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</div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Especial:As_mi%C3%B1as_contribuci%C3%B3ns" title="Unha lista das modificacións feitas desde este enderezo IP [y]" accesskey="y">Contribucións</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Especial:A_mi%C3%B1a_conversa" title="Conversa acerca de edicións feitas desde este enderezo IP [n]" accesskey="n">Conversa</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Sitio"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contidos" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contidos</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">mover á barra lateral</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">agochar</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inicio</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Historia do pensamento evolucionista </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herdanza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herdanza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Herdanza </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herdanza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variabilidade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variabilidade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Variabilidade </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variabilidade-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Mostrar ou agochar a subsección "Variabilidade" </button> <ul id="toc-Variabilidade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mutación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Mutación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexo_e_recombinación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexo_e_recombinación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Sexo e recombinación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexo_e_recombinación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluxo_xénico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluxo_xénico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Fluxo xénico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluxo_xénico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mecanismos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mecanismos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Mecanismos </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mecanismos-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Mostrar ou agochar a subsección "Mecanismos" </button> <ul id="toc-Mecanismos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selección_natural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selección_natural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Selección natural </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selección_natural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutación_nesgada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutación_nesgada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mutación nesgada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutación_nesgada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deriva_xenética" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deriva_xenética"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Deriva xenética </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deriva_xenética-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrastre_por_ligamento" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrastre_por_ligamento"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Arrastre por ligamento </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrastre_por_ligamento-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluxo_xénico_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluxo_xénico_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Fluxo xénico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluxo_xénico_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resultados_da_evolución" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resultados_da_evolución"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Resultados da evolución </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Resultados_da_evolución-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Mostrar ou agochar a subsección "Resultados da evolución" </button> <ul id="toc-Resultados_da_evolución-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adaptación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Adaptación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolución" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolución"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Coevolución </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolución-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooperación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooperación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Cooperación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooperación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Especiación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Especiación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Especiación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Especiación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinción" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinción"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Extinción </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinción-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Falta_de_adaptación" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Falta_de_adaptación"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Falta de adaptación </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Falta_de_adaptación-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historia_evolutiva_da_vida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historia_evolutiva_da_vida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Historia evolutiva da vida </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historia_evolutiva_da_vida-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Mostrar ou agochar a subsección "Historia evolutiva da vida" </button> <ul id="toc-Historia_evolutiva_da_vida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orixe_da_vida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orixe_da_vida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Orixe da vida </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orixe_da_vida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascendencia_común" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascendencia_común"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ascendencia común </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascendencia_común-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolución_da_vida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolución_da_vida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Evolución da vida </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolución_da_vida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Síntese_evolutiva_ampliada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Síntese_evolutiva_ampliada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Síntese evolutiva ampliada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Síntese_evolutiva_ampliada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aplicacións" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aplicacións"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Aplicacións </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aplicacións-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respostas_sociais_e_culturais" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respostas_sociais_e_culturais"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Respostas sociais e culturais </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respostas_sociais_e_culturais-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Véxase_tamén" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Véxase_tamén"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Véxase tamén </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Véxase_tamén-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Mostrar ou agochar a subsección "Véxase tamén" </button> <ul id="toc-Véxase_tamén-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliografía" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografía"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Bibliografía </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografía-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ligazóns_externas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ligazóns_externas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Ligazóns externas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ligazóns_externas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contidos" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Mostrar ou agochar a táboa de contidos" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Mostrar ou agochar a táboa de contidos </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Evolución</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Ir a un artigo noutra lingua. Dispoñible en 157 linguas" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-157" aria-hidden="true" > 157 linguas </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusie" title="Evolusie – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Evolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – alemán suízo" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="alemán suízo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%9D%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%98%E1%89%B0_%E1%88%88%E1%8B%8D%E1%8C%A5" title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ – amhárico" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="amhárico" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Evolución – aragonés" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Evolución" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragonés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – árabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="árabe" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تطور – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تطور" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6" title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ – assamés" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assamés" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Evolución biolóxica – asturiano" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Evolución biolóxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99kam%C3%BCl" title="Təkamül – acerbaixano" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təkamül" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="acerbaixano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تکامول تئوریسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تکامول تئوریسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – baxkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baxkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evuolioc%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Evuoliocėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Evuoliocėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – belaruso" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="belaruso" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Еволюция – búlgaro" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Еволюция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="búlgaro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – bengalí" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalí" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – bosníaco" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosníaco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3" title="Evolució – catalán" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Evolució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalán" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ng-hu%C3%A1" title="Céng-huá – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Céng-huá" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – checheno" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="checheno" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="پەرەسەندن – kurdo central" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەرەسەندن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="kurdo central" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluce" title="Evoluce – checo" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Evoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="checo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – chuvaxo" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="chuvaxo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esblygiad" title="Esblygiad – galés" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Esblygiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="galés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo recomendado"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(biologi)" title="Evolution (biologi) – dinamarqués" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Evolution (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="dinamarqués" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – alemán" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemán" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusyon" title="Evolusyon – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Evolusyon" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Εξέλιξη – grego" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εξέλιξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grego" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzi%C3%B2un" title="Evoluziòun – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Evoluziòun" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – inglés" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="inglés" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucio_(teorio)" title="Evolucio (teorio) – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Evolucio (teorio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Evolución biológica – español" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución biológica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="español" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsioon" title="Evolutsioon – estoniano" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Evolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estoniano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eboluzio" title="Eboluzio – éuscaro" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eboluzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="éuscaro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluci%C3%B3n" title="Volución – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Volución" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="فرگشت – persa" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرگشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluutio" title="Evoluutio – finés" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Evoluutio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menningarl%C3%A6ran" title="Menningarlæran – feroés" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Menningarlæran" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="feroés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volution_(biologie)" title="Évolution (biologie) – francés" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évolution (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolutsion" title="Ewolutsion – frisón setentrional" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ewolutsion" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="frisón setentrional" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAsje" title="Evolúsje – frisón occidental" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Evolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="frisón occidental" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89abhl%C3%B3id" title="Éabhlóid – irlandés" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éabhlóid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volousyon_(byoloji)" title="Évolousyon (byoloji) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Évolousyon (byoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-fh%C3%A0s" title="Mean-fhàs – gaélico escocés" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mean-fhàs" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaélico escocés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekove_%C3%B1emoambue" title="Tekove ñemoambue – guaraní" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekove ñemoambue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="guaraní" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%89%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ – guxarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="guxarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="אבולוציה – hebreo" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבולוציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebreo" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – croata" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croata" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolisyon" title="Evolisyon – crioulo haitiano" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Evolisyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="crioulo haitiano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAci%C3%B3_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Evolúció (biológia) – húngaro" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Evolúció (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="húngaro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BE%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Էվոլյուցիա – armenio" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էվոլյուցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armenio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A8" title="Մարդկային Ծիները – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մարդկային Ծիները" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – indonesio" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusion" title="Ebolusion – ilocano" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="ilocano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – inguxo" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="inguxo" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluciono" title="Evoluciono – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Evoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%B3un" title="Þróun – islandés" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þróun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzione" title="Evoluzione – italiano" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Evoluzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化 – xaponés" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="xaponés" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivoluushan" title="Ivoluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ivoluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – xavanés" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="xavanés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – xeorxiano" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="xeorxiano" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamhazt" title="Tamhazt – cabila" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamhazt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="cabila" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A8har%C5%A9raka_(evolution)" title="Ũharũraka (evolution) – kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Ũharũraka (evolution)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – kazako" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazako" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ವಿಕಾಸ – kannará" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಕಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannará" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94" title="진화 – coreano" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreano" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – carachaio-bálcara" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="carachaio-bálcara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%AA%C5%9Fve%C3%A7%C3%BBn" title="Pêşveçûn – kurdo" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pêşveçûn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurdo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplegyans" title="Esplegyans – córnico" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Esplegyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="córnico" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – kirguiz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirguiz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutio" title="Evolutio – latín" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Evolutio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latín" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutioun_(Biologie)" title="Evolutioun (Biologie) – luxemburgués" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Evolutioun (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxemburgués" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – lezguio" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="lezguio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolui" title="Evolui – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Evolui" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – limburgués" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgués" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ວິວັດທະນາການ – laosiano" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິວັດທະນາການ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="laosiano" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoliucija" title="Evoliucija – lituano" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Evoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C5%ABcija" title="Evolūcija – letón" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Evolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letón" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88volusi" title="Èvolusi – madurés" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Èvolusi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="madurés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ev%C3%B4lisi%C3%B4na" title="Evôlisiôna – malgaxe" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Evôlisiôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgaxe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Еволуција – macedonio" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Еволуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedonio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവപരിണാമം – malabar" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവപരിണാമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malabar" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – mongol" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="उत्क्रांती – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उत्क्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – malaio" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzzjoni" title="Evoluzzjoni – maltés" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Evoluzzjoni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="maltés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibolu%C3%A7on" title="Eiboluçon – mirandés" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiboluçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%B2%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA" title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ် – birmano" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmano" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – mazandaraní" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="mazandaraní" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutschoon" title="Evolutschoon – baixo alemán" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Evolutschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="baixo alemán" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – nepalí" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepalí" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="विकासक्रम – newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विकासक्रम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – neerlandés" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – noruegués nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="noruegués nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – noruegués bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="noruegués bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucion_(biologia)" title="Evolucion (biologia) – occitano" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Evolucion (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ – panxabí" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="panxabí" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolushon" title="Evolushon – papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Evolushon" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo bo"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolucja_biologiczna" title="Ewolucja biologiczna – polaco" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ewolucja biologiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polaco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolussion" title="Evolussion – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Evolussion" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86" title="ایولوشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایولوشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – paxto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paxto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Evolução – portugués" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evolução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugués" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikch%27aqyay" title="Rikch'aqyay – quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rikch'aqyay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluziun" title="Evoluziun – romanche" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Evoluziun" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="romanche" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C8%9Bie" title="Evoluție – romanés" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evoluție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="romanés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – ruso" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="ruso" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еволуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Еволуція" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – iacuto" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="iacuto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_sa_evolutzioni" title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni – sardo" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="sardo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7" title="ارتقا – sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ارتقا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – serbocroata" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbocroata" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azzigz" title="Azzigz – tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Azzigz" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිණාමය – cingalés" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිණාමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="cingalés" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologick%C3%A1_evol%C3%BAcia" title="Biologická evolúcia – eslovaco" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biologická evolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="eslovaco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – esloveno" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="esloveno" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucioni" title="Evolucioni – albanés" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Evolucioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Еволуција (биологија) – serbio" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Еволуција (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbio" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – sundanés" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sundanés" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – sueco" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="sueco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mageuko_ya_spishi" title="Mageuko ya spishi – suahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mageuko ya spishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="suahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="படிவளர்ச்சிக் கொள்கை – támil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="படிவளர்ச்சிக் கொள்கை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="támil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%82" title="పరిణామం – telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరిణామం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusaun" title="Evolusaun – tetun" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Evolusaun" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="tetun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволютсия – taxico" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Эволютсия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="taxico" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%92%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="วิวัฒนาการ – tailandés" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิวัฒนาการ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="tailandés" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – tagalo" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivolusan" title="Ivolusan – tok pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Ivolusan" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="tok pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrim" title="Evrim – turco" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Evrim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – tártaro" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tártaro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еволюція – ucraíno" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Еволюція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraíno" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%82_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7" title="نظریۂ ارتقا – urdú" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نظریۂ ارتقا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdú" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsiya" title="Evolutsiya – uzbeko" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Evolutsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbeko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BCcii" title="Evolücii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Evolücii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo de calidade"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFn_h%C3%B3a" title="Tiến hóa – vietnamita" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiến hóa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamita" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vot%C3%BCkam" title="Votükam – volapuk" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Votükam" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="volapuk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – waray-waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray-waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化 – chinés wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="演化" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="chinés wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עוואלוציע – yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עוואלוציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" 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class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png/320px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png/480px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png/640px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="741" usemap="#ImageMap_ad917fd61e3bbae6" resource="/wiki/Ficheiro:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified_gl.png" /><map name="ImageMap_ad917fd61e3bbae6"><area href="/wiki/Euriarqueotas" shape="rect" coords="25,151,90,160" alt="Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Nanoarqueotas" shape="rect" coords="15,132,83,140" alt="Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Crenarqueotas" shape="rect" coords="13,116,79,124" alt="Crenarchaeota" title="Crenarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Protozoo" shape="rect" coords="31,88,73,95" alt="Protozoo" title="Protozoo" /><area href="/wiki/Alga" shape="rect" coords="56,57,81,66" alt="Alga" title="Alga" /><area href="/wiki/Plantae" shape="rect" coords="64,43,91,50" alt="Plantae" title="Plantae" /><area href="/wiki/Mofos_mucosos" shape="rect" coords="33,31,108,38" alt="Mofos mucosos" title="Mofos mucosos" /><area href="/wiki/Animal" shape="rect" coords="91,19,128,27" alt="Animais" title="Animais" /><area href="/wiki/Fungi" shape="rect" coords="133,17,158,26" alt="Fungo" title="Fungo" /><area href="/wiki/Bacteria_Gram-positiva" shape="rect" coords="163,14,279,23" alt="Bacterias Gram-positivas" title="Bacterias Gram-positivas" /><area href="/wiki/Chlamydiae" shape="rect" coords="175,25,228,34" alt="Chlamydiae" title="Chlamydiae" /><area href="/wiki/Cloroflexos" shape="rect" coords="193,38,305,46" alt="Chloroflexi" title="Chloroflexi" /><area href="/wiki/Actinobacteria" shape="rect" coords="215,53,280,60" alt="Actinobacteria" title="Actinobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Planctomycetes" shape="rect" coords="229,68,300,77" alt="Planctomycetes" title="Planctomycetes" /><area href="/wiki/Spirochaetes" shape="rect" coords="233,85,292,94" alt="Spirochaetes" title="Spirochaetes" /><area href="/wiki/Fusobacteria" shape="rect" coords="233,107,291,114" alt="Fusobacteria" title="Fusobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" shape="rect" coords="232,125,313,146" alt="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Term%C3%B3filo" shape="rect" coords="220,150,293,168" alt="Termófilas" title="Termófilas" /><area href="/wiki/Acidobacteria" shape="rect" coords="194,177,257,185" alt="Acidobacteria" title="Acidobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Proteobacteria" shape="rect" coords="118,188,183,195" alt="Proteobacteria" title="Proteobacteria" /></map><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%81rbore_filoxen%C3%A9tica" title="Árbore filoxenética">Árbore filoxenética</a> interactiva que mostra a diverxencia das modernas especies a partir dun antepasado común no centro.<a href="#cite_note-Ciccarelli-1">[1]</a> Os tres dominios están coloreados de forma diferente: as bacterias de azul, as arqueas de verde, e os eucariotas de vermello.</figcaption></figure> A evolución é o cambio nas características herdadas das poboacións biolóxicas co paso das <a href="/wiki/Xeraci%C3%B3n" title="Xeración">xeracións</a>. Os procesos evolutivos dan lugar a diversidade en todos os niveis biolóxicos de organización, como as <a href="/wiki/Biodiversidade" title="Biodiversidade">especies</a>, os organismos individuais e as <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_molecular" title="Evolución molecular">moléculas</a> como o <a href="/wiki/%C3%81cido_desoxirribonucleico" title="Ácido desoxirribonucleico">ADN</a> e <a href="/wiki/Prote%C3%ADna" title="Proteína">proteínas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hall08-2">[2]</a> Todos os seres vivos da Terra descenden dun <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Altimo_antepasado_com%C3%BAn_universal" title="Último antepasado común universal">antepasado común</a> (LUCA) que viviu hai entre 3 500 e 3 800 millóns de anos.<a href="#cite_note-Origin1-3">[3]</a> En xullo de 2016, os científicos informaron da identificación dun conxunto de 355 <a href="/wiki/Xene" title="Xene">xenes</a> procedentes de <a href="/wiki/LUCA" class="mw-redirect" title="LUCA">LUCA</a> en todos os <a href="/wiki/Ser_vivo" title="Ser vivo">organismos</a> vivos da Terra.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160725-4">[4]</a> Os repetidos eventos de <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">especiación</a> e de <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_diverxente" title="Evolución diverxente">diverxencia</a> dos seres vivos poden inferirse do conxunto de trazos bioquímicos e morfolóxicos compartidos, ou das <a href="/wiki/Secuencia_de_ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="Secuencia de ADN">secuencias de ADN</a> compartidas.<a href="#cite_note-The_Cell_by_Panno-5">[5]</a> Estes trazos e secuencias <a href="/wiki/Homolox%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Homoloxía (bioloxía)">homólogas</a> son moi similares entre as especies que comparten un antepasado común máis recente, e poden utilizarse para <a href="/wiki/Filoxen%C3%A9tica" class="mw-redirect" title="Filoxenética">reconstruír</a> as historias evolutivas, utilizando tanto as especies existentes coma o <a href="/wiki/Rexistro_f%C3%B3sil" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexistro fósil">rexistro fósil</a>. Os padróns existentes de <a href="/wiki/Biodiversidade" title="Biodiversidade">biodiversidade</a> foron modelados pola especiación e pola <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n" title="Extinción">extinción</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma04-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> foi o primeiro que formulou un <a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">argumento científico</a> para a <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Teoría">teoría</a> da evolución por <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a> e <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Selección sexual">selección sexual</a>. A evolución por selección natural é un proceso que se pode inferir de tres <a href="/wiki/Feito_cient%C3%ADfico" class="mw-redirect" title="Feito científico">feitos</a> sobre as poboacións: primeiro, prodúcese máis descendencia da que é posible que sobreviva; segundo, os trazos varían entre os individuos, o que orixina diferentes taxas de supervivencia e reprodución; e terceiro, as diferenzas nos trazos son herdables.<a href="#cite_note-Lewontin70-7">[7]</a> Así, cando morren os membros dunha poboación son substituídos pola proxenie dos pais que estaban mellor <a href="/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica">adaptados</a> para sobrevivir e reproducirse no medio ambiente no cal ten lugar a selección natural. Este proceso crea e preserva trazos que son aparentemente axeitados para o seu papel funcional.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> A selección natural é a única causa coñecida da <a href="/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica">adaptación biolóxica</a>, pero non a única causa da evolución. Outras causas non adaptativas da evolución son a <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutación</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Deriva_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Deriva xenética">deriva xenética</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kimura_M_1991_367–86-9">[9]</a> A inicios do <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9culo_XX" title="Século XX">século XX</a>, os coñecementos da <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_cl%C3%A1sica" title="Xenética clásica">xenética clásica</a> foron <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_moderna_(s%C3%A9culo_XX)" title="Síntese moderna (século XX)">integrados</a> coa teoría de Darwin da evolución por selección natural coa creación da disciplina da <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns" title="Xenética de poboacións">xenética de poboacións</a>. A importancia da selección natural como causa da evolución foi aceptada noutras ramas da bioloxía. Ademais, as nocións que se mantiñan anteriormente sobre evolución, como a <a href="/wiki/Ortox%C3%A9nese" title="Ortoxénese">ortoxénese</a> e o "progreso" quedaron obsoletas.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Os científicos continúan estudando varios aspectos da evolución formulando e poñendo a proba <a href="/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tese" title="Hipótese">hipóteses</a>, construíndo <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Teoría">teorías</a>, usando datos observacionais, e realizando experimentos de campo e de laboratorio. Os biólogos están de <a href="/wiki/Consenso_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Consenso científico">acordo</a> en que a descendencia con modificacións é un dos <a href="/wiki/A_evoluci%C3%B3n_como_feito_e_teor%C3%ADa" title="A evolución como feito e teoría">feitos</a> científicos establecidos con máis fiabilidade.<a href="#cite_note-NAS2008R11R12-11">[11]</a> En termos de aplicacións prácticas, a comprensión da evolución foi instrumental para os desenvolvementos de varios campos científicos e industriais, incluíndo a <a href="/wiki/Agricultura" title="Agricultura">agricultura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina">medicina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veterinaria" title="Veterinaria">veterinaria</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía">bioloxía</a> en xeral.<a href="#cite_note-NAS2008R11R12-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Os descubrimentos feitos na bioloxía evolutiva tiveron un impacto significativo non só nas áreas tradicionais da bioloxía senón tamén noutras disciplinas académicas, incluíndo a <a href="/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa" title="Antropoloxía">antropoloxía</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa" title="Psicoloxía">psicoloxía</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moore09-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma99-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista">Historia do pensamento evolucionista</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Editar a sección: «Historia do pensamento evolucionista»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=1" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Historia do pensamento evolucionista">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista" title="Historia do pensamento evolucionista">Historia do pensamento evolucionista</a>.</dd></dl></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="width:162px;"> <div class="thumbinner"> <div style="margin:1px;width:152px;"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Lucretius_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lucrecio"><img alt="Lucrecio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg/150px-Lucretius_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg/225px-Lucretius_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="390" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:"><a href="/wiki/Lucrecio" title="Lucrecio">Lucrecio</a></div></div> <div style="margin:1px;width:152px;"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Alfred Russel Wallace"><img alt="Alfred Russel Wallace" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/150px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/225px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/300px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="3355" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></div></div> <div style="margin:1px;width:152px;"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thomas Robert Malthus"><img alt="Thomas Robert Malthus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/150px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/225px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/300px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4045" data-file-height="4944" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a></div></div> <div style="margin:1px;width:152px;"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:RonaldFisher1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ronald Fisher en 1912"><img alt="Ronald Fisher en 1912" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/RonaldFisher1912.jpg/150px-RonaldFisher1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/RonaldFisher1912.jpg/225px-RonaldFisher1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/RonaldFisher1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="448" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> en 1912</div></div> <div style="margin:1px;width:152px;"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="En 1842 Charles Darwin escribiu o seu primeiro esbozo do que sería o seu libro A orixe das especies.[16]"><img alt="En 1842 Charles Darwin escribiu o seu primeiro esbozo do que sería o seu libro A orixe das especies.[16]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/150px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/225px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/300px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="487" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:">En 1842 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> escribiu o seu primeiro esbozo do que sería o seu libro <a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">A orixe das especies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></div></div></div></div> A idea de que un tipo de animal podía descender doutro tipo de animal remóntase aos primeiros filósofos gregos <a href="/w/index.php?title=Filosof%C3%ADa_presocr%C3%A1tica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Filosofía presocrática (a páxina aínda non existe)">presocráticos</a>, como <a href="/wiki/Anaximandro_de_Mileto" title="Anaximandro de Mileto">Anaximandro</a> e <a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%A9docles" title="Empédocles">Empédocles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> A diferenza destas visións <a href="/wiki/Materialismo" title="Materialismo">materialistas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles">Aristóteles</a> consideraba todas as cousas naturais, non só as viventes, como concrecións (entelequias) imperfectas de diferentes posibilidades naturais fixadas, o que se coñece como "formas", "<a href="/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo">ideas</a>" ou (nas traducións latinas) "especies".<a href="#cite_note-Torrey37-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hull67-19">[19]</a> Isto formaba parte do coñecemento <a href="/wiki/Teleolox%C3%ADa" title="Teleoloxía">teleolóxico</a> da <a href="/w/index.php?title=Natureza_(filosof%C3%ADa)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Natureza (filosofía) (a páxina aínda non existe)">natureza</a> na cal todas as cousas estaban destinadas a xogar un papel na orde cósmica divina. O poeta e filósofo romano <a href="/wiki/Lucrecio" title="Lucrecio">Lucrecio</a> propuxo a posibilidade de que existisen cambios evolutivos nos organismos, na súa obra <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carus2011-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Variacións desta idea fixéronse comúns na <a href="/wiki/Idade_Media" title="Idade Media">Idade Media</a>, e foron integradas dentro das ensinanzas cristiáns, pero Aristóteles non esixía que cada tipo real de animal correspondese a unha forma metafísica exacta, e deu exemplos específicos de como se podían chegar a formar novos tipos de seres vivos.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> No <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9culo_XVII" title="Século XVII">século XVII</a> o novo <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico">método</a> da ciencia moderna rexeitaba o enfoque de Aristóteles, e procuraba as explicacións dos fenómenos naturais nas <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leis_da_natureza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leis da natureza (a páxina aínda non existe)">leis da natureza</a>, que eran as mesmas para todas as cousas visibles, e non necesitaba asumir ningunha categoría natural fixada, nin ningunha orde cósmica divina. Pero este novo enfoque tardou moito en aplicarse ás ciencias biolóxicas, que se converteron no último bastión do concepto de tipos naturais fixos. <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> usou un dos termos anteriormente máis xerais para os tipos naturais fixos, "especies", para aplicalo aos tipos de animais e plantas, pero a diferenza de Aristóteles el identificou estritamente cada tipo de cousa viva como unha especie, e propuxo que cada especie podía definirse por características que se perpetuaban en cada xeración.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> A clasificación biolóxica introducida por <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9" title="Carl von Linné">Carl von Linné</a> en 1735 tamén consideraba que as especies eran <a href="/wiki/Fixismo" title="Fixismo">fixas</a> segundo os plans divinos.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Outros naturalistas do seu tempo especularon sobre o cambio evolutivo das especies ao longo do tempo de acordo coas leis naturais. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Moreau_de_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a> escribiu en 1751 sobre as modificacións naturais que ocorrían durante a reprodución e que se acumulaban ao longo de moitas <a href="/wiki/Xeraci%C3%B3n" title="Xeración">xeracións</a> para producir novas especies.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_conde_de_Buffon" class="mw-redirect" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, conde de Buffon">Buffon</a> suxeriu que as especies podían dexenerar orixinando diferentes organismos, e <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> propuxo que todos os animais de sangue quente puideron descender dun só microorganismo (ou "filamento").<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> O primeiro esquema propiamente evolucionista foi a teoría da "transmutación" de <a href="/wiki/Lamarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamarck">Lamarck</a> de 1809.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Esta teoría consideraba que a xeración espontánea producía continuamente formas de vida simples e orixinábase unha maior <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_da_complexidade_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Evolución da complexidade biolóxica">complexidade</a> en liñaxes paralelas cunha tendencia inherente a progresar, e que a nivel local estas liñaxes se adaptaban ao medio ambiente ao herdaren cambios causados polo uso ou desuso de órganos feito polos seus pais.<a href="#cite_note-Nardon_Grenier91-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould02-29">[29]</a> Este último proceso denominouse despois "<a href="/wiki/Lamarckismo" title="Lamarckismo">lamarckismo</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Nardon_Grenier91-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-ImaginaryLamarck-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jablonka07-32">[32]</a> Estas ideas foron condenadas polos naturalistas establecidos como especulacións carentes de apoio empírico. En particular <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> insistía en que as especies non estaban relacionadas entre si e eran fixas, as súas semellanzas reflectían o deseño divino para satisfacer as súas necesidades funcionais. Mentres tanto, <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> desenvolveu as ideas de Ray do deseño benevolente no seu libro de 1802 <a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a> (Teoloxía natural ou probas da existencia e atributos da deidade), que propoñía que as complexas adaptacións observadas eran evidencia do deseño divino, o cal Charles Darwin ao principio admiraba, pero despois acabou criticando.