came from man's limited perception of it. For Plato, there were two realities: the "essential" or ideal and the "perceived".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) applied the term <i>essence</i> to that which things in a category have in common and without which they cannot be members of that category (for example, <i>rationality</i> is the essence of man; without rationality a creature cannot be a man). In his critique of Aristotle's philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> said that his concept of essence transferred to metaphysics what was only a verbal convenience and that it confused the properties of language with the properties of the world. In fact, a thing's "essence" consisted in those defining properties without which we could not use the <i>name</i> for it.<sup id="cite_ref-russell_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russell-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the concept of essence was "hopelessly muddled" it became part of every philosophy until modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-russell_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russell-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Egyptian-born philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (204–270 AD) brought <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>, and with it the concept that not only do all existents emanate from a "primary essence" but that the mind plays an active role in shaping or ordering the objects of perception, rather than passively receiving empirical data.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naturalism">Naturalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dating back to the 18th century, naturalism is a form of essentialism in which <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">social</a> matters are explained through the logic of natural dispositions.<sup id="cite_ref-:032_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:032-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invoked <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a> can be biological, ontological or theological.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is opposed by <a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">antinaturalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">culturalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_nature">Human nature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Human nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Philosophical anthropology</a></div><p>In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>, the divergent conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> may be partitioned into <i>essentialist</i> versus <i>non-essentialist</i> (or even <i>anti-essentialist</i>) positions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another established dichotomy is that of <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a> about the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Monism will demand that enhancement technologies be used to create humans as close as possible to the ideal state. [...] The Nazis would have proposed the list of characteristics for admission to the SS as the universal template for enhancement technologies. <a href="/wiki/Biohappiness" title="Biohappiness">Hedonistic utilitarianism</a> is a less objectionable version of monism, according to which the best human life is one that contains as much pleasure and as little suffering as possible – but like Nazism, it leaves no room for meaningful choice about enhancement.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Nicholas Agar<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_essentialism">Biological essentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biological essentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Species#The_species_problem" title="Species">Species § The species problem</a></div> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> was developed as a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>, the essentialist view of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> posited that all species are unchanging throughout time. The historian Mary P. Winsor has argued that biologists such as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> in the 19th century believed that taxa such as species and genus were fixed, reflecting the mind of the creator.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation–evolution controversy">religious opponents of evolution</a> continue to maintain this view of biology. </p><p>Work by historians of <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematic biology</a> in the 21st century has cast doubt upon this view of pre-Darwinian thinkers. Winsor, Ron Amundson and Staffan Müller-Wille have each argued that in fact the usual suspects (such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> and the Ideal Morphologists) were very far from being essentialists, and that the so-called "essentialism story" (or "myth") in biology is a result of conflating the views expressed and biological examples used by philosophers going back to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and continuing through to <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in the immediately pre-Darwinian period, with the way that biologists used such terms as <i>species</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anti-essentialists contend that an essentialist typological categorization has been rendered obsolete and untenable by evolutionary theory for several reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, they argue that biological species are dynamic entities, emerging and disappearing as distinct populations are molded by natural selection. This view contrasts with the static essences that essentialists say characterize <a href="/wiki/Natural_kinds" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural kinds">natural categories</a>. Second, the opponents of essentialism argue that our current understanding of biological species emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Genealogical" class="mw-redirect" title="Genealogical">genealogical</a> relationships rather than <i>intrinsic</i> traits. Lastly, non-essentialists assert that every organism has a <a href="/wiki/Mutational_load" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutational load">mutational load</a>, and the variability and diversity within species contradict the notion of fixed biological natures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_essentialism">Gender essentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Gender essentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">gender studies</a>, gender essentialism is the attribution of fixed essences to men and women—this idea that men and women are fundamentally different continues to be a matter of contention.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suzanne_Kelly_2011_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzanne_Kelly_2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gay/lesbian rights advocate <a href="/wiki/Diana_Fuss" title="Diana Fuss">Diana Fuss</a> wrote: "Essentialism is most commonly understood as a belief in the real, true essence of things, the invariable and fixed properties which define the 'whatness' of a given entity."