<a href="#cite_note-Darwin91-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sulloway09-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins90-35">[35]</a> A ruptura fundamental co concepto de especie fixa (<a href="/wiki/Fixismo" title="Fixismo">fixismo</a>) en bioloxía empezou coa teoría da evolución por selección natural, que formulou <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>. Darwin, en parte influenciado polo <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a> (Ensaio sobre o principio da poboación) de <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a>, fixo notar que o crecemento da poboación dos distintos seres vivos leva a unha "loita pola existencia" na cal as variacións favorables poderían prevalecer mentres que outras perecerían. En cada xeración, moitos dos descendentes non conseguen sobrevivir ata a idade reprodutiva debido á limitación dos recursos do seu medio. Isto podía explicar a formación dunha diversidade de animais e plantas a partir dun antepasado común por medio do funcionamento das leis naturais, que funcionaban igual para todo tipo de cousas.<a href="#cite_note-Sober09-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Darwin estivo desenvolvendo a súa teoría da "<a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a>" desde 1838 en adiante ata que <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> lle enviou unha teoría semellante en 1858. Ambos os dous presentaron documentos por separado á <a href="/wiki/Sociedade_linneana_de_Londres" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociedade linneana de Londres">Sociedade linneana de Londres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> A finais de 1859, o libro publicado por Darwin <a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">A orixe das especies</a> explicou a selección natural en detalle e dun modo que fixo que se producise unha crecente aceptación da <a href="/wiki/Darwinismo" title="Darwinismo">evolución darwinista</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> aplicou as ideas de Darwin aos humanos, usando a <a href="/wiki/Paleontolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleontoloxía">paleontoloxía</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa_comparada" title="Anatomía comparada">anatomía comparada</a> para proporcionar evidencias de que os homes e os <a href="/wiki/Simio" class="mw-redirect" title="Simio">simios</a> compartían un antepasado común. Na súa época a algúns lles molestou esta idea, xa que implicaba que os humanos non ocupaban un sitio especial no Universo.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Os mecanismos precisos da herdanza reprodutiva e da orixe dos novos trazos seguía sendo un enigma. Ao final da súa vida Darwin desenvolveu a súa teoría provisional da <a href="/wiki/Panx%C3%A9nese" title="Panxénese">panxénese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Liu09-42">[42]</a> En 1865 <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> informou que as características xenéticas se herdaban dunha maneira predicible por medio da distribución independente e a segregación de "elementos" (máis tarde chamados <a href="/wiki/Xene" title="Xene">xenes</a>). As <a href="/wiki/Leis_de_Mendel" class="mw-redirect" title="Leis de Mendel">leis de Mendel</a> da herdanza finalmente substituirían á teoría da panxénese de Darwin.<a href="#cite_note-Weiling-43">[43]</a> Despois, <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a> fixo a importante distinción entre as <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_xerminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Célula xerminal">células da liña xerminal</a> (liña dos <a href="/wiki/Espermatozoide" title="Espermatozoide">espermatozoides</a> e <a href="/wiki/%C3%93vulo" title="Óvulo">óvulos</a>) e as <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_som%C3%A1tica" title="Célula somática">células somáticas</a> do corpo, demostrando que a herdanza se transmite só a través da <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%B1a_xerminal" title="Liña xerminal">liña xerminal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barreira_de_Weismann" title="Barreira de Weismann">barreira de Weismann</a>). <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> conectou a teoría da panxénese de Darwin coa distinción de Weismann entre células xerminais e somáticas e propuxo que os panxenes de Darwin estaban concentrados no <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_celular" title="Núcleo celular">núcleo celular</a> e cando se expresaban podían moverse ao <a href="/wiki/Citoplasma" title="Citoplasma">citoplasma</a> para cambiar a estrutura celular (o que hoxe sabemos que non é exactamente así). De Vries foi tamén un dos investigadores que fixo que se coñecesen os traballos de Mendel, e cría que os trazos mendelianos se debían á transferencia de variacións herdables na liña xerminal.<a href="#cite_note-Wright84-44">[44]</a> Para explicar como se orixinaban as novas variacións, De Vries desenvolveu unha teoría da <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutación</a> que orixinou unha división temporal entre os que aceptaban a evolución darwinista e os biométricos que apoiaban a de Vries.<a href="#cite_note-Gould02-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Coa chegada do <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9culo_XX" title="Século XX">século XX</a>, os pioneiros no campo da <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns" title="Xenética de poboacións">xenética de poboacións</a>, como <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">J. B. S. Haldane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a>, e <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a>, estableceron os alicerces da evolución sobre unha base estatística robusta. Fíxose entón evidente a falsa contradición entre a teoría de Darwin, as mutacións xenéticas, e a herdanza mendeliana, que foron reconciliadas.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Nas décadas de 1920 e 1930 a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_moderna_(s%C3%A9culo_XX)" title="Síntese moderna (século XX)">síntese evolutiva moderna</a> conectou a selección natural, a teoría da mutación, e a herdanza mendeliana nunha teoría unificada que se aplicou de forma xeral en todas as pólas da bioloxía. A síntese moderna podía explicar os padróns observados nas especies en termos de poboacións, a través de <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3sil_transicional" title="Fósil transicional">fósiles transicionais</a> en paleontoloxía, e por medio de complexos mecanismos celulares na <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía do desenvolvemento">bioloxía do desenvolvemento</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gould02-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A publicación da estrutura do <a href="/wiki/ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="ADN">ADN</a> por <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James Watson</a> e <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> en 1953 demostrou a base física da herdanza.<a href="#cite_note-Watson53-49">[49]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_molecular" title="Bioloxía molecular">bioloxía molecular</a> mellorou moito a nosa comprensión das relacións entre <a href="/wiki/Xenotipo" title="Xenotipo">xenotipo</a> e <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipo</a>. Fixéronse tamén moitos avances en <a href="/wiki/Sistem%C3%A1tica" title="Sistemática">sistemática</a> <a href="/wiki/Filoxen%C3%A9tica" class="mw-redirect" title="Filoxenética">filoxenética</a>, mapando a transición dos trazos xenéticos nun marco comparativo e comprobable que levou á publicación e uso de <a href="/wiki/%C3%81rbore_filoxen%C3%A9tica" title="Árbore filoxenética">árbores filoxenéticas evolutivas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hennig99-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wiley11-51">[51]</a> En 1973, o biólogo evolucionista <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> escribiu que "nada en bioloxía ten sentido se non está baixo a luz da evolución", porque explica as relacións do que antes parecían feitos inconexos da historia natural nun corpo de coñecementos coherente explicativo que describe e predí moitos feitos observables sobre a vida no noso planeta.<a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky73-52">[52]</a> Desde entón, a síntese moderna ampliouse moito máis para explicar os fenómenos biolóxicos a través da escala integradora completa da <a href="/wiki/Complexidade_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Complexidade biolóxica">xerarquía biolóxica</a>, desde os xenes ata as especies. Esta ampliación denominouse <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento">bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Avise10-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Herdanza">Herdanza</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Editar a sección: «Herdanza»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=2" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Herdanza">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Véxase tamén: <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética">Xenética</a> e <a href="/wiki/Leis_de_Mendel" class="mw-redirect" title="Leis de Mendel">Leis de Mendel</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:ADN_static.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/ADN_static.png/220px-ADN_static.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/ADN_static.png/330px-ADN_static.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/ADN_static.png 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Estrutura do <a href="/wiki/ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="ADN">ADN</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Base_nitroxenada" title="Base nitroxenada">bases</a> están no centro, rodeadas das cadeas azucre-fosfato formando unha <a href="/wiki/Dobre_h%C3%A9lice" title="Dobre hélice">dobre hélice</a>.</figcaption></figure> A evolución nos organismos ocorre por medio de cambios nos trazos herdables (as características particulares dun organismo). Nos humanos, por exemplo, a <a href="/wiki/Cor_dos_ollos" title="Cor dos ollos">cor dos ollos</a> é unha característica herdada e un individuo pode herdar o "trazo ollos castaños" dun dos seus proxenitores.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Os trazos ou caracteres herdados están controlados por <a href="/wiki/Xene" title="Xene">xenes</a> e o conxunto completo de xenes do <a href="/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma">xenoma</a> dun organismo coas variantes concretas que este posúe son o <a href="/wiki/Xenotipo" title="Xenotipo">xenotipo</a> dese organismo.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson_2006-57">[57]</a> O conxunto completo de trazos observables ou detectables que forman a estrutura e comportamento dun organismo denomínase <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipo</a>. Estes trazos orixínanse pola interacción do seu xenotipo co ambiente.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Como resultado, moitos aspectos do fenotipo dun organismo non se herdan. Por exemplo, o bronceado da pel depende da interacción entre o xenotipo dunha persoa e a luz do sol, polo que o bronceado non se transmite de pais a fillos. Porén, algunhas persoas póñense morenas con máis facilidade que outras, debido a diferenzas nos seus xenotipos; un exemplo extremo é o das persoas que herdan o carácter <a href="/wiki/Albinismo" title="Albinismo">albinismo</a>, que teñen falta do pigmento da pel <a href="/wiki/Melanina" title="Melanina">melanina</a>, non se poden poñer morenos e son moi propensos ás queimaduras solares.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Os trazos herdables pasan dunha xeración á seguinte por medio do <a href="/wiki/ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="ADN">ADN</a> cromosómico, unha <a href="/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula">molécula</a> que codifica a información xenética.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson_2006-57">[57]</a> O ADN é un longo <a href="/wiki/Pol%C3%ADmero" title="Polímero">polímero</a> composto por catro tipo de <a href="/wiki/Base_nitroxenada" title="Base nitroxenada">bases</a>. A secuencia de bases dunha determinada molécula de ADN especifica a información xenética, de maneira similar a como unha secuencia de letras serve para escribir unha frase. Antes de que a célula se divida, o ADN é copiado, para que cada unha das células fillas resultantes herde a <a href="/wiki/Secuencia_de_ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="Secuencia de ADN">secuencia de ADN</a>. As porcións dunha molécula de ADN que especifican unha soa unidade funcional denomínanse <a href="/wiki/Xene" title="Xene">xenes</a>, e os diferentes xenes teñen diferentes secuencias de bases. Nas <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_(biolox%C3%ADa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Célula (bioloxía)">células</a>, as longas fibras de ADN asociadas con <a href="/wiki/Prote%C3%ADna" title="Proteína">proteínas</a> forman estruturas condensadas chamadas <a href="/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma">cromosomas</a>. A localización específica dunha secuencia de ADN nun cromosoma denomínase <a href="/wiki/Locus" title="Locus">locus</a>. Se a secuencia de ADN nun locus varía entre individuos, as diferentes formas desta secuencia denomínanse <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">alelos</a>. Polo tanto, un xene dunha especie pode ter varios alelos na poboación. As secuencias de ADN poden cambiar por medio de <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutacións</a>, orixinando novos alelos. Se ten lugar unha mutación nun xene, o novo alelo pode afectar o trazo que ese xene controla (ou sobre o que inflúe), alterando o fenotipo do organismo.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-60">[60]</a> Porén, aínda que esta simple correspondencia entre alelo e trazo (ou carácter) funciona nalgúns casos, a maioría dos trazos son máis complexos e están controlados por varios xenes que interaccionan (hai moitas posibilidades como os <a href="/wiki/QTL" class="mw-redirect" title="QTL">caracteres cuantitativos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistase" title="Epistase">epistase</a> etc.).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lin-62">[62]</a> Descubrimentos máis recentes confirmaron importantes exemplos de cambios herdables que non se poden explicar por cambios na secuencia de nucleótidos do ADN, que se clasifican como sistemas de herdanza <a href="/wiki/Epixen%C3%A9tica" title="Epixenética">epixenéticos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonka09-63">[63]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Metilaci%C3%B3n_do_ADN" title="Metilación do ADN">metilación do ADN</a> que marca a <a href="/wiki/Cromatina" title="Cromatina">cromatina</a>, os bucles metabólicos autosostibles, o silenciamento de xenes por <a href="/wiki/Interferencia_de_ARN" title="Interferencia de ARN">interferencia de ARN</a> e a conformación tridimensional de certas proteínas (como os <a href="/wiki/Pri%C3%B3n" title="Prión">prións</a>) son áreas onde se descubriron sistemas de herdanza epixenética a nivel de organismo.<a href="#cite_note-Bossdorf10-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Os biólogos do desenvolvemento suxiren que as complexas interaccións nas redes xenéticas e a comunicación entre as células poden orixinar variacións herdables que poden subxacer na mecánica da <a href="/wiki/Plasticidade_do_desenvolvemento" title="Plasticidade do desenvolvemento">plasticidade do desenvolvemento</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Canalizaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica)" title="Canalización (xenética)">canalización</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonka02-66">[66]</a> A heredabilidade pode tamén ocorrer a grandes escalas, como pode ser, por exemplo, a herdanza ecolóxica polo proceso de <a href="/wiki/Construci%C3%B3n_de_nicho" title="Construción de nicho">construción de nicho</a>, que se define polas actividades regulares e repetidas dos organismos no seu ambiente. Isto xera un legado de efectos que modifica e retroalimenta o réxime de selección de subseguintes xeracións. Os descendentes herdan xenes xunto coas características ambientais xeradas polas accións ecolóxicas dos seus devanceiros.<a href="#cite_note-Laland06-67">[67]</a> Outros exemplos de heredabilidade na evolución que non están baixo o control directo dos xenes son a herdanza de <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_da_herdanza_dual" title="Teoría da herdanza dual">trazos culturais</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Simbiox%C3%A9nese" title="Simbioxénese">simbioxénese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman98-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson07-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variabilidade">Variabilidade</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Editar a sección: «Variabilidade»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=3" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Variabilidade">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/220px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/330px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/440px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2798" data-file-height="1662" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Biston_betularia" title="Biston betularia">Biston betularia</a> branca.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/220px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/330px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/440px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption>Biston betularia negra. A proporción das variedades branca e negra desta <a href="/wiki/Avela%C3%AD%C3%B1a" title="Avelaíña">avelaíña</a> varían segundo as presións selectivas do ambiente.</figcaption></figure> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Véxase tamén: <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns" title="Xenética de poboacións">Xenética de poboacións</a>.</dd></dl></div> O <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipo</a> de cada organismo individual depende do seu <a href="/wiki/Xenotipo" title="Xenotipo">xenotipo</a> e da influencia do ambiente no que vive. Unha parte substancial da variación nos fenotipos dunha poboación débese á diferenza nos seus xenotipos.<a href="#cite_note-Lin-62">[62]</a> A <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_moderna_(s%C3%A9culo_XX)" title="Síntese moderna (século XX)">síntese evolutiva moderna</a> define evolución como o cambio co paso do tempo nesta variabilidade xenética. A frecuencia dun determinado alelo faise máis ou menos prevalente en relación con outras formas dese xene. A variabilidade desaparece cando un novo alelo chega ao punto en que se <a href="/wiki/Fixaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixación (xenética de poboacións)">fixa</a>, é dicir, cando desaparece totalmente da poboación ou substitúe por completo o alelo ancestral.<a href="#cite_note-Amos-70">[70]</a> A selección natural só causa evolución se hai <a href="/wiki/Variabilidade_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Variabilidade xenética">variabilidade xenética</a> dabondo nunha poboación. Antes do descubrimento da <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_mendeliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenética mendeliana">xenética mendeliana</a>, unha hipótese habitual era a <a href="/wiki/Herdanza_mesturada" class="mw-redirect" title="Herdanza mesturada">herdanza mesturada</a>. Pero con este tipo de herdanza, as variacións xenéticas perderíanse rapidamente, facendo imposible a evolución por selección natural. A lei ou <a href="/wiki/Principio_de_Hardy-Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Principio de Hardy-Weinberg">principio de Hardy-Weinberg</a> é unha solución para explicar como se mantén a variabilidade nunha poboación con herdanza mendeliana. As <a href="/wiki/Frecuencia_al%C3%A9lica" title="Frecuencia alélica">frecuencias dos alelos</a> (variacións nun xene) permanecen constantes en ausencia de selección, mutación, migración e deriva xenética (véxase máis abaixo).<a href="#cite_note-Ewens_W.J._2004-71">[71]</a> A variabilidade procede das <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutacións</a> que experimenta o <a href="/wiki/Material_xen%C3%A9tico" class="mw-redirect" title="Material xenético">material xenético</a>, da redistribución dos xenes por medio da <a href="/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reprodución sexual">reprodución sexual</a> e da migración entre poboacións (<a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">fluxo xénico</a>). Malia a constante introdución de novas variacións polas mutacións e o fluxo xénico, a maioría do <a href="/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma">xenoma</a> dunha especie é idéntico en todos os individuos desa especie.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Porén, mesmo se hai só relativamente poucas diferenzas no xenotipo isto pode producir grandes diferenzas no fenotipo: por exemplo, os <a href="/wiki/Chimpanc%C3%A9" title="Chimpancé">chimpancés</a> e os humanos difiren en só un 5% dos seus xenomas.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutación">Mutación</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Editar a sección: «Mutación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=4" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Mutación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">Mutación</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Gene-duplication.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/100px-Gene-duplication.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/150px-Gene-duplication.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/200px-Gene-duplication.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Duplicaci%C3%B3n_x%C3%A9nica" title="Duplicación xénica">Duplicación</a> dunha parte dun cromosoma.</figcaption></figure> As mutacións son cambios na <a href="/wiki/Secuencia_de_ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="Secuencia de ADN">secuencia de ADN</a> do xenoma dunha célula. Cando ocorre unha mutación, pode non ter efecto, alterar o <a href="/wiki/Produto_x%C3%A9nico" title="Produto xénico">produto dun xene</a> ou impedir que o xene funcione. Baseándose nos estudos realizados na mosca <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a>, suxeriuse que se unha mutación cambia a proteína producida por un xene, isto seguramente será prexudicial, xa que aproximadamente o 70% destas mutacións teñen efectos daniños, e o resto en canto aos seus efectos son <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n_neutra" title="Mutación neutra">neutras</a> ou lixeiramente beneficiosas.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> As mutacións poden afectar a grandes seccións dun <a href="/wiki/Cromosoma" title="Cromosoma">cromosoma</a>, que se poden <a href="/wiki/Duplicaci%C3%B3n_x%C3%A9nica" title="Duplicación xénica">duplicar</a> (xeralmente por <a href="/wiki/Recombinaci%C3%B3n_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Recombinación xenética">recombinación xenética</a>), o cal pode introducir copias extra dun xene nun xenoma.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> As copias extra dos xenes son unha fonte importante da materia prima necesaria para que evolucionen novos xenes.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Isto é importante porque a maioría dos novos xenes evolucionan dentro de <a href="/wiki/Familia_x%C3%A9nica" title="Familia xénica">familias xénicas</a> a partir de xenes preexistentes que comparten antepasados comúns.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Por exemplo, o <a href="/wiki/Ollo" title="Ollo">ollo</a> humano utiliza catro xenes para construír estruturas que captan a luz: tres son para a visión da cor (<a href="/wiki/Cono_(c%C3%A9lula)" title="Cono (célula)">conos</a>) e unha para a visión nocturna (<a href="/wiki/Bast%C3%B3n_(c%C3%A9lula)" title="Bastón (célula)">bastón</a>), pero os catro descenden dun só xene ancestral.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Os novos xenes poden xerarse a partir dun xene ancestral se unha copia orixinada por duplicación muta e adquire unha nova función. Este proceso é máis fácil unha vez que o xene se duplicou porque iso incrementa a redundancia do sistema (a mesma cousa fana dous xenes); un xene dese par pode adquirir unha nova función mentres que a outra copia continúa realizando a súa función orixinal.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Outros tipos de mutacións poden mesmo xerar xenes completamente novos a partir de ADN que previamente era non codificante.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> A xeración de novos xenes pode tamén implicar a duplicación de pequenas partes de varios xenes, e estes fragmentos despois poden recombinarse para formar novas combinacións con novas funcións.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Cando os novos xenes se ensamblan a partir do rearranxo de partes preexistentes, os <a href="/wiki/Dominio_proteico" title="Dominio proteico">dominios proteicos</a> actúan como módulos con funcións independentes simples, que se poden mesturar e unir para producir novas combinacións con novas e complexas funcións.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Por exemplo, as <a href="/wiki/Polic%C3%A9tido_sintase" title="Policétido sintase">policétido sintases</a> son grandes encimas que producen <a href="/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico">antibióticos</a>; estes encimas conteñen ata cen dominios independentes, cada un dos cales <a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A1lise" title="Catálise">cataliza</a> un paso do proceso xeral da síntese, como un paso nunha cadea de montaxe.