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's essence is assumed to be universal and is generally identified with those characteristics viewed as being specifically feminine.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideas of femininity are usually biologized and are often preoccupied with psychological characteristics, such as nurturance, empathy, support, and non-competitiveness, etc. Feminist theorist <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Grosz" title="Elizabeth Grosz">Elizabeth Grosz</a> states in her 1995 publication <i>Space, time and perversion: essays on the politics of bodies</i> that essentialism "entails the belief that those characteristics defined as women's essence are shared in common by all women at all times. It implies a limit of the variations and possibilities of change—it is not possible for a subject to act in a manner contrary to her essence. Her essence underlies all the apparent variations differentiating women from each other. Essentialism thus refers to the existence of fixed characteristic, given attributes, and ahistorical functions that limit the possibilities of change and thus of social reorganization."<sup id="cite_ref-:03_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gender essentialism is pervasive in popular culture, as illustrated by the #1 <i>New York Times</i> best seller <i><a href="/wiki/Men_Are_from_Mars,_Women_Are_from_Venus" title="Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus">Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this essentialism is routinely critiqued in introductory <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">women's studies</a> textbooks such as <i>Women: Images & Realities</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzanne_Kelly_2011_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzanne_Kelly_2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 1980s, some feminist writers have put forward essentialist theories about gender and science. <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Fox_Keller" title="Evelyn Fox Keller">Evelyn Fox Keller</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Harding" title="Sandra Harding">Sandra Harding</a>, <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Tuana" title="Nancy Tuana">Nancy Tuana</a> <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argued that the modern scientific enterprise is inherently patriarchal and incompatible with women's nature. Other feminist scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Ann_Hibner_Koblitz" title="Ann Hibner Koblitz">Ann Hibner Koblitz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lenore_Blum" title="Lenore Blum">Lenore Blum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_W._Gray" title="Mary W. Gray">Mary Gray</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beth_Ruskai" title="Mary Beth Ruskai">Mary Beth Ruskai</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Pnina Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have criticized those theories for ignoring the diverse nature of scientific research and the tremendous variation in women's experiences in different cultures and historical periods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial,_cultural_and_strategic_essentialism"><span id="Racial.2C_cultural_and_strategic_essentialism"></span>Racial, cultural and strategic essentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Racial, cultural and strategic essentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race (human categorization)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_essentialism" title="Strategic essentialism">Strategic essentialism</a></div> <p>Cultural and racial essentialism is the view that fundamental biological or physical characteristics of human "races" produce personality, heritage, cognitive abilities, or 'natural talents' that are shared by all members of a racial group.<sup id="cite_ref-Soylu_Yalcinkaya_Estrada-Villalta_Adams_2017_p._39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soylu_Yalcinkaya_Estrada-Villalta_Adams_2017_p.-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stubblefield_1995_pp._341–368_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stubblefield_1995_pp._341–368-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, many <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> taught this theory – that race was an entirely biological phenomenon and that this was core to a person's behavior and identity.<sup id="cite_ref-cravens_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cravens-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, coupled with a belief that <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a>, cultural, and social groups fundamentally existed along racial lines, formed the basis of what is now called <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-currell_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-currell-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a> program, along with the rise of anti-colonial movements, racial essentialism lost widespread popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New studies of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> and the fledgling field of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.<sup id="cite_ref-cravens_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cravens-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant number of modern anthropologists and <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologists</a> in the West came to view race as an invalid genetic or biological designation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cravens;_Angier;_et_al._44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cravens;_Angier;_et_al.-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, beliefs which posit that social identities such as ethnicity, nationality or gender determine a person's essential characteristics have in many cases been shown to have destructive or harmful results. It has been argued by some that essentialist thinking lies at the core of many <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">simplistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discriminatory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">extremist</a> ideologies.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychological essentialism is also correlated with <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial prejudice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In medical sciences, essentialism can lead to an over-emphasis on the role of identities—for example assuming that differences in hypertension in African-American populations are due to <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">racial</a> differences rather than social causes—leading to fallacious conclusions and potentially unequal treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older social theories were often conceptually essentialist.