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexo_e_recombinación">Sexo e recombinación</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Editar a sección: «Sexo e recombinación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=5" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Sexo e recombinación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Véxase tamén: <a href="/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reprodución sexual">Reprodución sexual</a> e <a href="/wiki/Recombinaci%C3%B3n_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Recombinación xenética">Recombinación xenética</a>.</dd></dl></div> Nos organismos <a href="/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_asexual" title="Reprodución asexual">asexuais</a>, os xenes hérdanse todos xuntos, ou ligados, xa que non se poden mesturar con outros xenes doutros individuos durante a reprodución. Polo contrario, a descendencia dos organismos <a href="/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reprodución sexual">sexuais</a> contén mesturas aleatorias dos cromosomas dos seus proxenitores que se formaron por <a href="/wiki/Leis_de_Mendel" class="mw-redirect" title="Leis de Mendel">distribución independente</a> (tipicamente a metade dos cromosomas procede da nai e o outra metade do pai). Nun proceso relacionado chamado <a href="/wiki/Recombinaci%C3%B3n_hom%C3%B3loga" title="Recombinación homóloga">recombinación homóloga</a>, os organismos sexuais intercambian ADN entre dous cromosomas que se corresponden (os chamados pares de <a href="/wiki/Cromosoma_hom%C3%B3logo" title="Cromosoma homólogo">cromosomas homólogos</a>).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> A recombinación e a distribución independente non alteran as frecuencias dos <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">alelos</a>, pero si crean novas combinacións de alelos que levará o individuo, producindo unha descendencia con novas combinacións de alelos, que non van ser iguais ás dos seus pais.<a href="#cite_note-Agrawal-89">[89]</a> O sexo xeralmente incrementa a variabilidade xenética e pode incrementar a taxa de evolución.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluxo_xénico">Fluxo xénico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Editar a sección: «Fluxo xénico»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=6" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Fluxo xénico">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">Fluxo xénico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transferencia_horizontal_de_xenes" title="Transferencia horizontal de xenes">Transferencia horizontal de xenes</a> e <a href="/wiki/H%C3%ADbrido_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Híbrido (bioloxía)">Híbrido (bioloxía)</a>.</dd></dl></div> O <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">fluxo xénico</a> ou xenético é o intercambio de xenes entre as poboacións dunha especie e entre especies.<a href="#cite_note-Morjan_C,_Rieseberg_L_2004_1341–56-92">[92]</a> Xa que logo, pode ser unha fonte de variabilidade nova para unha poboación ou especie. O fluxo xénico pode ser causado polo movemento de individuos entre poboacións separadas dunha especie, como pode ser o movemento de ratos de poboacións do interior do continente cara ás poboacións costeiras, ou o movemento de <a href="/wiki/Pole" title="Pole">pole</a> entre plantas herbáceas tolerantes a metais pesados (que viven en áreas contaminadas con eses metais) e outras sensibles a eses metais. A transferencia de xenes entre especies distintas inclúe a formación de organismos <a href="/wiki/H%C3%ADbrido_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Híbrido (bioloxía)">híbridos</a> e o <a href="/wiki/Transferencia_horizontal_de_xenes" title="Transferencia horizontal de xenes">transferencia horizontal de xenes</a>. A transferencia horizontal de xenes é a transferencia de material xenético dun organismo a outro que non forma parte da súa proxenie, e é máis común entre as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria">bacterias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> En medicina, isto contribúe ao espallamento da <a href="/wiki/Resistencia_a_antibi%C3%B3ticos" title="Resistencia a antibióticos">resistencia a antibióticos</a>, que ocorre cando unha bacteria adquire xenes de resistencia transferidos doutra especie (ou cepa) coa que convive.<a href="#cite_note-GeneticEvolution-94">[94]</a> A transferencia horizontal de xenes desde as bacterias aos eucariotas tamén ocorreu, como nos <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9vedo" title="Lévedo">lévedos</a> <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a> e no <a href="/wiki/Escaravello" class="mw-redirect" title="Escaravello">escaravello</a> <a href="/wiki/Callosobruchus_chinensis" title="Callosobruchus chinensis">Callosobruchus chinensis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Un exemplo de transferencia a grande escala son os eucariotas <a href="/wiki/Rot%C3%ADfero" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotífero">rotíferos</a> <a href="/wiki/Bdelloidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bdelloidea">bdeloideos</a>, que recibiron todo un conxunto de xenes das bacterias, fungos e plantas.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Os <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virus</a> poden tamén transferir ADN dun organismo a outro, mesmo de distintos <a href="/wiki/Dominio_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Dominio (bioloxía)">dominios</a> dos seres vivos.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> A transferencia de xenes a grande escala ocorreu tamén entre os antepasados das <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_eucariota" title="Célula eucariota">células eucariotas</a> e as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, durante a adquisición dos <a href="/wiki/Cloroplasto" title="Cloroplasto">cloroplastos</a> e <a href="/wiki/Mitocondria" title="Mitocondria">mitocondrias</a> mediante un proceso de <a href="/wiki/Endosimbiose" title="Endosimbiose">endosimbiose</a>. É posible que os eucariotas como tales se orixinasen por transferencia horizontal de xenes entre as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria">bacterias</a> e as <a href="/wiki/Arqueas" title="Arqueas">arqueas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mecanismos">Mecanismos</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Editar a sección: «Mecanismos»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=7" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Mecanismos">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg/300px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg/450px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg/600px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram_gl.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutación</a> seguida de <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a>, dá lugar a unha poboación dunha cor máis escura.</figcaption></figure> Desde unha perspectiva <a href="/wiki/Neodarwinismo" title="Neodarwinismo">neodarwinista</a>, a evolución ocorre cando se producen cambios na frecuencia dos alelos nunha poboación de organismos que se poden aparear entre si.<a href="#cite_note-Ewens_W.J._2004-71">[71]</a> Por exemplo, se o alelo para a cor negra nunha poboación de <a href="/wiki/Avela%C3%AD%C3%B1a" title="Avelaíña">avelaíñas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lepid%C3%B3ptero" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepidóptero">lepidópteros</a>) se fai máis común, iso supón un cambio evolutivo. Os mecanismos que poden orixinar estes cambios nas frecuencias dos alelos son a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Deriva_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Deriva xenética">deriva xenética</a>, o <a href="/wiki/Autostop_xen%C3%A9tico" title="Autostop xenético">autostop xenético</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">mutación</a> e o <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">fluxo xénico</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selección_natural">Selección natural</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Editar a sección: «Selección natural»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=8" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Selección natural">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">Selección natural</a> e <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Fitness (bioloxía)">Fitness (bioloxía)</a>.</dd></dl></div> A evolución por medio da <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a> é o proceso polo cal as mutacións xenéticas que melloran a reprodución (posibilidade de deixar fillos) fanse máis comúns e mantéñense en sucesivas xeracións dunha poboación. A miúdo tense considerado como un mecanismo "evidente" porque se segue necesariamente de tres simples feitos: <ul><li>A variación herdable existe nas poboacións de organismos.</li> <li>Os organismos producen máis proxenie da que pode sobrevivir.</li> <li>Esta descendencia varía na súa capacidade de sobrevivir e reproducirse.</li></ul> Estas condicións producen unha competición entre os organismos por sobrevivir e reproducirse. En consecuencia, os organismos con trazos ou características que lles dan vantaxe sobre os seus competidores transmiten eses trazos vantaxosos aos seus fillos, mentres que os trazos que non confiren vantaxe non se transmiten á seguinte xeración na mesma proporción.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-100">[100]</a> O concepto central de selección natural é a chamada eficacia biolóxica, aptitude biolóxica ou <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Fitness (bioloxía)">fitness</a> evolutiva dun organismo.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-101">[101]</a> A fitness mídese pola capacidade dun organismo de sobrevivir e reproducirse, o cal determina a magnitude da súa contribución xenética á seguinte xeración.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-101">[101]</a> Porén, a fitness dun organismo non é o mesmo que o seu número total de fillos, senón que vén indicada pola proporción de xeracións seguintes que levan os xenes dese organismo .<a href="#cite_note-Haldane-102">[102]</a> Por exemplo, se un organismo puido sobrevivir ben e reproducirse rapidamente, pero a súa descendencia estaba formada por individuos que eran todos demasiado pequenos e febles como para sobrevivir, este organismo vai facer finalmente unha contribución xenética pequena ás futuras xeracións (haberá poucos xenes procedentes del nas seguintes xeracións) e entón habería que considerar que tiña unha baixa fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-101">[101]</a> Se un alelo incrementa a fitness máis que outros alelos dun determinado xene, entón con cada xeración ese alelo farase máis común na poboación. Estes trazos dise que son "seleccionados favorablemente". Exemplos de trazos que poden incrementar a fitness son os que melloran a supervivencia e incrementan a fecundidade. Inversamente, a diminución da fitness causada por ter alelos menos beneficiosos ou deletéreos fai que eses alelos se fagan máis raros (son "seleccionados en contra").<a href="#cite_note-Lande-103">[103]</a> É importante subliñar que a fitness dun alelo non é unha característica fixada; porque se se producen cambios no ambiente, trazos que eran previamente neutrais ou daniños poden pasar a ser beneficiosos, e outros que previamente eran beneficiosos poden pasar a ser prexudiciais.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-60">[60]</a> Porén, mesmo se a dirección da selección se inverte deste modo, os trazos que se perderon no pasado poden non reevolucionar de forma idéntica (ver <a href="/wiki/Lei_de_Dollo" title="Lei de Dollo">lei de Dollo</a>).<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png/220px-Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png/330px-Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png/440px-Selection_Types_Chart_gl.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="988" /></a><figcaption>Imaxe que mostra tres tipos de selección. 1. <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_disruptiva" title="Selección disruptiva">Selección disruptiva</a> 2. <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_estabilizante" title="Selección estabilizante">Selección estabilizante</a> 3. <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_direccional" title="Selección direccional">Selección direccional</a>.</figcaption></figure> A selección natural nunha poboación dun trazo que pode variar nun rango de valores, como a altura, pode clasificarse en tres tipos. O primeiro é a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_direccional" title="Selección direccional">selección direccional</a>, que é un cambio no valor medio dun trazo co tempo (por exemplo, organismos que se van facendo pouco a pouco máis altos).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Outro tipo é a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_disruptiva" title="Selección disruptiva">selección disruptiva</a>, que é a selección en favor dos valores extremos do trazo, que con frecuencia dá lugar a que se fagan máis comúns <a href="/w/index.php?title=Distribuci%C3%B3n_bimodal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Distribución bimodal (a páxina aínda non existe)">dous valores</a> diferentes moi separados, e haxa unha selección en contra dos valores medios. Isto ocorre, por exemplo, cando tanto os organismos altos coma os baixos teñen unha vantaxe, pero non os de tamaños medios. Finalmente, na <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_estabilizante" title="Selección estabilizante">selección estabilizante</a> hai selección en contra dos trazos extremos tanto os moi elevados como os moi pequenos, o que fai que diminúa a <a href="/wiki/Varianza" title="Varianza">varianza</a> arredor do valor medio e haxa menos diversidade.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Isto faría, por exemplo, que os organismos se fixeran pouco a pouco todos da mesma altura. Un caso especial de selección natural é a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Selección sexual">selección sexual</a>, que é a selección a favor de calquera trazo que incremente o éxito no apareamento ao incrementar o atractivo dun organismo para conseguir potenciais parellas.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Os trazos que evolucionaron por medio da selección sexual son particularmente salientables nos machos dalgunhas especies animais. A pesar de que características como ter cornamentas incómodas, chamadas de apareamento ou brillantes cores que poden atraer a atención dos depredadores, fan decrecer a supervivencia dos machos,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> esta desvantaxe compénsase co seu maior éxito reprodutivo.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> A selección natural na maior parte dos casos fai da "natureza" o árbitro que determina que individuos ou trazos individuais é máis probable que sobrevivan. A "natureza" neste sentido significa un <a href="/wiki/Ecosistema" title="Ecosistema">ecosistema</a>, que é o sistema no cal os organismos interaccionan con todos os demais elementos que os rodean, tanto <a href="/wiki/Abi%C3%B3tico" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiótico">abióticos</a> (físicos, químicos) coma <a href="/wiki/Factor_bi%C3%B3tico" title="Factor biótico">bióticos</a> (seres vivos), no seu medio ambiente local. Eugene Odum, fundador da ecoloxía, definiu ecosistema como: "Calquera unidade que inclúa todos os organismos...dunha determinada área que interaccionan co ambiente físico para que un fluxo de enerxía leve a definir claramente estruturas tróficas, diversidade biótica e ciclos materiais (por exemplo, o intercambio de materiais entre as partes vivas e non vivas) nese ecosistema."<a href="#cite_note-Odum1971-111">[111]</a> Cada poboación nun ecosistema ocupa un diferente <a href="/wiki/Nicho_ecol%C3%B3xico" title="Nicho ecolóxico">nicho ecolóxico</a> ou posición, establecendo distintas relacións con outras partes do sistema. Estas relacións implican a historia da vida do organismo, a súa posición na <a href="/wiki/Cadea_tr%C3%B3fica" title="Cadea trófica">cadea trófica</a> e a súa distribución xeográfica. Esta comprensión ampla da natureza permite aos científicos delinear forzas específicas que, en conxunto, comprenden a selección natural. A selección natural pode actuar en <a href="/wiki/Unidade_de_selecci%C3%B3n" title="Unidade de selección">diferentes niveis de organización</a>, como os xenes, células, individuos, grupos de individuos e especies.<a href="#cite_note-Okasha07-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayr1997-114">[114]</a> A selección pode actuar a múltiples niveis simultaneamente.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Un exemplo de selección que ocorre a un nivel inferior ao de individuo é a dos xenes chamados <a href="/wiki/Transpos%C3%B3n" title="Transposón">transposóns</a>, que poden replicarse e espallarse por todo o <a href="/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma">xenoma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> A selección a nivel superior ao de individuo, como a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_de_grupo" title="Selección de grupo">selección de grupo</a>, pode permitir a evolución da cooperación, como se discutiu antes.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutación_nesgada">Mutación nesgada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Editar a sección: «Mutación nesgada»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=9" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Mutación nesgada">editar a fonte</a>]</div> Ademais de ser unha das fontes principais de variabilidade, a mutación pode tamén funcionar como un mecanismo evolutivo cando hai diferentes probabilidades a nivel molecular de que ocorran as mutacións, un proceso que se coñece como nesgo na mutación.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Se temos dous <a href="/wiki/Xenotipo" title="Xenotipo">xenotipos</a>, por exemplo un co nucleótido <a href="/wiki/Guanina" title="Guanina">G</a> e outro co nucleótido <a href="/wiki/Adenina" title="Adenina">A</a> na mesma posición, que teñen a mesma fitness, pero a mutación de G a A ocorre con máis frecuencia que a mutación de A a G, entón os xenotipos con A tenderán a evolucionar.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Diferentes nesgos nas mutacións de <a href="/wiki/Inserci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica)" title="Inserción (xenética)">inserción</a> fronte a <a href="/wiki/Deleci%C3%B3n" title="Deleción">deleción</a> en distintos <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxons</a> poden causar a evolución de diferentes tamaños xenómicos.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> O nesgo mutacional ou de desenvolvemento foi tamén observado na evolución <a href="/wiki/Morfolox%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Morfoloxía (bioloxía)">morfolóxica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Por exemplo, segundo a <a href="/wiki/Efecto_Baldwin" title="Efecto Baldwin">teoría da evolución de fenotipo primeiro</a>, as mutacións poden causar eventualmente a <a href="/wiki/Asimilaci%C3%B3n_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Asimilación xenética">asimilación xenética</a> de trazos que eran previamente <a href="/wiki/Plasticidade_fenot%C3%ADpica" title="Plasticidade fenotípica">inducidos polo ambiente</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Palmer_2004-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard_2003-125">[125]</a> Os efectos do nesgo mutacional superpóñense a outros procesos. Se a selección favorece unha das dúas mutacións, pero non hai vantaxe extra de telas as dúas á vez, entón a mutación que ocorre con maior frecuencia é a que máis probablemente quedará fixada na poboación.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> As mutacións que orixinan a perda da función dun xene son moito máis comúns que as mutacións que producen un novo xene completamente funcional. A maioría das <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n_de_perda_de_funci%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutación de perda de función">mutacións de perda de función</a> sofren unha selección en contra. Pero cando a selección é feble, o nesgo mutacional cara á perda de función pode afectar á evolución.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Por exemplo, os <a href="/wiki/Pigmento" title="Pigmento">pigmentos</a> xa nos son útiles cando os animais viven en covas, e tenden a perderse.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Este tipo de perda de función pode ocorrer a causa do nesgo mutacional, e/ou porque a función ten un custo, e unha vez que desaparece o beneficio que proporcionaba a función, a selección natural leva á súa perda. A perda da capacidade de <a href="/wiki/End%C3%B3spora" title="Endóspora">esporulación</a> con nesgo mutacional en certas <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">bacterias</a> durante a súa evolución no laboratorio parece que é causada polo nesgo na mutación, máis que por selección natural contra o custo de manter a capacidade de esporulación.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Cando non hai selección a favor da perda de función, a velocidade á cal evoluciona a perda depende máis do grao de mutación que do <a href="/wiki/Tama%C3%B1o_efectivo_de_poboaci%C3%B3n" title="Tamaño efectivo de poboación">tamaño efectivo de poboación</a>,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> indicando que foi dirixida máis polo nesgo na mutación que pola deriva xenética. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deriva_xenética">Deriva xenética</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Editar a sección: «Deriva xenética»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=10" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Deriva xenética">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Deriva_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Deriva xenética">Deriva xenética</a> e <a href="/wiki/Tama%C3%B1o_efectivo_de_poboaci%C3%B3n" title="Tamaño efectivo de poboación">Tamaño efectivo de poboación</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Allele-frequency_gl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Allele-frequency_gl.png/220px-Allele-frequency_gl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Allele-frequency_gl.png/330px-Allele-frequency_gl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Allele-frequency_gl.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Simulación da <a href="/wiki/Deriva_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Deriva xenética">deriva xenética</a> de 20 alelos non ligados en poboacións de 10 (arriba) e 100 (abaixo) membros. A deriva para a <a href="/wiki/Fixaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixación (xenética de poboacións)">fixación</a> é máis rápida na poboación pequena.</figcaption></figure> A deriva xenética é o cambio na frecuencia dos alelos dunha xeración á seguinte que se produce debido a que os alelos están suxeitos a <a href="/wiki/Erro_de_mostraxe" class="mw-redirect" title="Erro de mostraxe">erros de mostraxe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Masel_2011-132">[132]</a> Como resultado, cando están ausentes forzas selectivas ou estas son relativamente febles, as frecuencias alélicas tenden a "derivar" subindo ou baixando aleatoriamente. Esta deriva detense cando un alelo finalmente queda <a href="/wiki/Fixaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixación (xenética de poboacións)">fixado</a>, ou desaparece da poboación, ou substitúe completamente os outros alelos. A deriva xenética pode eliminar algúns alelos da poboación debido só á sorte. Mesmo en ausencia de forzas selectivas, a deriva xenética pode orixinar dúas poboacións separadas que empezaron tendo a mesma estrutura xenética pero que derivaron separándose en dúas poboacións diverxentes con diferentes conxuntos de alelos.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> É xeralmente difícil medir a importancia relativa dos procesos de selección e os neutros, incluíndo a deriva.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> A importancia comparativa das forzas adaptativas e non adaptativas na dirección do cambio evolutivo é unha área na que se está a investigar dende comezos do <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9culo_XX" title="Século XX">século XX</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_neutralista_da_evoluci%C3%B3n_molecular" title="Teoría neutralista da evolución molecular">teoría neutralista da evolución molecular</a> propón que a maioría dos cambios evolutivos son o resultado da <a href="/wiki/Fixaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixación (xenética de poboacións)">fixación</a> de <a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n_neutra" title="Mutación neutra">mutacións neutras</a> por deriva xenética.<a href="#cite_note-Kimura_M_1991_367–86-9">[9]</a> Polo tanto, neste modelo a maioría dos cambios xenéticos na poboación son o resultado da presión de mutación constante e a deriva xenética.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Esta forma da teoría neutralista foi en gran medida abandonada, xa que non parece cadrar coa variabilidade xenética observada na natureza.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Porén, unha versión deste modelo máis recente e con mellores apoios é a <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_case_neutralista_da_evoluci%C3%B3n_molecular" title="Teoría case neutralista da evolución molecular">teoría case neutralista da evolución molecular</a>, na que unha mutación que sería neutra nunha pequena poboación non é necesariamente neutra nunha poboación grande.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-100">[100]</a> Outras teorías alternativas propoñen que a deriva xenética queda empequenecida por outras forzas estocásticas que operan na evolución, como o <a href="/wiki/Arrastre_por_ligamento" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrastre por ligamento">arrastre por ligamento</a> ou efecto autostop, tamén chamado genetic draft.<a href="#cite_note-Masel_2011-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-gillespie_2001-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> O tempo que tarda un alelo en fixarse por deriva xenética depende do tamaño de poboación, e a fixación ocorre máis rapidamente en poboacións pequenas.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> O número de individuos dunha poboación non é o fundamental, senón un valor coñecido como <a href="/wiki/Tama%C3%B1o_efectivo_de_poboaci%C3%B3n" title="Tamaño efectivo de poboación">tamaño efectivo de poboación</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-142">[142]</a> A poboación efectiva é xeralmente menor que a poboación total, xa que para calculala hai que ter en conta factores como o nivel de <a href="/wiki/Endogamia_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Endogamia (bioloxía)">endogamia</a> e o estado do ciclo vital no cal a poboación é menor.<a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-142">[142]</a> O tamaño efectivo de poboación pode non ser o mesmo para todos os xenes dunha mesma poboación.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrastre_por_ligamento">Arrastre por ligamento</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Editar a sección: «Arrastre por ligamento»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=11" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Arrastre por ligamento">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Arrastre_por_ligamento" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrastre por ligamento">Arrastre por ligamento</a>.</dd></dl></div> A recombinación permite que os alelos da mesma fibra dun ADN acaben separados (doutro modo herdaríanse xuntos, xa que as <a href="/wiki/Crom%C3%A1tide" title="Cromátide">cromátides</a> dos cromosomas se distribúen enteiras nas células fillas). Porén, o grao de recombinación é baixo (aproximadamente hai dous eventos de recombinación por cromosoma e por xeración). Como resultado, os xenes que están próximos entre si nun cromosoma poucas veces serán redistribuídos separándose un do outro e tenden a herdarse xuntos, un fenómeno que se denomina <a href="/wiki/Ligamento_xen%C3%A9tico" title="Ligamento xenético">ligamento xenético</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Esta tendencia mídese calculando a frecuencia con que dous alelos aparecen xuntos nun cromosoma comparada co esperado, o que se denomina <a href="/wiki/Desequilibrio_de_ligamento" title="Desequilibrio de ligamento">desequilibrio de ligamento</a>. Un conxunto de alelos que xeralmente se herda nun grupo denomínase <a href="/wiki/Haplotipo" title="Haplotipo">haplotipo</a>. Isto pode ser importante cando un alelo dun determinado haplotipo é moi beneficioso, xa que a selección natural pode impulsar un <a href="/wiki/Varrido_selectivo" title="Varrido selectivo">varrido selectivo</a> que tamén causará que outros alelos do haplotipo se fagan máis comúns na poboación; este efecto denomínase <a href="/wiki/Arrastre_por_ligamento" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrastre por ligamento">arrastre por ligamento</a> ou efecto autostop (genetic hitchhiking ou genetic draft).<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Este efecto causado polo feito de que algúns xenes neutros están ligados xeneticamente a outros que están baixo selección pode ser parcialmente capturado por un tamaño efectivo de poboación apropiado.<a href="#cite_note-gillespie_2001-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluxo_xénico_2">Fluxo xénico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Editar a sección: «Fluxo xénico»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=12" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Fluxo xénico">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">Fluxo xénico</a>, <a href="/wiki/H%C3%ADbrido_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Híbrido (bioloxía)">Híbrido (bioloxía)</a> e <a href="/wiki/Transferencia_horizontal_de_xenes" title="Transferencia horizontal de xenes">Transferencia horizontal de xenes</a>.</dd></dl></div> O <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">fluxo xénico</a> ou fluxo xenético é o intercambio de xenes entre poboacións e entre especies.<a href="#cite_note-Morjan_C,_Rieseberg_L_2004_1341–56-92">[92]</a> A presenza ou ausencia de fluxo xénico supón un cambio fundamental no curso da evolución. Debido á complexidade dos organismos, dúas poboacións completamente illadas desenvolverán co tempo incompatibilidades xenéticas por medio de procesos neutros, como no <a href="/wiki/Modelo_de_Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller" title="Modelo de Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller">modelo de Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller</a>, mesmo se ambas as poboacións permanecen esencialmente idénticas en canto á súa adaptación ao ambiente. Se se produce a diferenciación xenética entre as poboacións, o fluxo xénico entre as poboacións pode introducir trazos ou alelos que son desvantaxosos para a poboación local e isto pode facer que os organismos desa poboación evolucionen producindo mecanismos que impiden o apareamento con poboacións xeneticamente afastadas, e finalmente isto dá lugar á aparición de novas especies. Así, o intercambio de información xenética entre individuos ten unha importancia fundamental para o desenvolvemento do concepto de especie biolóxica. Durante o desenvolvemento da <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_moderna_(s%C3%A9culo_XX)" title="Síntese moderna (século XX)">síntese evolutiva moderna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a> desenvolveu a súa <a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_do_equilibrio_cambiante" title="Teoría do equilibrio cambiante">teoría do equilibrio cambiante</a> na que o fluxo xénico entre poboacións parcialmente illadas era un aspecto importante da evolución adaptativa.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Porén, recentemente houbo críticas substanciais sobre a importancia que realmente ten esta teoría.<a href="#cite_note-Coyne_1997-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resultados_da_evolución">Resultados da evolución</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Editar a sección: «Resultados da evolución»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=13" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Resultados da evolución">editar a fonte</a>]</div> A evolución inflúe en todos os aspectos que afectan á forma e comportamento dos organismos. Os máis salientables son o comportamento específico e a <a href="/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica">adaptación</a> física que son o resultado da selección natural. Estas adaptacións incrementan a aptitude biolóxica ou fitness ao engadir cambios en actividades como a procura de alimentos, evitación de depredadores ou a atracción de parellas. Os organismos poden tamén responder á selección <a href="/wiki/Cooperaci%C3%B3n_(evoluci%C3%B3n)" title="Cooperación (evolución)">cooperando</a> uns cos outros, xeralmente axudando os seus parentes ou establecendo <a href="/wiki/Simbiose" title="Simbiose">simbioses</a> mutuamente beneficiosas. A longo prazo, a evolución produce novas especies ao dividir as poboacións ancestrais de organismos en novos grupos que non poden ou acabarán por non poder cruzarse. Estes resultados da evolución divídense ás veces en dous niveis de evolución: macroevolución e microevolución. A <a href="/wiki/Macroevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Macroevolución">macroevolución</a> é a evolución que ocorre ao nivel ou por encima do nivel de especie, como a <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n" title="Extinción">extinción</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">especiación</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Microevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Microevolución">microevolución</a> son os cambios evolutivos pequenos, como as adaptacións dentro dunha especie ou poboación.<a href="#cite_note-ScottEC-148">[148]</a> En xeral, a macroevolución considérase como o resultado de longos períodos de microevolución.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Deste xeito, a distinción entre micro e macroevolución non é fundamental, xa que a diferenza é simplemente a cantidade de tempo implicado.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Porén, en macroevolución, os trazos da especie enteira poden ser importantes. Por exemplo, a existencia dunha gran cantidade da variación entre os individuos é característica dunha especie que se adapta rapidamente a novos <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1bitat" title="Hábitat">hábitats</a>, diminuíndo así a posibilidade de extinguirse, mentres que ter unha área de distribución xeográfica ampla incrementa a posibilidade de especiación ao facer máis probable que parte da poboación quede illada. Neste sentido, a microevolución e a macroevolución poderían implicar unha selección a diferentes niveis; a microevolución actuaría sobre os xenes e organismos, e os procesos macroevolutivos como a <a href="/wiki/Unidade_de_selecci%C3%B3n" title="Unidade de selección">selección de especies</a> actuarían sobre a especie enteira e afectarían ás súas taxas de especiación e extinción.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2000-153">[153]</a> Un erro de concepto común é pensar que a evolución ten obxectivos ou plans a longo prazo; porén, en realidade, a evolución non ten obxectivos a longo prazo e non necesariamente vai producir unha maior complexidade.<a href="#cite_note-sciam_1998-154">[154]</a> Aínda que na evolución se orixinaron <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_da_complexidade_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Evolución da complexidade biolóxica">especies complexas</a>, estas apareceron como un efecto lateral do crecente número total de organismos e as formas simples de vida seguen sendo as máis comúns na biosfera.<a href="#cite_note-Carroll-155">[155]</a> Por exemplo, a inmensa maioría das especies son <a href="/wiki/Procariota" class="mw-redirect" title="Procariota">procariotas</a> microscópicos, os cales forman aproximadamente a metade da <a href="/wiki/Biomasa" title="Biomasa">biomasa</a> do planeta malia o seu pequeno tamaño,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> e constitúen a gran maioría da biodiversidade de Terra.<a href="#cite_note-Schloss-157">[157]</a> Os organismos simples foron as formas de vida dominantes en toda a historia de Terra e continúan séndoo, mentres que as formas complexas de vida nos parecen máis diversas só porque destacan máis nun exame superficial.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> de feito, a evolución dos microorganismos é especialmente importante na investigación evolutiva moderna, xa que a súa rápida reprodución permite o estudo da <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_experimental" title="Evolución experimental">evolución experimental</a> e a observación da evolución e a adaptación en tempo real.<a href="#cite_note-Buckling-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptación">Adaptación</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Editar a sección: «Adaptación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=14" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Adaptación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica">Adaptación biolóxica</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg/300px-Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg/450px-Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg/600px-Homology_vertebrates_gl.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Homolox%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Homoloxía (bioloxía)">Homoloxía</a> no esqueleto das patas de vertebrados <a href="/wiki/Tetr%C3%A1podo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrápodo">tetrápodos</a>. A pata ten a mesma estrutura básica, pero está adaptada a distintas funcións.</figcaption></figure> A adaptación é o proceso que fai que os organismos adquiran as características máis axeitadas para vivir no seu <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1bitat" title="Hábitat">hábitat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> O termo tamén se pode referir aos trazos que son importantes para a supervivencia dun organismo. Por exemplo, a adaptación dos dentes dos cabalos para triturar a herba. Podemos distinguir os dous sentidos da palabra usando os termos adaptación para o proceso evolutivo e trazo adaptativo para o produto (a parte do corpo ou función). As adaptacións prodúcense por <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">selección natural</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> As seguintes definicións débense a <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a>. <ol><li>Adaptación (adaptation) é o proceso evolutivo polo que un organismo mellora a súa capacidade de vivir no seu hábitat ou hábitats.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li> <li>Idoneidade (adaptedness) é o estado de estar adaptado: o grao no cal un organismo pode vivir e reproducirse nun determinado conxunto de hábitats.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></li> <li>Un trazo adaptativo ou carácter adaptativo é un aspecto do padrón de desenvolvemento dun organismo que permite ou aumenta a probabilidade de que un organismo sobreviva e se reproduza.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></li></ol> A adaptación pode facer que se adquira unha nova característica ou que se perda unha característica ancestral. Un exemplo que mostra os dous tipos de cambio é a adaptación bacteriana aos <a href="/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico">antibióticos</a>, na que cambios xenéticos orixinan <a href="/wiki/Resistencia_a_antibi%C3%B3ticos" title="Resistencia a antibióticos">resistencia a antibióticos</a> ao modificaren a diana sobre a que actuaba o antibiótico ou incrementaren a actividade dos transportadores que bombean o antibiótico fóra da célula.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Outros exemplos notables son a capacidade adquirida pola bacteria <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> de utilizar o <a href="/wiki/%C3%81cido_c%C3%ADtrico" title="Ácido cítrico">ácido cítrico</a> como nutriente en experimentos de laboratorio de evolución a longo prazo,<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> a adquisición polas <a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a> de novos encimas que permiten que estas bacterias crezan nos produtos da manufactura do <a href="/wiki/Nailon" title="Nailon">nailon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> ou a evolución na bacteria do chan <a href="/wiki/Sphingobium" title="Sphingobium">Sphingobium</a> dunha <a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADa_metab%C3%B3lica" title="Vía metabólica">vía metabólica</a> completamente nova que degrada o <a href="/wiki/Pesticida" title="Pesticida">pesticida</a> sintético <a href="/wiki/Pentaclorofenol" title="Pentaclorofenol">pentaclorofenol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Unha interesante pero aínda controvertida idea é que algunhas adaptacións poderían incrementar a capacidade dos organismos de xerar diversidade xenética e adaptarse por selección natural (incrementando a <a href="/wiki/Evolucionabilidade" title="Evolucionabilidade">evolucionabilidade</a> do organismo).<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Whale_skeleton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/300px-Whale_skeleton.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/450px-Whale_skeleton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/600px-Whale_skeleton.png 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Esqueleto de <a href="/wiki/Balea" title="Balea">balea</a>, a e b ósos das aletas, que son adaptacións dos ósos das patas dianteiras, c indica os ósos vestixiais das patas traseiras, o que suxire unha adaptación de paso da vida terrestre á acuática.<a href="#cite_note-transformation445-177">[177]</a></figcaption></figure> A adaptación ten lugar pola modificación gradual de estruturas existentes. Consecuentemente, as estruturas cunha organización interna similar poden ter diferentes funcións en organismos emparentados. Isto é o resultado da adaptación dunha estrutura ancestral a funcionar de diferentes modos. Os ósos das ás dos <a href="/wiki/Morcegos" title="Morcegos">morcegos</a>, por exemplo, son moi similares aos dos pés do rato e mans dos <a href="/wiki/Primates" title="Primates">primates</a> porque todas estas estruturas descenden das dun devanceiro común mamífero.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Porén, como todos os organismos vivos están emparentados nalgunha medida,<a href="#cite_note-Penny1999-179">[179]</a> mesmo órganos que parecen ter pouca ou ningunha semellanza estrutural, como os ollos dos <a href="/wiki/Artr%C3%B3podos" title="Artrópodos">artrópodos</a>, luras e vertebrados, ou as extremidades e ás de artrópodos e vertebrados, poden depender dun conxunto de xenes homólogos que controlan a súa ensamblaxe e funcionamento, o que se chama <a href="/wiki/Homolox%C3%ADa_profunda" title="Homoloxía profunda">homoloxía profunda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Durante a evolución algunhas estruturas poden perder a súa función orixinal e converterse en <a href="/wiki/Estrutura_vestixial" title="Estrutura vestixial">estruturas vestixiais</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fong-182">[182]</a> Tales estruturas poden ter nas especies actuais moi poucas ou ningunha función, pero tiñan unha clara función nas especies ancestrais, ou outras especies relacionadas. Exemplos poden ser os <a href="/wiki/Pseudoxene" title="Pseudoxene">pseudoxenes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> os restos non funcionais de ollos en peixes cegos que viven en covas,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> as ás de aves non voadoras,<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> e a presenza de ósos das cadeiras en baleas e serpes.<a href="#cite_note-transformation445-177">[177]</a> Exemplos de estruturas vestixiais en humanos son a moa do xuízo,<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> o <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3ccix" title="Cóccix">cóccix</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fong-182">[182]</a> e outros vestixios de comportamento como a pel de galiña<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> e os reflexos primitivos.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Porén, moitos trazos que parecen ser adaptacións simples son de feito o que se chama <a href="/wiki/Exaptaci%C3%B3n" title="Exaptación">exaptacións</a>: estruturas adaptadas orixinalmente para unha función, pero que casualmente no proceso se fixeron útiles para algunha outra función.<a href="#cite_note-Gould2002-192">[192]</a> Un exemplo é o lagarto africano <a href="/wiki/Holaspis" title="Holaspis">Holaspis guentheri</a>, que evolucionou adquirindo unha cabeza extremadamente plana para esconderse en gretas, como se pode comprobar observando os seus parentes próximos. Porén, nesta especie, a cabeza quedou tan aplanada que lle axuda a saltar planando dunha árbore a outra.<a href="#cite_note-Gould2002-192">[192]</a> Nas células, as máquinas moleculares como o <a href="/wiki/Flaxelo#Flaxelo_bacteriano" title="Flaxelo">flaxelo bacteriano</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> e a maquinaria de <a href="/wiki/Translocase_da_membrana_interna" title="Translocase da membrana interna">translocación de proteínas</a> mitocondrial<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> evolucionaron polo recrutamento de varias proteínas preexistentes que previamente tiñan diferentes funcións.<a href="#cite_note-ScottEC-148">[148]</a> Outro exemplo é o recrutamento de encimas da <a href="/wiki/Glic%C3%B3lise" title="Glicólise">glicólise</a> e <a href="/wiki/Metabolismo_xenobi%C3%B3tico" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolismo xenobiótico">metabolismo xenobiótico</a> para servir como proteínas estruturais chamadas <a href="/wiki/Cristalina" title="Cristalina">cristalinas</a> nas lentes do ollo (o cristalino).<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Unha área de investigación actual en <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento">bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento</a> é o estudo da base relacionada co <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía do desenvolvemento">desenvolvemento</a> que subxace nas adaptacións e exaptacións.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Esta investigación está enfocada a estudar a orixe e evolución do <a href="/wiki/Embriox%C3%A9nese" title="Embrioxénese">desenvolvemento embrionario</a> e como as modificacións do desenvolvemento e os seus procesos producen novas características.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Estes estudos mostran que a evolución pode alterar o desenvolvemento para producir novas estruturas, como as estruturas óseas embrionarias que se forman na mandíbula de moitos vertebrados que nos mamíferos forman parte do <a href="/wiki/O%C3%ADdo_medio" title="Oído medio">oído medio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Tamén é posible que estruturas que se perderon na evolución reaparezan debido a cambios nos xenes do desenvolvemento, como a mutación en <a href="/wiki/Gali%C3%B1a" title="Galiña">polos</a> que causa que aos embrións de polo lles crezan dentes similares aos dos <a href="/wiki/Crocodilo" title="Crocodilo">crocodilos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Agora parece claro que a maioría das alteracións na forma dos organismos débense a cambios nun pequeno grupo de xenes conservados.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coevolución">Coevolución</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Editar a sección: «Coevolución»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=15" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Coevolución">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/220px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/330px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/440px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3384" data-file-height="2820" /></a><figcaption>Na serpe <a href="/wiki/Thamnophis_sirtalis" title="Thamnophis sirtalis">Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis</a> evolucionou unha resistencia á <a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxina" title="Tetrodotoxina">tetrodotoxina</a> das súas presas anfibias.</figcaption></figure> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Coevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Coevolución">Coevolución</a>.</dd></dl></div> As interaccións entre os organismos poden producir conflitos mais tamén cooperacións. Cando as interaccións son entre pares de especies, como entre <a href="/wiki/Pat%C3%B3xeno" class="mw-redirect" title="Patóxeno">patóxenos</a> e <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B3spede" title="Hóspede">hóspedes</a>, ou predadores e presas, estas especies poden desenvolver conxuntos emparellados de adaptacións. Neste caso, a evolución dunha das especies fai que se produzan adaptacións na segunda especie. Despois, estes cambios na segunda especie causan, á súa vez, novas adaptacións na primeira especie. Este ciclo de selección e resposta denomínase <a href="/wiki/Coevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Coevolución">coevolución</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Un exemplo é a produción de <a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxina" title="Tetrodotoxina">tetrodotoxina</a> nos anfibios <a href="/wiki/Taricha_granulosa" title="Taricha granulosa">Taricha granulosa</a> e a evolución de resistencia á tetrodotoxina no seu predador a serpe <a href="/wiki/Thamnophis_sirtalis" title="Thamnophis sirtalis">Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis</a>. Neste par predador-presa, produciuse unha <a href="/wiki/Carreira_de_armamentos_evolutiva" title="Carreira de armamentos evolutiva">carreira de armamentos evolutiva</a> que orixinou a produción de altos niveis de <a href="/wiki/Toxina" title="Toxina">toxina</a> no anfibio e correspondentes altos niveis de resistencia á toxina na serpe.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooperación">Cooperación</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Editar a sección: «Cooperación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=16" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Cooperación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Cooperaci%C3%B3n_(evoluci%C3%B3n)" title="Cooperación (evolución)">Cooperación (evolución)</a>.</dd></dl></div> Non todas as interaccións que coevolucionan entre especies implican un conflito nin a toma de contramedidas.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Evolucionaron tamén moitos casos de interaccións mutuamente beneficiosas. Por exemplo, existe unha cooperación extrema entre as plantas e os fungos que forman <a href="/wiki/Micorriza" title="Micorriza">micorrizas</a> que crecen nas raíces da planta e axudan á planta a absorber nutrientes do chan.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Esta é unha relación recíproca, xa que a planta proporciona ao fungo azucres fabricados na <a href="/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntese" title="Fotosíntese">fotosíntese</a>. Aquí, o fungo medra introducíndose dentro das células da planta, o que lle permite intercambiar nutrientes co seu hóspede, á vez que envía <a href="/wiki/Transduci%C3%B3n_de_sinais" title="Transdución de sinais">sinais</a> que suprimen a reacción defensiva da planta.