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strategic essentialism, a major concept in <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial theory">postcolonial theory</a>, was introduced in the 1980s by the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Literary_critic" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary critic">literary critic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">theorist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It refers to a political tactic in which minority groups, nationalities, or ethnic groups mobilize on the basis of shared gendered, cultural, or political identity. While strong differences may exist between members of these groups, and among themselves they engage in continuous debates, it is sometimes advantageous for them to temporarily "essentialize" themselves, despite it being based on erroneous logic,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to bring forward their group identity in a simplified way to achieve certain goals, such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/equal_rights" class="extiw" title="wikt:equal rights">equal rights</a> or <a href="/wiki/Antiglobalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiglobalization">antiglobalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Machine_Learning">Machine Learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Machine Learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pelillo argues that traditional <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> techniques often align with an essentialist paradigm by relying on <a href="/wiki/Feature_(machine_learning)" title="Feature (machine learning)">features</a> - properties assumed to be essential for <a href="/wiki/Classification" title="Classification">classification</a> tasks. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern recognition</a>, which attempts to extract essential attributes from data, is described as inherently essentialist since it presupposes that objects have stable, identifiable essences that define their categories. This perspective extends to <a href="/wiki/Similarity_learning" title="Similarity learning">similarity-based</a> approaches, which use <a href="/wiki/Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">prototype theory</a> to establish relationships within data by grouping instances around central prototypes that exhibit the "essence" of a category.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Expanding on this, Pelillo and Scantamburlo highlight that certain machine-learning scenarios, such as when data is highly dimensional or features are poorly defined, challenge the essentialist framework. They advocate for alternative paradigms that consider relational and <a href="/wiki/Context_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (linguistics)">contextual</a> <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> instead of isolated feature analysis. This relational focus aligns with anti-essentialist stances, which view categories as dynamic and context-dependent rather than fixed.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Šekrst and Skansi build on these ideas, noting that <a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">supervised learning</a>, by utilizing labeled <a href="/wiki/Dataset" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataset">datasets</a>, reflects essentialist tendencies since it relies on predefined human-defined categories. However, they argue that this does not commit machine learning to an ontological stance on essentialism. Instead, they propose that the categories used in supervised learning are human-constructed in <a href="/wiki/Feature_selection" title="Feature selection">feature selection</a> processes and reflect <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> practices rather than <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> truths. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">unsupervised learning</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">clustering</a> and similarity-based approaches often resemble prototypical reasoning but do not inherently affirm or deny essentialism, focusing instead on <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> task performance.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_historiography">In historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Essentialism in history as a field of study entails discerning and listing essential cultural characteristics of a particular nation or culture, in the belief that a people or culture can be understood in this way. Sometimes such essentialism leads to claims of a praiseworthy national or cultural identity, or to its opposite, the condemnation of a culture based on presumed essential characteristics. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, for example, claims that Egyptian culture is essentially feminized and possesses a "softness" which has made Egypt easy to conquer.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To what extent Herodotus was an essentialist is a matter of debate; he is also credited with not essentializing the concept of the Athenian identity,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or differences between the Greeks and the Persians that are the subject of his <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Essentialism had been operative in <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, as well as in critiques of colonialism. <a href="/wiki/Post-colonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonial">Post-colonial</a> theorists, such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Said</a>, insisted that essentialism was the "defining mode" of "Western" historiography and ethnography until the nineteenth century and even after, according to <a href="/wiki/Touraj_Atabaki" title="Touraj Atabaki">Touraj Atabaki</a>, manifesting itself in the historiography of the Middle East and Central Asia as <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a>, over-generalization, and <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Into the 21st century, most historians, social scientists, and humanists reject methodologies associated with essentialism,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some have argued that certain varieties of essentialism may be useful or even necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> splits the ambiguous term <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a></i> into <i>essentialism</i> and <i>realism</i>. He uses <i>essentialism</i> whenever he means the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>, and <i>realism</i> only as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>. Popper himself is a realist as opposed to an idealist, but a methodological nominalist as opposed to an essentialist. For example, statements like "a puppy is a young dog" should be read from right to left as an answer to "What shall we call a young dog", never from left to right as an answer to "What is a puppy?"<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_psychology">In psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG/220px-Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG/330px-Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG/440px-Toronto_Maple_Leafs_bild.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bloom_(psychologist)" title="Paul Bloom (psychologist)">Paul Bloom</a> attempts to explain why people will pay more in an auction for the clothing of celebrities if the clothing is unwashed. He believes the answer to this and many other questions is that people cannot help but think of objects as containing a sort of "essence" that can be influenced.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There is a difference between metaphysical essentialism and psychological essentialism, the latter referring not to an actual claim about the world but a claim about a way of representing entities in cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influential in this area is <a href="/wiki/Susan_Gelman" title="Susan Gelman">Susan Gelman</a>, who has outlined many domains in which children and adults construe classes of entities, particularly biological entities, in essentialist terms—i.e., as if they had an immutable underlying essence which can be used to predict unobserved similarities between members of that class.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This causal relationship is unidirectional; an observable feature of an entity does not define the underlying essence.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_developmental_psychology">In developmental psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In developmental psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Essentialism has emerged as an important concept in psychology, particularly <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, Kathryn Kremer and Susan Gelman studied the extent to which children from four–seven years old demonstrate essentialism. Children believed that underlying essences predicted observable behaviours. Children were able to describe living objects' behaviour as self-perpetuated and non-living objects' behavior as a result of an adult influencing the object. Understanding the underlying causal mechanism for behaviour suggests essentialist thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Younger children were unable to identify causal mechanisms of behaviour whereas older children were able to. This suggests that essentialism is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">cognitive development</a>. It can be argued that there is a shift in the way that children represent entities, from not understanding the causal mechanism of the underlying essence to showing sufficient understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four key criteria that constitute essentialist thinking. The first facet is the aforementioned individual causal mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second is innate potential: the assumption that an object will fulfill its predetermined course of development.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this criterion, essences predict developments in entities that will occur throughout its lifespan. The third is immutability.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite altering the superficial appearance of an object it does not remove its essence. Observable changes in features of an entity are not salient enough to alter its essential characteristics. The fourth is inductive potential.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that entities may share common features but are essentially different; however similar two beings may be, their characteristics will be at most analogous, differing most importantly in essences. The implications of psychological essentialism are numerous. Prejudiced individuals have been found to endorse exceptionally essential ways of thinking, suggesting that essentialism may perpetuate exclusion among social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, essentialism of nationality has been linked to anti-immigration attitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In multiple studies in India and the United States, it was shown that in lay view a person's nationality is considerably fixed at birth, even if that person is adopted and raised by a family of another nationality at day one and never told about their origin.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be due to an over-extension of an essential-biological mode of thinking stemming from cognitive development.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bloom_(psychologist)" title="Paul Bloom (psychologist)">Paul Bloom</a> of Yale University has stated that "one of the most exciting ideas in cognitive science is the theory that people have a default assumption that things, people and events have invisible essences that make them what they are. Experimental psychologists have argued that essentialism underlies our understanding of the physical and social worlds, and developmental and cross-cultural psychologists have proposed that it is instinctive and universal. We are natural-born essentialists."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars suggest that the categorical nature of essentialist thinking predicts the use of stereotypes and can be targeted in the application of stereotype prevention.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_vs._nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature vs. nurture">Nature vs. nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereological_essentialism" title="Mereological essentialism">Mereological essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_essentialism" title="Medium essentialism">Medium essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_essentialism" title="National essentialism">National essentialism</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-essentialism" title="Non-essentialism">Non-essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">Pleasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">Poststructuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primordialism" title="Primordialism">Primordialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalist School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Political"></span> </p> <ul><li>Political acceptation: <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_essentialism" title="Strategic essentialism">Strategic essentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_David_Ellis" title="Brian David Ellis">Brian David Ellis</a> (<i>New essentialism</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_McKeown_(author)" title="Greg McKeown (author)">Greg McKeown (author)</a> (<i>Essentialism: The Disciplined Pursuit of Less</i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCartwright1968" class="citation journal cs1">Cartwright, Richard L. (1968). "Some Remarks on Essentialism". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>65</b> (20): <span class="nowrap">615–</span>626. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2024315">10.2307/2024315</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2024315">2024315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Some+Remarks+on+Essentialism&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E615-%3C%2Fspan%3E626&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2024315&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2024315%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJanicki2003">Janicki (2003)</a>, p. 274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-platostanford-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-platostanford_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-parmenides/">"Plato's Parmenides"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. 