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Tamén evolucionaron coalicións entre organismos da mesma especie. Un caso extremo é a <a href="/wiki/Eusocialidade" title="Eusocialidade">eusocialidade</a> que se encontra nos insectos sociais, como as <a href="/wiki/Abella" title="Abella">abellas</a>, <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9rmite" title="Térmite">térmites</a> e <a href="/wiki/Formiga" title="Formiga">formigas</a>, na que os insectos estériles alimentan e coidan a un pequeno número de individuos da colonia que poden reproducirse. A unha escala aínda menor, as <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_som%C3%A1tica" title="Célula somática">células somáticas</a> que forman o corpo dun animal limitan a súa propia reprodución para que poidan manter un organismo estable, o cal mantén un número pequeno de <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_xerminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Célula xerminal">células xerminais</a>, que son as que producirán a descendencia. Aquí, as células somáticas responden a sinais específicos que dan as instrucións para crecer, permanecer como están ou morrer. Se as células ignoran estes sinais e se multiplican inapropiadamente, o seu crecemento incontrolado causa un <a href="/wiki/Cancro" title="Cancro">cancro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bertram-207">[207]</a> Esta cooperación entre especies pode evolucionar por un proceso de <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_de_parentesco" title="Selección de parentesco">selección de parentesco</a>, na cal un organismo actúa para axudar os descendentes emparentados con el.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Esta actividade é seleccionada favorablemente porque se o individuo que axuda contén <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">alelos</a> que promoven a actividade de axudar, é probable que os seus descendentes tamén conteñan eses alelos e os transmitan.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Outros procesos que poden promover a cooperación son a <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_de_grupo" title="Selección de grupo">selección de grupo</a>, na que a cooperación proporciona beneficios a un grupo de organismos.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Especiación">Especiación</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Editar a sección: «Especiación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=17" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Especiación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">Especiación</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg/350px-Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg/525px-Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg/700px-Speciation_modes_edit_gl.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Os catro mecanismos da especiación.</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">especiación</a> é o proceso mediante o que as especies diverxen orixinando dúas ou máis especies distintas descendentes.<a href="#cite_note-Gavrilets-211">[211]</a> Hai moitas formas de definir o concepto de "especie". A elección da definición depende das particularidades das especies en cuestión.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-212">[212]</a> Por exemplo, algúns conceptos de especie aplícanse máis doadamente a organismos que se reproducen sexualmente, mentres que outros son mellores para organismos asexuais. A pesar da diversidade de conceptos de especie, estes poden adscribirse a tres posibles enfoques: de cruzamento, ecolóxicos e filoxenéticos.<a href="#cite_note-Ereshsefsky92-213">[213]</a> O concepto de especie biolóxica é un exemplo clásico do enfoque centrado no cruzamento. Definido por Ernst Mayr en 1942, o concepto biolóxico de especie establece que a "especie son grupos de poboacións naturais que real ou potencialmente se poden cruzar, que están reprodutivamente illados doutros grupos".<a href="#cite_note-Mayr42-214">[214]</a> Malia o amplo e duradeiro uso desta definición, o concepto biolóxico de especie non está exento de controversia, por exemplo porque este concepto non se pode aplicar aos procariotas,<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> e esta dificultade é o que se chama o <a href="/wiki/Problema_da_especie" class="mw-redirect" title="Problema da especie">problema da especie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-212">[212]</a> Algúns investigadores intentaron unificar a definición monística de especie, mentres que outros adoptaron unha aproximación pluralista e suxiren que podería haber diferentes modos para interpretar loxicamente a definición de especie.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ereshsefsky92-213">[213]</a> Cómpre que haxa <a href="/wiki/Illamento_reprodutivo" title="Illamento reprodutivo">barreiras reprodutivas</a> entre dúas poboacións sexualmente diverxentes para que as poboacións orixinen <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">novas especies</a>. O fluxo xénico pode facer máis lento este proceso ao estender as novas variantes xenéticas tamén ás outras poboacións. Dependendo do moito que diverxesen entre si dúas especies desde o seu <a href="/wiki/Antepasado_com%C3%BAn_m%C3%A1is_recente" title="Antepasado común máis recente">antepasado común máis recente</a>, pode ser que aínda poidan producir descendencia por un cruzamento entre elas, como ocorre co <a href="/wiki/Cabalo" title="Cabalo">cabalo</a> e o <a href="/wiki/Burro" title="Burro">burro</a>, que se poden aparear orixinando unha <a href="/wiki/Mula" title="Mula">mula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Tales <a href="/wiki/H%C3%ADbrido_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Híbrido (bioloxía)">híbridos</a> son xeralmente estériles. Neste caso, especies moi próximas poden cruzarse regularmente, pero os híbridos formados sufrirán unha selección en contra e as especies seguirán sendo distintas. Porén, poden formarse ocasionalmente híbridos viables e estas novas especies híbridas poden ou ben ter propiedades intermedias entre as dúas especies parentais, ou ben posuirán un <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipo</a> totalmente novo.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> A importancia da hibridación na produción de <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_h%C3%ADbrida" title="Especiación híbrida">novas especies</a> de animais non está clara, aínda que se teñen visto casos en moitos tipos de animais,<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> como o ben estudado exemplo da ra arbórea gris (<a href="/wiki/Hyla_versicolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyla versicolor">Hyla versicolor</a>).<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> A especiación observouse en numerosas ocasións en condicións controladas de laboratorio e na natureza.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Nos organismos que se reproducen sexualmente, a especiación orixínase polo <a href="/wiki/Illamento_reprodutivo" title="Illamento reprodutivo">illamento reprodutivo</a> seguido dunha diverxencia xenealóxica. Hai catro mecanismos para a especiación. O máis común nos animais é a <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_alop%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación alopátrica">especiación alopátrica</a>, que ten lugar en poboacións inicialmente illadas xeograficamente, como ocorre pola <a href="/wiki/Fragmentaci%C3%B3n_do_h%C3%A1bitat" title="Fragmentación do hábitat">fragmentación do hábitat</a> ou a migración. A selección baixo estas condicións pode producir cambios moi rápidos na aparencia e comportamento dos organismos.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Losos1997-222">[222]</a> Como a selección e a deriva actúan independentemente nas poboacións que están illadas do resto das súas especies, a separación pode finalmente producir organismos que non se poden cruzar.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> O segundo mecanismo de especiación é a <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_perip%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación peripátrica">especiación peripátrica</a>, que ten lugar cando unha pequena poboación de organismos queda illada nun novo ambiente. Isto difire da especiación alopátrica en que as poboacións illadas son moito menores numericamente que a poboación parental. Aquí, o <a href="/wiki/Efecto_fundador" title="Efecto fundador">efecto fundador</a> causa unha rápida especiación despois dun incremento de cruzamentos <a href="/wiki/Endogamia_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Endogamia (bioloxía)">endogámicos</a> que incrementa a selección sobre os <a href="/wiki/Homocigoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Homocigoto">homocigotos</a>, o que produce un rápido cambio xenético.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> O terceiro mecanismo de especiación é a <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_parap%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación parapátrica">especiación parapátrica</a>. É similar á especiación peripátrica en que tamén unha pequena poboación entra nun novo hábitat, pero difire en que non hai separación física entre estas dúas poboacións. A especiación é resultado de que evolucionan mecanismos que reducen o fluxo xénico entre as dúas poboacións.<a href="#cite_note-Gavrilets-211">[211]</a> Xeralmente isto ocorre cando houbo un drástico cambio no ambiente dentro do hábitat da especie parental. Un exemplo é a planta herbácea <a href="/wiki/Anthoxanthum_odoratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthoxanthum odoratum">Anthoxanthum odoratum</a> (lesta), que pode sufrir unha especiación parapátrica en resposta á contaminación da terra por metais procedentes de explotacións mineiras.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Aquí, as plantas evolucionan para ter resistencia aos altos niveis de metais no chan. A selección en contra do cruzamento coa poboación parental sensible aos metais produciu un cambio gradual no tempo de floración das plantas resistentes aos metais, o cal finalmente orixinou un completo illamento reprodutivo. A selección en contra dos híbridos entre as dúas poboacións pode causar un reforzamento, o cal é a evolución de trazos que promoven o apareamento dentro de cada especie, e o <a href="/wiki/Desprazamento_de_car%C3%A1cter" title="Desprazamento de carácter">desprazamento de carácter</a>, que se produce cando dúas especies se fan máis distintas en aspecto.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/220px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/330px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/440px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a><figcaption>O illamento xeográfico dos <a href="/wiki/Pimp%C3%ADns_de_Darwin" title="Pimpíns de Darwin">pimpíns de Darwin</a> nas <a href="/wiki/Illas_Gal%C3%A1pagos" title="Illas Galápagos">Illas Galápagos</a> produciu unha ducia de novas especies.</figcaption></figure> Finalmente, na <a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_simp%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación simpátrica">especiación simpátrica</a> as especies diverxen sen que haxa illamento xeográfico nin cambios no hábitat. Esta forma é rara, xa que mesmo unha pequena cantidade de <a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">fluxo xénico</a> pode eliminar as diferenzas xenéticas entre partes dunha poboación.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Xeralmente a especiación simpátrica nos animais require a evolución de <a href="/wiki/Polimorfismo_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Polimorfismo (bioloxía)">diferenzas xenéticas</a> e <a href="/wiki/Apareamento_selectivo" title="Apareamento selectivo">apareamento non aleatorio</a>, para que poida evolucionar o illamento reprodutivo.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Un tipo de especiación simpátrica implica a hibridación entre dúas especies relacionadas que producen unha nova especie <a href="/wiki/H%C3%ADbrido_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Híbrido (bioloxía)">híbrida</a>. Isto non é común en animais, xa que os híbridos animais son xeralmente estériles, porque durante a <a href="/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose">meiose</a> os <a href="/wiki/Cromosoma_hom%C3%B3logo" title="Cromosoma homólogo">cromosomas homólogos</a> de cada proxenitor son de diferentes especies e non poden emparellarse con éxito. Porén, é máis común en plantas porque as plantas con frecuencia duplican o seu número de cromosomas para formar <a href="/wiki/Poliploid%C3%ADa" title="Poliploidía">poliploides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Isto permite que os cromosomas de cada especie proxenitora formen pares coincidentes (homólogos) durante a meiose, xa que cada cromosoma de cada proxenitor está xa representado por un par.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Un exemplo dese tipo de especiación é o cruzamento das plantas da especie <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> coas <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_arenosa" title="Arabidopsis arenosa">Arabidopsis arenosa</a>, que deu lugar á nova especie <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_suecica" title="Arabidopsis suecica">Arabidopsis suecica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Isto ocorreu hai uns 20 000 anos,<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> e o proceso de especiación foi repetido no laboratorio, o cal permitiu estudar os mecanismos xenéticos implicados neste proceso.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> A duplicación cromosómica nunha especie pode ser unha causa común de illamento reprodutivo, xa que a metade dos cromosomas duplicados quedará sen emparellarse na meiose cando se crucen con organismos sen esa duplicación.<a href="#cite_note-Semon-234">[234]</a> Os eventos de especiación son importantes na teoría do <a href="/wiki/Equilibrio_interrompido" title="Equilibrio interrompido">equilibrio interrompido</a> (ou puntuado), que intenta explicar o padrón observado no rexistro fósil de curtos períodos de "explosión" evolutiva intercalados con períodos relativamente longos de "estase", nos cales as especies permanecen relativamente sen cambiar.<a href="#cite_note-pe1972-235">[235]</a> Nesta teoría, a especiación e a rápida evolución están ligadas, e a selección natural e a deriva xenética actúan máis intensamente sobre os organismos que están sufrindo especiación en novos hábitats ou pequenas poboacións. Como resultado, os períodos de estase no rexistro fósil corresponden á poboación parental e os organismos que sofren especiación e rápida evolución encóntranse en pequenas poboacións ou hábitats xeograficamente restrinxidos e, polo tanto, raramente aparecen preservados no rexistro <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil">fósil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinción">Extinción</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Editar a sección: «Extinción»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=18" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Extinción">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n" title="Extinción">Extinción</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/220px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/330px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/440px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannosaurus rex">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>. Os <a href="/wiki/Dinosauro" title="Dinosauro">dinosauros</a> que non eran de tipo <a href="/wiki/Aves" title="Aves">aviario</a> desapareceron no <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n_dos_dinosauros" title="Extinción dos dinosauros">evento de extinción do Cretáceo-Paleoxeno</a> ao final do período <a href="/wiki/Cret%C3%A1ceo" title="Cretáceo">Cretáceo</a>.</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n" title="Extinción">extinción</a> é a desaparición completa dunha especie. A extinción é un evento natural, xa que as especies aparecen regularmente por especiación e desaparecen por extinción.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Case todas as especies de animais e plantas que existiron sobre a Terra están agora extinguidas,<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> e a extinción parece ser o destino final de todas as especies.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Estas extincións ocorreron continuamente no decurso da historia da vida, aínda que a taxa de extinción se dispara en ocasionais episodios de extinción en masa.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-240">[240]</a> O <a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n_dos_dinosauros" title="Extinción dos dinosauros">evento de extinción do Cretáceo-Paleoxeno</a>, durante o cal se extinguiron os <a href="/wiki/Dinosauro" title="Dinosauro">dinosauros</a> non <a href="/wiki/Aves" title="Aves">aviarios</a>, é o mellor coñecido, pero o anterior <a href="/wiki/Evento_de_extinci%C3%B3n_do_P%C3%A9rmico-Tri%C3%A1sico" class="mw-redirect" title="Evento de extinción do Pérmico-Triásico">evento de extinción do Pérmico-Triásico</a> foi aínda máis intenso, e nel desapareceron o 96% das especies.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-240">[240]</a> O <a href="/wiki/Evento_de_extinci%C3%B3n_do_Holoceno" class="mw-redirect" title="Evento de extinción do Holoceno">evento de extinción do Holoceno</a> é un episodio de extinción en masa que está en marcha na época actual asociado coa expansión da humanidade por todo o globo nos últimos miles de anos. As taxas de extinción actuais son de 100 a 1000 veces maiores que a taxa normal, e ata un 30% das especies actuais poden extinguirse a mediados do <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9culo_XXI" title="Século XXI">século XXI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> As actividades humanas son agora a causa primaria do episodio de extinción actual,<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> e o <a href="/wiki/Quecemento_global" title="Quecemento global">quecemento global</a> pode acelerala no futuro.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> O papel da extinción na evolución non se comprende ben e pode depender de que tipo de extinción se considere.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-240">[240]</a> As causas dos continuos episodios de extinción de "baixo nivel", que forman a maioría das extincións, poden ser o resultado da competición entre especies polos recursos limitados (<a href="/wiki/Exclusi%C3%B3n_competitiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusión competitiva">exclusión competitiva</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-53">[53]</a> Se unha especie pode deixar fóra da competencia a outra, eliminándoa, isto podería producir unha <a href="/wiki/Unidade_de_selecci%C3%B3n" title="Unidade de selección">selección de especies</a>, e a especie mellor adaptada sobrevivirá e a outra especie extinguirase.<a href="#cite_note-Gould-113">[113]</a> As extincións en masa intermitentes son tamén importantes, pero en vez de actuaren como forza selectiva, o que fan é reduciren drasticamente a diversidade dunha maneira non específica e promoveren explosións de <a href="/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_adaptativa" title="Radiación adaptativa">evolución rápida</a> e a especiación nos sobreviventes.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Falta_de_adaptación">Falta de adaptación</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Editar a sección: «Falta de adaptación»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=19" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Falta de adaptación">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tese_da_Ra%C3%AD%C3%B1a_Vermella" title="Hipótese da Raíña Vermella">Hipótese da Raíña Vermella</a>.</dd></dl></div> O ambiente que un organismo explota e co que se ten que confrontar está constantemente cambiando, e pode, ás veces, cambiar de forma rápida e drástica, ou deteriorarse. É necesaria unha constante adaptación a cambios pequenos e grandes para que un organismo continúe prosperando, ou mesmo sobreviva. Esta é a "<a href="/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tese_da_Ra%C3%AD%C3%B1a_Vermella" title="Hipótese da Raíña Vermella">hipótese da Raíña Vermella</a>", chamada así pola afirmación da Raíña Vermella do libro <a href="/wiki/Alicia_do_outro_lado_do_espello" title="Alicia do outro lado do espello">Alicia do outro lado do espello</a> de <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a> de que a Terra era un lugar onde, “tes que correr todo o que poidas para manterte no mesmo sitio”.<a href="#cite_note-Science62013-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-UCB62013-246">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historia_evolutiva_da_vida">Historia evolutiva da vida</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Editar a sección: «Historia evolutiva da vida»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=20" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Historia evolutiva da vida">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="center" style="width:auto; 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float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Bipedismo" title="Bipedismo">Inicio do bipedismo</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:10.08em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Humano" class="mw-redirect" title="Humano">Primeiras ferramentas de pedra</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; 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text-align:center; margin-top:15.12em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-4.20em; width:7em;"><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini"> H o m i n i n i</a></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; 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font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div></div></div><div id="Legend" class="toccolours" style="margin-left:3.1em; border-style:none; float:left; clear:both;"></div><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em; float:left; padding:0 auto; border-style:none; clear:both; text-align:center; width:20.5em">Escala do eixe: millóns de anos.</div></div> </div><div style="float: right;"><div id="Container" class="toccolours" style="text-align: left; padding:0.5em 0 0 0; border-style:solid; float:right;clear:right; padding:0 0.5em; margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em; overflow: hidden;"><div id="Title" style="background-color:#77bb77; font-weight:bold; padding:0.2em; text-align:center; margin:0.6em 0 1.2em 0"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Li%C3%B1a_do_tempo_da_vida_na_Terra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liña do tempo da vida na Terra (a páxina aínda non existe)">Liña do tempo da vida na Terra</a></div><div id="Contains-Timeline-Scale-Notes"><div style="text-align:right; position:relative; top:-1em;"><a href="/wiki/Modelo:Li%C3%B1a_de_tempo_gr%C3%A1fica_da_vida" title="Modelo:Liña de tempo gráfica da vida">ver</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conversa_modelo:Li%C3%B1a_de_tempo_gr%C3%A1fica_da_vida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conversa modelo:Liña de tempo gráfica da vida (a páxina aínda non existe)">conversa</a> • <a class="external text" href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modelo:Li%C3%B1a_de_tempo_gr%C3%A1fica_da_vida&action=edit">editar</a></div><div id="Scale" style="width:3.1em; position:relative; top:-0.82em; float:left; height:36em; padding:0px"><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:35.217391304348em;">-4500 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:33.260869565217em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:31.304347826087em;">-4000 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:29.347826086957em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:27.391304347826em;">-3500 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:25.434782608696em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:23.478260869565em;">-3000 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:21.521739130435em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:19.565217391304em;">-2500 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:17.608695652174em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:15.652173913043em;">-2000 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:13.695652173913em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:11.739130434783em;">-1500 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:9.7826086956522em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:7.8260869565217em;">-1000 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:5.8695652173913em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:3.9130434782609em;">-500 —</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:1.9565217391304em;">–</div><div style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:0em;">0 —</div></div><div id="ScaleBar" style="width:1px; float:left; height:36em; padding:0; background-color:#242020"></div><div id="Timeline" class="toccolours" style="font-size:100%; width:100%; height:36em; padding:0px; float:left; width:10em; border:none; background-color:#e5cc7f;"><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#99ccff; 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top:-0.86em; left:-0em;"></div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:4.304347826087em; margin-left:1.5em; width:8.5em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:0.99em; left:-0em;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animais_terrestres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Animais terrestres (a páxina aínda non existe)">Animais terr.