30 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Plato%27s+Parmenides&rft.date=2015-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fplato-parmenides%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKurzwellyRapport,_N.Spiegel,_A._D.2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kurzwelly, J.; Rapport, N.; Spiegel, A. 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"Collection and collation: theory and practice of Linnaean botany". <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences</i>. <b>38</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">541–</span>562. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2007.06.010">10.1016/j.shpsc.2007.06.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17893064">17893064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+C%3A+Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Biological+and+Biomedical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Collection+and+collation%3A+theory+and+practice+of+Linnaean+botany&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E541-%3C%2Fspan%3E562&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2007.06.010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17893064&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller-Wille&rft.aufirst=Staffan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinsor2003" class="citation journal cs1">Winsor, M. P. (2003). "Non-essentialist methods in pre-Darwinian taxonomy". <i>Biology & Philosophy</i>. <b>18</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">387–</span>400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1024139523966">10.1023/A:1024139523966</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54214030">54214030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+%26+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Non-essentialist+methods+in+pre-Darwinian+taxonomy&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E387-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1024139523966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54214030%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Winsor&rft.aufirst=M.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sober,_Elliott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sober, Elliott">Sober, Elliott</a> (1980). "Evolution, population thinking, and essentialism." <i>Philos</i> Sci 47:350–383</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Okasha S (2002). "Darwinian metaphysics: species and the question of essentialism." <i>Synthese</i> 131:191–213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFausto-Sterling1992" class="citation book cs1">Fausto-Sterling, Anne (1992). <i>Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space%2C+Time%2C+and+Perversion%3A+Essays+on+the+Politics+of+Bodies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0415911375&rft.aulast=Grosz&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHtf7y-rcVFwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Gray, <i>Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus</i>, HarperCollins, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evelyn Fox Keller, <i>Reflections on Gender and Science</i>, Yale University Press, 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandra Harding, <i>The Science Question in Feminism</i>, Cornell University Press, 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nancy Tuana, <i>The Less Noble Sex</i>, Indiana University Press, 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Hibner Koblitz, "A historian looks at gender and science," <i>International Journal of Science Education</i>, vol. 9 (1987), pp. 399–407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenore Blum, "AWM's first twenty years: The presidents' perspectives," in Bettye Anne Case and Anne M. Leggett, eds., <i><a href="/wiki/Complexities:_Women_in_Mathematics" title="Complexities: Women in Mathematics">Complexities: Women in Mathematics</a></i>, Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 94–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Gray, "Gender and mathematics: Mythology and Misogyny," in <a href="/wiki/Gila_Hanna" title="Gila Hanna">Gila Hanna</a>, ed., <i>Towards Gender Equity in Mathematics Education: An ICMI Study</i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Beth Ruskai, "Why women are discouraged from becoming scientists," <i>The Scientist</i>, March 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pnina Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram, "Introduction," <i>Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789–1979</i>, Rutgers University Press, 1987.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soylu_Yalcinkaya_Estrada-Villalta_Adams_2017_p.-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soylu_Yalcinkaya_Estrada-Villalta_Adams_2017_p._39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSoylu_YalcinkayaEstrada-VillaltaAdams2017" class="citation journal cs1">Soylu Yalcinkaya, Nur; Estrada-Villalta, Sara; Adams, Glenn (30 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5447748">"The (Biological or Cultural) Essence of Essentialism: Implications for Policy Support among Dominant and Subordinated Groups"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>8</b>. Frontiers Media SA: 900. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2017.00900">10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00900</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5447748">5447748</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28611723">28611723</a>. <q>Whereas, endorsement of biological essentialism may have similarly negative implications for social justice policies across racial categories, we investigated the hypothesis that endorsement of cultural essentialism would have different implications across racial categories. In Studies 1a and 1b, we assessed the properties of a cultural essentialism measure we developed...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+%28Biological+or+Cultural%29+Essence+of+Essentialism%3A+Implications+for+Policy+Support+among+Dominant+and+Subordinated+Groups&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=900&rft.date=2017-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5447748%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28611723&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2017.00900&rft.aulast=Soylu+Yalcinkaya&rft.aufirst=Nur&rft.au=Estrada-Villalta%2C+Sara&rft.au=Adams%2C+Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5447748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stubblefield_1995_pp._341–368-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stubblefield_1995_pp._341–368_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStubblefield1995" class="citation journal cs1">Stubblefield, Anna (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/23557192">"Racial Identity and Non-Essentialism About Race"</a>. <i>Social Theory and Practice</i>. <b>21</b> (3). Florida State University Department of Philosophy: <span class="nowrap">341–</span>368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fsoctheorpract19952131">10.5840/soctheorpract19952131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-802X">0037-802X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23557192">23557192</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2023</span>. <q>Essentialist conceptions of race hold that the characteristics of physical appearance referred to by racial terms are indicative of more profound characteristics (whether positively or negatively construed) of personality, inclinations, `culture,' heritage, cognitive abilities, or `natural talents' that are taken to be shared by all members of a racially defined group.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Theory+and+Practice&rft.atitle=Racial+Identity+and+Non-Essentialism+About+Race&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E341-%3C%2Fspan%3E368&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0037-802X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23557192%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fsoctheorpract19952131&rft.aulast=Stubblefield&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23557192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cravens-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cravens_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cravens_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCravens2010">Cravens 2010</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-currell-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-currell_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurrellCogdell2006">Currell & Cogdell 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHirschman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hirschman, Charles (2004). "The Origins and Demise of the Concept of Race". <i>Population and Development Review</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">385–</span>415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2004.00021.x">10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00021.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1728-4457">1728-4457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145485765">145485765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=The+Origins+and+Demise+of+the+Concept+of+Race&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E415&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145485765%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1728-4457&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2004.00021.x&rft.aulast=Hirschman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cravens;_Angier;_et_al.-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cravens;_Angier;_et_al._44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFCravens2010">Cravens 2010</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAngier2000">Angier 2000</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAmundson2005">Amundson 2005</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFReardon2005">Reardon 2005</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKurzwellyFernana,_H.Ngum,_M._E.2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kurzwelly, J.; Fernana, H.; Ngum, M. 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Inaugural lecture, 13 December 2002</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Amsterdam. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atabaki.nl/upload/Beyond%20Essentialism.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Essentialism%3A+Who+Writes+Whose+Past+in+the+Middle+East+and+Central+Asia%3F+Inaugural+lecture%2C+13+December+2002&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Atabaki&rft.aufirst=Touraj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatabaki.nl%2Fupload%2FBeyond%2520Essentialism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeLapp2011" class="citation book cs1">DeLapp, Kevin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3YwQflMm0B4C&pg=PA177">"Ancient Egypt as Europe's 'Intimate Stranger'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Helen Vella Bonavita (ed.). <i>Negotiating Identities: Constructed Selves and Others</i>. Rodopi. pp. <span class="nowrap">171–</span>192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9401206877" title="Special:BookSources/978-9401206877"><bdi>978-9401206877</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+as+Europe%27s+%27Intimate+Stranger%27&rft.btitle=Negotiating+Identities%3A+Constructed+Selves+and+Others&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E171-%3C%2Fspan%3E192&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9401206877&rft.aulast=DeLapp&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3YwQflMm0B4C%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEreshefsky2007" class="citation book cs1">Ereshefsky, Marc (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ucilIjrex5cC&pg=PA8">"Philosophy of Biological Classification"</a>. In Roberts, Keith (ed.). <i>Handbook of Plant Science</i>. Vol. 2. Wiley. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470057230" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470057230"><bdi>978-0470057230</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Biological+Classification&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Plant+Science&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0470057230&rft.aulast=Ereshefsky&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DucilIjrex5cC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFuss2013" class="citation book cs1">Fuss, Diana (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=euX6NWoYpXgC&pg=PP1"><i>Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature and Difference</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135201128" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135201128"><bdi>978-1135201128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentially+Speaking%3A+Feminism%2C+Nature+and+Difference&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135201128&rft.aulast=Fuss&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeuX6NWoYpXgC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGruen2012" class="citation book cs1">Gruen, Erich (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4O8DrKO4B4C&pg=PA39"><i>Rethinking the Other in Antiquity</i></a>. Princeton UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691156354" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691156354"><bdi>978-0691156354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Other+in+Antiquity&rft.pub=Princeton+UP&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0691156354&rft.aulast=Gruen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq4O8DrKO4B4C%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHull2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">Hull, David</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TJso832AGXEC&pg=PA47">"Essentialism in Taxonomy: Four Decades Later"</a>. 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John Benjamins. pp. <span class="nowrap">274–</span>96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1588114266" title="Special:BookSources/978-1588114266"><bdi>978-1588114266</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ever-Stifling+Essentialism%3A+Language+and+Conflict+in+Poland+%281991%E2%80%931993%29&rft.btitle=Motivation+in+Language%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+G%C3%BCnter+Radden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E274-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1588114266&rft.aulast=Janicki&rft.aufirst=Karol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqzhJ3KpLpQUC%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKurzwellyRapport,_N.Spiegel,_A._D.2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kurzwelly, J.; Rapport, N.; Spiegel, A. 