</a></div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:3.7173913043478em; margin-left:2em; width:8em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:0.34em; left:-0em;"><a href="/wiki/Plantas_terrestres" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantas terrestres">Plantas e</a></div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#e6b800; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.51260869565217em; height:1.8352173913043em; margin-left:2.5em; width:7.5em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.36em; left:-0em;">"<a href="/wiki/Dinosauro" title="Dinosauro">Dinosauros</a>"</div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#ffcc00; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:1.5652173913043em; margin-left:3em; width:7em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.46em; left:-0em;"><a href="/wiki/Mam%C3%ADferos" title="Mamíferos">Mamíferos</a></div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#ffff00; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:1.0173913043478em; margin-left:3.67em; width:6.33em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:-0em;"><a href="/wiki/Anxiospermas" title="Anxiospermas">Flores</a></div></div><div class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:blue; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:0.015652173913043em; margin-left:4.5em; width:5.5em;"><div class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:-0em;"> </div></div></div><div id="Annotations" style="float:left; position:relative; width:8.25em"><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:35.749565217391em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Idade_da_Terra" title="Idade da Terra">Primeira Terra (-4540)</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:34.434782608696em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Orixe_da_auga_na_Terra" title="Orixe da auga na Terra">Primeira auga</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:32.086956521739em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Abiox%C3%A9nese" title="Abioxénese">Primeira vida (-4100)</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:29.739130434783em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Bombardeo_intenso_tard%C3%ADo" title="Bombardeo intenso tardío">Bombardeo meteorítico</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:27.391304347826em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Ox%C3%ADxeno_(elemento)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxíxeno (elemento)">Primeiro oxíxeno</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:19.565217391304em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Historia_xeol%C3%B3xica_do_ox%C3%ADxeno" title="Historia xeolóxica do oxíxeno">Oxíxeno atmosférico</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Evento_da_grande_oxixenaci%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Evento da grande oxixenación">Gran evento de O2</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:9.3913043478261em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_da_reproduci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Evolución da reprodución sexual">Primeiras reproducións sexuais</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:4.9304347826087em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Biota_de_Ediacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota de Ediacara">Biota de Ediacara</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:4.1478260869565em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Explosi%C3%B3n_c%C3%A1mbrica" title="Explosión cámbrica">Explos. cámbrica</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.0078260869565217em;"><div class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:-0em; float:left;">←</div><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"><div style="line-height:9pt"><a href="/wiki/Humano" class="mw-redirect" title="Humano">Primeiros humanos</a></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.70434782608696em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;"><a href="/wiki/Fanerozoico" title="Fanerozoico">F a n e r z c</a></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:4.9382608695652em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoico" title="Proterozoico"> P r o t e r o z o i c o</a></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:20.269565217391em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;"><a href="/wiki/Arcaico" title="Arcaico"> A r c a i c o</a></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:32.008695652174em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1dico" class="mw-redirect" title="Hádico">H á d i c o</a></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; 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font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em;"><div class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-0em; width:7em;"></div></div></div></div><div id="Legend" class="toccolours" style="margin-left:3.1em; border-style:none; float:left; clear:both;"></div><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em; float:left; padding:0 auto; border-style:none; clear:both; text-align:center; width:20.5em">Escala do eixe: millóns de anos.</div></div></div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Historia_evolutiva_da_vida" title="Historia evolutiva da vida">Historia evolutiva da vida</a> e <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_humana" title="Evolución humana">Evolución humana</a>.</dd></dl></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orixe_da_vida">Orixe da vida</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Editar a sección: «Orixe da vida»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=21" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Orixe da vida">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Orixe_da_vida" class="mw-redirect" title="Orixe da vida">Orixe da vida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tese_do_mundo_de_ARN" title="Hipótese do mundo de ARN">Hipótese do mundo de ARN</a> e <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a>.</dd></dl></div> A idade da Terra estímase nuns 4 540 millóns de anos.<a href="#cite_note-USGS1997-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dalrymple_2001-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-249">[249]</a> A evidencia máis antiga indiscutida de <a href="/wiki/Vida" title="Vida">vida na Terra</a> data de polo menos 3 500 millóns de anos,<a href="#cite_note-Origin1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-RavenJohnson2002-250">[250]</a> durante a era <a href="/wiki/Eoarcaico" title="Eoarcaico">Eoarcaica</a>. Atopáronse restos <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil">fósiles</a> de <a href="/wiki/Tapete_microbiano" title="Tapete microbiano">tapetes microbianos</a> en rochas de 3 480 millóns de anos de antigüidade en <a href="/wiki/Australia_Occidental" title="Australia Occidental">Australia Occidental</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AP-20131113-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-TG-20131113-JP-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-AST-20131108-253">[253]</a> Outra evidencia física moi antiga dunha substancia bioxénica é o <a href="/wiki/Grafito" title="Grafito">grafito</a> de hai 3 700 millóns de anos descuberto en rochas de <a href="/wiki/Groenlandia" title="Groenlandia">Groenlandia</a><a href="#cite_note-NG-20131208-254">[254]</a> e os "restos de vida biótica" atopados en rochas de 4 100 millóns de anos de Australia Occidental.<a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-256">[256]</a> Hai uns 4 mil millóns de anos crese que unhas reaccións químicas moi enerxéticas orixinaron a primeira molécula autorreplicante, e 500 millóns de anos máis tarde apareceu o <a href="/wiki/LUCA" class="mw-redirect" title="LUCA">último antepasado común universal</a> de todos os seres vivos actuais.<a href="#cite_note-sa282_6_90-257">[257]</a> O <a href="/wiki/Consenso_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Consenso científico">consenso científico</a> actual é que a bioquímica complexa que conforma a vida procede de reaccións químicas máis simples.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> O principio da vida puido comprender a formación de moléculas autorreplicantes como o <a href="/wiki/ARN" class="mw-redirect" title="ARN">ARN</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> e a ensamblaxe de células simples.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascendencia_común">Ascendencia común</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Editar a sección: «Ascendencia común»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=22" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Ascendencia común">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigos principais: <a href="/wiki/Antepasado_com%C3%BAn" title="Antepasado común">Antepasado común</a> e <a href="/wiki/Probas_da_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Probas da evolución">Probas da evolución</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Ape_skeletons_gl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ape_skeletons_gl.png/320px-Ape_skeletons_gl.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ape_skeletons_gl.png/480px-Ape_skeletons_gl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ape_skeletons_gl.png/640px-Ape_skeletons_gl.png 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>Os <a href="/wiki/Simio" class="mw-redirect" title="Simio">hominoideos</a> son descendentes dun <a href="/wiki/Antepasado_com%C3%BAn" title="Antepasado común">antepasado común</a>.</figcaption></figure> Todos os organismos da Terra descenden dun antepasado común ou poza xenética ancestral.<a href="#cite_note-Penny1999-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> As especies actuais son un estadio no proceso evolutivo, e a súa diversidade é produto dunha longa serie de episodios de especiación e extinción.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> O antepasado común de todos os organismos foi deducido por catro simples feitos que afectan aos organismos: Primeiro, teñen distribucións xeográficas que non poden ser explicadas por adaptacións locais. Segundo, a diversidade da vida non está formada por un conxunto de organismos únicos separados, senón que os organismos comparten <a href="/wiki/Homolox%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Homoloxía (bioloxía)">semellanzas morfolóxicas</a>. Terceiro, os trazos vestixiais que non teñen unha clara función lembran aos trazos ancestrais e, finalmente, eses organismos poden clasificarse usando estas semellanzas nunha xerarquía de grupos aniñados uns dentro doutros máis amplos, que é similar a unha árbore de familia.<a href="#cite_note-Darwin-263">[263]</a> Porén, a investigación moderna suxire que, debido á <a href="/wiki/Transferencia_horizontal_de_xenes" title="Transferencia horizontal de xenes">transferencia horizontal de xenes</a>, esta "árbore da vida" pode ser máis complicada que unha simple árbore ramificada, xa que algúns xenes se difundiron independentemente entre especies afastadas.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> As especies pasadas deixaron tamén rexistro da súa historia evolutiva. Os <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil">fósiles</a>, xunto coa anatomía comparada dos organismos actuais, constitúen un rexistro morfolóxico ou anatómico.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonski-266">[266]</a> Comparando as anatomías de especies modernas e extinguidas, os <a href="/wiki/Paleontolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleontoloxía">paleontólogos</a> poden inferir a liñaxe desas especies. Con todo, esta aproximación ten máis éxito para os organismos que teñen partes duras, como cunchas, ósos ou dentes. Ademais, os procariotas como as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria">bacterias</a> e as <a href="/wiki/Arquea" class="mw-redirect" title="Arquea">arqueas</a> comparten un conxunto limitado de morfoloxías comúns, e os seus fósiles non proporcionan información sobre os seus devanceiros. Máis recentemente, as evidencias sobre unha <a href="/wiki/Ascendencia_com%C3%BAn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascendencia común">ascendencia común</a> proceden dos estudos das semellanzas bioquímicas entre os organismos. Por exemplo, todas as células vivas utilizan o mesmo conxunto básico de <a href="/wiki/Nucle%C3%B3tido" title="Nucleótido">nucleótidos</a> e <a href="/wiki/Amino%C3%A1cido" title="Aminoácido">aminoácidos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> O desenvolvemento da <a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_molecular" title="Xenética molecular">xenética molecular</a> revelou o rexistro que deixou a evolución nos <a href="/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma">xenomas</a> dos organismos, o que permitiu facer datacións do momento en que as especies diverxeron por medio de <a href="/wiki/Reloxo_molecular" title="Reloxo molecular">reloxos moleculares</a> producidos polas mutacións.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Por exemplo, estas comparacións das secuencias de ADN revelaron que os humanos e os chimpancés comparten o 98% dos seus xenomas, e analizando as poucas áreas nas que son diferentes pódese obter moita información de en que época existiu o antepasado común desas dúas especies.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolución_da_vida">Evolución da vida</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Editar a sección: «Evolución da vida»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=23" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Evolución da vida">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Artigo principal: <a href="/wiki/Historia_evolutiva_da_vida" title="Historia evolutiva da vida">Historia evolutiva da vida</a>.</dd></dl></div> Os <a href="/wiki/Procariota" class="mw-redirect" title="Procariota">procariotas</a> levan habitando na Terra desde hai aproximadamente de 3 a 4 miles de millóns de anos.<a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Non se produciron cambios obvios en morfoloxía ou organización celular neses organismos nos últimos miles de millóns de anos.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> As <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_eucariota" title="Célula eucariota">células eucariotas</a> apareceron hai entre 1,6 e 2,7 miles de millóns de anos. O seguinte cambio importante na estrutura celular produciuse cando certas bacterias foron <a href="/wiki/Fagocitose" title="Fagocitose">fagocitadas</a> por células eucariotas, e estableceron unha asociación cooperativa chamada <a href="/wiki/Endosimbiose" title="Endosimbiose">endosimbiose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rgruqh-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyall-274">[274]</a> Estas bacterias incluídas dentro das células eucariotas e a célula hóspede experimentaron unha coevolución, e as bacterias evolucionaron transformándose nas <a href="/wiki/Mitocondria" title="Mitocondria">mitocondrias</a> ou en <a href="/wiki/Hidroxenosoma" title="Hidroxenosoma">hidroxenosomas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> Outra fagocitose similar de organismos <a href="/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntese" title="Fotosíntese">fotosintéticos</a> similares a <a href="/wiki/Cianobacterias" title="Cianobacterias">cianobacterias</a> deu orixe aos <a href="/wiki/Cloroplasto" title="Cloroplasto">cloroplastos</a> das algas e plantas.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> A historia da vida foi só a dos eucariotas, bacterias e arqueas unicelulares ata hai uns 610 millóns de anos cando empezaron a aparecer os organismos multicelulares nos océanos no período <a href="/wiki/Fauna_de_Ediacara" title="Fauna de Ediacara">Ediacariano</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> A evolución da multicelularidade tivo lugar por medio de moitos episodios independentes, en organismos tan diversos como <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">esponxas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phaeophyceae" title="Phaeophyceae">algas pardas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cianobacterias" title="Cianobacterias">cianobacterias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mofo_mucoso" class="mw-redirect" title="Mofo mucoso">mofos mucosos</a> e <a href="/wiki/Mixobacterias" title="Mixobacterias">mixobacterias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Pouco despois da emerxencia destes primeiros organismos pluricelulares, apareceu unha importante diversidade biolóxica en aproximadamente 10 millóns de anos, nun evento chamado <a href="/wiki/Explosi%C3%B3n_c%C3%A1mbrica" title="Explosión cámbrica">explosión cámbrica</a>. Nese momento apareceron a maioría dos <a href="/wiki/Filo" title="Filo">filos</a> de animais modernos no rexistro fósil, xunto con outras liñaxes que se extinguiron.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine-279">[279]</a> Propuxéronse varios factores que puideron desencadear a explosión cámbrica, como a acumulación de <a href="/wiki/Os%C3%ADxeno" title="Osíxeno">osíxeno</a> na <a href="/wiki/Atmosfera" title="Atmosfera">atmosfera</a> debido á actividade fotosintética.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> Hai uns 500 millóns de anos, as <a href="/wiki/Planta" title="Planta">plantas</a> e os <a href="/wiki/Fungo_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Fungo (bioloxía)">fungos</a> colonizaron a terra firme e foron axiña seguidos polos <a href="/wiki/Artr%C3%B3podos" title="Artrópodos">artrópodos</a> e outros animais.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> Os <a href="/wiki/Insectos" title="Insectos">insectos</a> tiveron un especial éxito e aínda hoxe son a maioría das especies animais.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Os <a href="/wiki/Anfibios" title="Anfibios">anfibios</a> apareceron hai uns 364 millóns de anos, seguidos polos primeiros <a href="/wiki/Amniota" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniota">amniotas</a> e <a href="/wiki/Aves" title="Aves">aves</a> hai uns 155 millóns de anos (ambos os dous da liñaxe reptiliana), os <a href="/wiki/Mam%C3%ADferos" title="Mamíferos">mamíferos</a> apareceron hai arredor de 129 millóns de anos, os <a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">homininae</a> hai arredor de 10 millóns de anos, e os <a href="/wiki/Humanos_anatomicamente_modernos" title="Humanos anatomicamente modernos">humanos modernos</a> hai uns 250 000 anos.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Con todo, a pesar de que evolucionaron todos eses grandes animais e plantas, os organismos máis pequenos similares aos que primeiro apareceran no inicio da evolución seguen tendo un éxito enorme e aínda dominan a Terra, de modo que a maioría da <a href="/wiki/Biomasa" title="Biomasa">biomasa</a> e das especies da Terra son <a href="/wiki/Procariota" class="mw-redirect" title="Procariota">procariotas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schloss-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Síntese_evolutiva_ampliada">Síntese evolutiva ampliada</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Editar a sección: «Síntese evolutiva ampliada»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=24" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Síntese evolutiva ampliada">editar a fonte</a>]</div> Durante o século XX creouse a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_moderna_(s%C3%A9culo_XX)" title="Síntese moderna (século XX)">síntese evolutiva moderna</a>, tal como a explicada neste artigo. Pero novos descubrimentos a finais do século XX e no XXI fixeron a algúns autores propoñer a ampliación da síntese evolutiva incorporando novos factores. A chamada <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_evolutiva_ampliada" title="Síntese evolutiva ampliada">síntese evolutiva ampliada</a> fíxase na importancia relativa dos diferentes factores en xogo, examinando varias asuncións da síntese anterior e aumentándoa con factores causantes adicionais.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laland_Uller_Feldman_2015-287">[287]</a> Inclúe unha <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_de_grupo#Teoría_da_selección_multinivel" title="Selección de grupo">selección multinivel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Herdanza_epixen%C3%A9tica_transxeneracional" title="Herdanza epixenética transxeneracional">herdanza epixenética transxeneracional</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Construci%C3%B3n_de_nicho" title="Construción de nicho">construción de nicho</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Evolucionabilidade" title="Evolucionabilidade">evolucionabilidade</a> e varios conceptos procedentes da <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento">bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento</a>.<a href="#cite_note-beyonddna-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-pigliucci-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laubichler_2015-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Porén, non todos os biólogos concordaron coa necesidade ou o ámbito de aplicación dunha síntese ampliada.<a href="#cite_note-Svensson_2023-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Outros biólogos centráronse máis na <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento">bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento</a>. <a href="#cite_note-Moczek_2015-295">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aplicacións">Aplicacións</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Editar a sección: «Aplicacións»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=25" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Aplicacións">editar a fonte</a>]</div> Os conceptos e modelos utilizados en bioloxía evolutiva como a selección natural, teñen moitas aplicacións.<a href="#cite_note-Bull-296">[296]</a> A selección artificial é a selección intencional de trazos na poboación de organismos. Isto foi utilizado desde hai miles de anos para a <a href="/wiki/Domesticaci%C3%B3n" title="Domesticación">domesticación</a> de animais e plantas.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> Máis recentemente, esa selección converteuse nunha parte vital da <a href="/wiki/Enxe%C3%B1ar%C3%ADa_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Enxeñaría xenética">enxeñaría xenética</a>, e utilízanse marcadores seleccionables como xenes de <a href="/wiki/Resistencia_a_antibi%C3%B3ticos" title="Resistencia a antibióticos">resistencia a antibióticos</a> para manipular o ADN. Poden facerse evolucionar con repetidas roldas de mutación e selección a proteínas con propiedades valiosas, por exemplo <a href="/wiki/Encima" class="mw-redirect" title="Encima">encimas</a> modificados e novos <a href="/wiki/Anticorpo" title="Anticorpo">anticorpos</a>, nun proceso chamado <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_dirixida" title="Evolución dirixida">evolución dirixida</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Comprender os cambios que ocorreron durante a evolución dun organismo pode revelar os xenes que se necesitan para construír partes do corpo, xenes que poden estar implicados nos <a href="/wiki/Trastorno_xen%C3%A9tico" class="mw-redirect" title="Trastorno xenético">trastornos xenéticos</a> humanos.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> Por exemplo, o peixe <a href="/wiki/Astyanax_mexicanus" title="Astyanax mexicanus">Astyanax mexicanus</a> é un peixe de caverna <a href="/wiki/Albinismo" title="Albinismo">albino</a> que perdeu a súa vista durante a evolución. Cruzando diferentes poboacións deste peixe cego nacen algúns descendentes con ollos funcionais, xa que ocorreron diferentes mutacións nas poboacións illadas que evolucionaran en diferentes cavernas e que orixinaban cada unha a cegueira.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> Isto axudou a identificar os xenes necesarios para a visión e a pigmentación.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> Moitas doenzas humanas non son fenómenos estáticos, senón con capacidade de evolucionar. Virus, bacterias, fungos e os <a href="/wiki/Cancro" title="Cancro">cancros</a> evolucionan para ser resistentes ao <a href="/wiki/Sistema_inmunitario" title="Sistema inmunitario">sistema inmunitario</a> do seu <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B3spede" title="Hóspede">hóspede</a>, e aos <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1rmaco" title="Fármaco">fármacos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> Estes mesmos problemas ocorren na agricultura coa <a href="/wiki/Resistencia_a_pesticidas" title="Resistencia a pesticidas">resistencia a pesticidas</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> e <a href="/wiki/Herbicida" title="Herbicida">herbicidas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> É posible que nos esteamos enfrontando ao fin da vida efectiva de moitos <a href="/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico">antibióticos</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> e para predicir a evolución e a <a href="/wiki/Evolucionabilidade" title="Evolucionabilidade">evolucionabilidade</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> dos nosos patóxenos e idear estratexias para facelas máis lentas ou evitalas cómpre ter profundos coñecementos das complexas forzas que impulsan a evolución a nivel molecular.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> Na <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ciencia_da_computaci%C3%B3n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ciencia da computación (a páxina aínda non existe)">ciencia da computación</a>, as simulacións da evolución usando <a href="/wiki/Algoritmo_evolutivo" title="Algoritmo evolutivo">algoritmos evolutivos</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Vida_artificial" title="Vida artificial">vida artificial</a> iniciáronse na década de 1960 e ampliáronse coa simulación da <a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_artificial" title="Selección artificial">selección artificial</a>.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> A evolución artificial converteuse nun método de optimización amplamente recoñecido como resultado do traballo de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingo_Rechenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ingo Rechenberg (a páxina aínda non existe)">Ingo Rechenberg</a> na década de 1960. Rechenberg utilizou estratexias evolutivas para resolver complexos problemas de enxeñaría.