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Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139484121" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139484121"><bdi>978-1139484121</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Citizen+Identity+in+the+Classical+Athenian+Democracy&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1139484121&rft.aulast=Lape&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DruS5-uu7k4cC%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRegnier2015" class="citation journal cs1">Regnier, Denis (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU">"Clean people, unclean people: the essentialisation of 'slaves' among the southern Betsileo of Madagascar"</a>. <i>Social Anthropology</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">152–</span>168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-8676.12107">10.1111/1469-8676.12107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Clean+people%2C+unclean+people%3A+the+essentialisation+of+%27slaves%27+among+the+southern+Betsileo+of+Madagascar&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E152-%3C%2Fspan%3E168&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1469-8676.12107&rft.aulast=Regnier&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FREGCPU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWittig1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Monique_Wittig" title="Monique Wittig">Wittig, Monique</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TYfUqBeX9ZUC">"The Category of Sex"</a>. <i>The Straight Mind: And Other Essays</i>. 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Athens, OH: <a href="/wiki/Ohio_University_Press" title="Ohio University Press">Ohio University Press</a>. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082141691X" title="Special:BookSources/082141691X"><bdi>082141691X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Eugenics%3A+National+Efficiency+and+American+Mass+Culture+in+The+1930s&rft.place=Athens%2C+OH&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=082141691X&rft.aulast=Currell&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Cogdell%2C+Christina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAngier2000" class="citation news cs1">Angier, Natalie (22 August 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/082200sci-genetics-race.html">"Do Races Differ? Not Really, DNA Shows"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Do+Races+Differ%3F+Not+Really%2C+DNA+Shows&rft.date=2000-08-22&rft.aulast=Angier&rft.aufirst=Natalie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flibrary%2Fnational%2Fscience%2F082200sci-genetics-race.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmundson2005" class="citation book cs1">Amundson, Ron (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9PvWVZIzoTIC&pg=PA107">"Disability, Ideology, and Quality of Life: A Bias in Biomedical Ethics"</a>. In Wasserman, David T.; Wachbroit, Robert Samuel; Bickenbach, Jerome Edmund (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qualityoflifehum00davi/page/101"><i>Quality of life and human difference: genetic testing, health care, and disability</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qualityoflifehum00davi/page/101">101–124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521832014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521832014"><bdi>978-0521832014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Disability%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Quality+of+Life%3A+A+Bias+in+Biomedical+Ethics&rft.btitle=Quality+of+life+and+human+difference%3A+genetic+testing%2C+health+care%2C+and+disability&rft.pages=101-124&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521832014&rft.aulast=Amundson&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9PvWVZIzoTIC%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReardon2005" class="citation book cs1">Reardon, Jenny (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HMHiuOJIQcYC&pg=PA17">"Post World-War II Expert Discourses on Race"</a>. <i>Race to the finish: identity and governance in an age of genomics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 17ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691118574" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691118574"><bdi>978-0691118574</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Post+World-War+II+Expert+Discourses+on+Race&rft.btitle=Race+to+the+finish%3A+identity+and+governance+in+an+age+of+genomics&rft.pages=17ff&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0691118574&rft.aulast=Reardon&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHMHiuOJIQcYC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEssentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Runes, Dagobert D. (1972) <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionary of Philosophy">Dictionary of Philosophy</a></i> (Littlefield, Adams & Co.). See for instance the articles on "Essence", p. 97; "<a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a>", p. 262; "Form", p. 110; "<a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a>", p. 133; "<a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">Individuation</a>", p. 145; and "Matter", p. 191.</li> <li>Barrett, H. C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070616122001/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/barrett/essentialism.pdf">On the functional origins of essentialism</a>. <i>Mind and Society</i>, 3, Vol. 2, 1–30.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayer,_Andrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayer, Andrew">Sayer, Andrew</a> (August 1997) "Essentialism, Social Constructionism, and Beyond", <i><a href="/wiki/Sociological_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological Review">Sociological Review</a></i> 45 : 456.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oderberg,_David_S." class="mw-redirect" title="Oderberg, David S.">Oderberg, David S.</a> (2007) <i>Real Essentialism</i> New York, Routledge.</li> <li>Cattarini, L.S. (2018) <i>Beyond Sartre and Sterility</i> (Montreal), argues for priority of essence/conscience over existence/consciousness</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Essentialism" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Essentialism">Essentialism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/essentialism">Essentialism</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2269">Essentialism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCliff,_Brian1996" class="citation web cs1">Cliff, Brian (Spring 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Essentialism.html">"Essentialism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical 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(existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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