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> Os algoritmos xenéticos en particular fixéronse populares coas publicacións de <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Henry_Holland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Henry Holland (a páxina aínda non existe)">John Holland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> Entre as aplicacións prácticas tamén están os programas computacionais de evolución automática.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> Os algoritmos evolutivos son agora utilizados para resolver problemas multidimensionais máis eficientemente que o software ideado polos deseñadores humanos e tamén para optimizar o deseño de sistemas.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Respostas_sociais_e_culturais">Respostas sociais e culturais</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Editar a sección: «Respostas sociais e culturais»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=26" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Respostas sociais e culturais">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <div class="detail principal"> <dl><dd>Véxase tamén: <a href="/wiki/Obxecci%C3%B3ns_%C3%A1_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Obxeccións á evolución">Obxeccións á evolución</a> e <a href="/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_da_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Filosofía da evolución">Filosofía da evolución</a>.</dd></dl></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_(1871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/170px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/255px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/340px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2068" data-file-height="2782" /></a><figcaption>A medida que a evolución se foi aceptando amplamente na década de 1870, empezaron a aparecer na prensa <a href="/wiki/Caricatura" title="Caricatura">caricaturas</a> de <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> con corpo de mono, que simbolizaban a evolución.<a href="#cite_note-Browne2003e-315">[315]</a></figcaption></figure> No século XIX, particularmente despois da publicación de <a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">A orixe das especies</a> en 1859, a idea de que a vida evolucionara era unha fonte activa de debate académico centrado nas implicacións evolutivas relixiosas, sociais e filosóficas. Hoxe, a evolución é aceptada por unha esmagadora maioría dos científicos.<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-53">[53]</a> Porén, segue sendo un concepto contencioso para algúns <a href="/wiki/Te%C3%ADsmo_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Teísmo (filosofía)">teístas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> Aínda que varias confesións relixiosas reconciliaron as súas crenzas coa evolución por medio de conceptos como a <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_te%C3%ADsta" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolución teísta">evolución teísta</a>, hai aínda <a href="/wiki/Creacionismo_(pseudociencia)" title="Creacionismo (pseudociencia)">creacionistas</a> que cren que a evolución é contradita polos <a href="/wiki/Mitos_da_creaci%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitos da creación">mitos da creación</a> que forman parte das súas relixións e que presentan varias <a href="/wiki/Obxecci%C3%B3ns_%C3%A1_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Obxeccións á evolución">obxeccións á evolución</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ScottEC-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ross2005-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> Como xa se demostrara polas respostas á publicación do libro <a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a> (Vestixios da Historia Natural da Creación) en 1844, os aspectos máis controvertidos da bioloxía evolutiva son que a <a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_humana" title="Evolución humana">evolución humana</a> implica que os humanos comparten un antepasado común cos simios e que as facultades mentais e morais da humanidade teñen o mesmo tipo de causas naturais que outros trazos herdados nos animais.<a href="#cite_note-bowler-319">[319]</a> En canto a <a href="/wiki/Galicia" title="Galicia">Galicia</a>, aínda que actualmente non hai polémicas significativas sobre a evolución e a súa ensinanza, que forma parte do currículo escolar, a situación foi moi distinta cando xurdiu o <a href="/wiki/Darwinismo" title="Darwinismo">darwinismo</a> no século XIX. Daquela estas novas ideas chocaban cunha sociedade dominada pola Igrexa, que mantiña aínda moitos privilexios e poder e cunha parte da burguesía conservadora e enfrontáronse ás lexislacións dese turbulento século en España. A propia <a href="/wiki/Universidade_de_Santiago_de_Compostela" title="Universidade de Santiago de Compostela">Universidade de Santiago de Compostela</a> era moi conservadora, o que se evidencia nos discursos de inauguración de curso claramente antidarwinistas e de xustificación da supeditación da Ciencia á Relixión, a prohibición de comprar libros darwinistas para a Biblioteca e da súa ensinanza. Durante o <a href="/wiki/Sexenio_Revolucionario" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexenio Revolucionario">Sexenio Revolucionario</a> os profesores da Universidade <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Linares" title="Augusto González de Linares">Augusto González de Linares</a> e <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laureano_Calder%C3%B3n_Arana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laureano Calderón Arana (a páxina aínda non existe)">Laureano Calderón Arana</a> son destituídos por defenderen ideas darwinistas e de liberdade de cátedra ao aplicárselles o <a href="/wiki/Decreto_Orovio" title="Decreto Orovio">decreto Orovio</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a>, contrario á liberdade de cátedra, que o prohibía. Outra intelectual galega da época antidarwinista foi <a href="/wiki/Emilia_Pardo_Baz%C3%A1n" title="Emilia Pardo Bazán">Emilia Pardo Bazán</a>, que escribiu Reflexiones críticas contra el darwinismo (Reflexións críticas contra o darwinismo) e incluíu referencias ao evolucionismo na novela <a href="/wiki/Os_pazos_de_Ulloa" title="Os pazos de Ulloa">Os pazos de Ulloa</a>. En consecuencia, o darwinismo difundiuse moi pouco en Galicia no século XIX.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> Nalgúns países, en Occidente fundamentalmente en <a href="/wiki/Estados_Unidos_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Estados Unidos de América">Estados Unidos</a>, estas tensións entre ciencia e relixión impulsaron a actual controversia creación-evolución, un conflito relixioso centrado na política e a educación pública.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> Aínda que outros campos científicos como a <a href="/wiki/Cosmolox%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmoloxía física">cosmoloxía</a><a href="#cite_note-wmap-324">[324]</a> e as <a href="/wiki/Ciencias_da_Terra" title="Ciencias da Terra">ciencias da Terra</a><a href="#cite_note-zircon-325">[325]</a> tamén entran en conflito con interpretacións literais de moitos textos relixiosos, é a bioloxía evolutiva a que ten significativamente máis oposición das persoas relixiosas literalistas. A ensinanza da evolución nas clases de bioloxía na escola secundaria norteamericana era pouco común na maior parte da primeira metade do século XX. A famosa sentenza do <a href="/wiki/Xu%C3%ADzo_de_Scopes" title="Xuízo de Scopes">xuízo de Scopes</a> de 1925 fixo que esa materia aparecese raramente nos libros de bioloxía de secundaria norteamericanos durante unha xeración, pero foi reintroducida gradualmente máis tarde e quedou legalmente protexida coa sentenza de 1968 de <a href="/wiki/Epperson_contra_Arkansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Epperson contra Arkansas">Epperson contra Arkansas</a>. Desde entón, as crenzas relixiosas do creacionismo non foron recoñecidas no currículo da escola secundaria en varias decisións nas décadas de 1970 e 1980, pero regresaron en forma <a href="/wiki/Pseudociencia" title="Pseudociencia">pseudocientífica</a> como o <a href="/wiki/Dese%C3%B1o_intelixente" title="Deseño intelixente">deseño intelixente</a>, para seren excluídas unha vez máis no caso de 2005 de <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_contra_o_Distrito_Escolar_da_%C3%81rea_de_Dover" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitzmiller contra o Distrito Escolar da Área de Dover">Kitzmiller contra o Distrito Escolar da Área de Dover</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BioScience-326">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notas">Notas</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Editar a sección: «Notas»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=27" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Notas">editar a fonte</a>]</div> Todas as referencias en inglés agás cando se indique o contrario. <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ciccarelli-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Ciccarelli_1-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFCiccarelli_FD,_Doerks_T,_von_Mering_C,_Creevey_CJ,_Snel_B,_Bork_P2006" class="citation journal">Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life". Science 311 (5765): 1283–87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311.1283C">2006Sci...311.1283C</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16513982">16513982</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1123061">10.1126/science.1123061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Toward+automatic+reconstruction+of+a+highly+resolved+tree+of+life&rft.au=Ciccarelli+FD%2C+Doerks+T%2C+von+Mering+C%2C+Creevey+CJ%2C+Snel+B%2C+Bork+P&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5765&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=1283-87&rft.volume=311&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...311.1283C&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1123061&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16513982&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall08-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Hall08_2-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008">Hall & Hallgrímsson 2008</a>, pp. 3–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Origin1-3">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Origin1_3-0">3,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Origin1_3-1">3,1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek B. (5 de outubro 2007). "Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils". Precambrian Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier) 158 (3–4): 141–155. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0301-9268">0301-9268</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.precamres.2007.04.009">10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evidence+of+Archean+life%3A+Stromatolites+and+microfossils&rft.au=Czaja%2C+Andrew+D.&rft.au=Kudryavtsev%2C+Anatoliy+B.&rft.au=Tripathi%2C+Abhishek+B.&rft.aufirst=J.+William&rft.aulast=Schopf&rft.chron=5+de+outubro+2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0301-9268&rft.issue=3%934&rft.jtitle=Precambrian+Research&rft.pages=141-155&rft.volume=158&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.precamres.2007.04.009&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20160725-4"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20160725_4-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation news"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Wade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Wade (a páxina aínda non existe)">Wade, Nicholas</a> (25 de xullo de 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html">"Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>. Consultado o 25 de xullo de 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Meet+Luca%2C+the+Ancestor+of+All+Living+Things&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.chron=25+de+xullo+de+2016&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F07%2F26%2Fscience%2Flast-universal-ancestor.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Cell_by_Panno-5"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Cell_by_Panno_5-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Panno, Joseph (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816049493">The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism</a>. Facts on File science library. Nova York: Facts on File. pp. xv–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-8160-4946-7" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-8160-4946-7">0-8160-4946-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2003025841">2003025841</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/53901436">53901436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.aulast=Panno&rft.btitle=The+Cell%3A+Evolution+of+the+First+Organism&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8160-4946-7&rft.pages=xv-16&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.series=Facts+on+File+science+library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780816049493&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003025841&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53901436&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma04-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma04_6-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Futuyma, Douglas J. (2004). "The Fruit of the Tree of Life: Insights into Evolution and Ecology". En Cracraft, Joel; Donoghue, Michael J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeli00crac_335">Assembling the Tree of Life</a>. Nova York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeli00crac_335/page/n50">33</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-19-517234-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-19-517234-5">0-19-517234-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2003058012">2003058012</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61342697">61342697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Fruit+of+the+Tree+of+Life%3A+Insights+into+Evolution+and+Ecology&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.btitle=Assembling+the+Tree+of+Life&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-19-517234-5&rft.pages=33&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fassemblingtreeli00crac_335&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003058012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61342697&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewontin70-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewontin70_7-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Lewontin, R. C. (1970). "The units of selection". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1: 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1545-2069">1545-2069</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2096764">2096764</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.01.110170.000245">10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+units+of+selection&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rft.aulast=Lewontin&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1545-2069&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.pages=1-18&rft.volume=1&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2096764&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.es.01.110170.000245&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarwin1859">Darwin 1859</a>, Capítulo XIV </li> <li id="cite_note-Kimura_M_1991_367–86-9">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Kimura_M_1991_367–86_9-0">9,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kimura_M_1991_367–86_9-1">9,1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Kimura, Motoo (1991). "The neutral theory of molecular evolution: a review of recent evidence". ournal of Human Genetics (Genetics Society of Japan) 66 (4): 367–386. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-504X">0021-504X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1954033">1954033</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1266%2Fjjg.66.367">10.1266/jjg.66.367</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+neutral+theory+of+molecular+evolution%3A+a+review+of+recent+evidence&rft.aufirst=Motoo&rft.aulast=Kimura&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0021-504X&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=ournal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.pages=367-386&rft.volume=66&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1266%2Fjjg.66.367&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1954033&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Provine, William B. (1988). "Progress in Evolution and Meaning in Life". En Nitecki, Matthew H. Evolutionary Progress. University of Chicago Press. pp. 49–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-226-58693-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-226-58693-6">0-226-58693-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/88020835">88020835</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/18380658">18380658</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Progress+in+Evolution+and+Meaning+in+Life&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft.aulast=Provine&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Progress&rft.date=1988&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-226-58693-6&rft.pages=49-79&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F88020835&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18380658&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-NAS2008R11R12-11">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-NAS2008R11R12_11-0">11,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NAS2008R11R12_11-1">11,1</a> <a href="#CITEREFNAS2008">NAS 2008</a>, pp. R11–R12 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Ayala, Francisco J.; Avise, John C., eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essentialreading0000unse_x0j0">Essential Readings in Evolutionary Biology</a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-1-4214-1305-1" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-1-4214-1305-1">978-1-4214-1305-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2013027718">2013027718</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/854285705">854285705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Essential+Readings+in+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.date=2014&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1305-1&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessentialreading0000unse_x0j0&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013027718&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F854285705&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFNAS2008">NAS 2008</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore09-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Moore09_14-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Moore, Randy; Decker, Mark; Cotner, Sehoya (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronologyofevol0000moor">Chronology of the Evolution-Creationism Controversy</a>. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press / ABC-CLIO. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronologyofevol0000moor/page/454">454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-313-36287-3" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-313-36287-3">978-0-313-36287-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2009039784">2009039784</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/422757410">422757410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Cotner%2C+Sehoya&rft.au=Decker%2C+Mark&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+the+Evolution-Creationism+Controversy&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36287-3&rft.pages=454&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press+%2F+ABC-CLIO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronologyofevol0000moor&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009039784&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F422757410&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma99-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma99_15-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation web">Futuyma, Douglas J., ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120131174727/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~ecolevol/fulldoc.pdf">"Evolution, Science, and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda"</a> (PDF). New Brunswick, NJ: Office of University Publications, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/43422991">43422991</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~ecolevol/fulldoc.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 31 de xaneiro de 2012. Consultado o 27 de maio de 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Evolution%2C+Science%2C+and+Society%3A+Evolutionary+Biology+and+the+National+Research+Agenda&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=unknown&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Office+of+University+Publications%2C+Rutgers%2C+The+State+University+of+New+Jersey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rci.rutgers.edu%2F~ecolevol%2Ffulldoc.pdf&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43422991&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Darwin, Francis, ed. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf">The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842</a> (PDF). Cambridge: University Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/61057537">61057537</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1184581">1184581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=The+foundations+of+The+origin+of+species%2C+a+sketch+written+in+1842&rft.date=1909&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=53&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fconverted%2Fpdf%2F1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F61057537&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1184581&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Kirk, Geoffrey; Raven, John; Schofield, Malcolm (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7">The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts</a> (2ª ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7/page/100">100</a>–142, 280–321. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-521-27455-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-521-27455-9">0-521-27455-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/82023505">82023505</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/9081712">9081712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Raven%2C+John&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Malcolm&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.btitle=The+Presocratic+Philosophers%3A+A+Critical+History+with+a+Selection+of+Texts&rft.date=1983&rft.edition=2%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-27455-9&rft.pages=100-142%2C+280-321&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F82023505&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9081712&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Torrey37-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Torrey37_18-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Torrey, Harry Beal; Felin, Frances (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-review-of-biology_1937-03_12_1/page/1">"Was Aristotle an evolutionist?"</a>. The Quarterly Review of Biology 12 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2808399">2808399</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F394520">10.1086/394520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Was+Aristotle+an+evolutionist%3F&rft.au=Felin%2C+Frances&rft.aufirst=Harry+Beal&rft.aulast=Torrey&rft.date=1937&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.pages=1-18&rft.volume=12&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2808399&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_quarterly-review-of-biology_1937-03_12_1%2Fpage%2F1&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F394520&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hull67-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Hull67_19-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Hull, D. L. (1967). "The metaphysics of evolution". The British Journal for the History of Science 3 (4): 309–337. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4024958">4024958</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400002892">10.1017/S0007087400002892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+metaphysics+of+evolution&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.date=1967&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.pages=309-337&rft.volume=3&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4024958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400002892&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Carus2011-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Carus2011_20-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Lucrecio" title="Lucrecio">Lucrecio</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0131%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D855">"Libro V"</a>. <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De Rerum Natura</a>. Perseus Digital Library. Editado e traducido por William Ellery Leonard (1916) (Tufts University). <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/33233743">33233743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Libro+V&rft.au=Lucrecio&rft.btitle=De+Rerum+Natura&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pub=Tufts+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0131%253Abook%253D5%253Acard%253D855&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33233743&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Sedley, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062637/http://lics.leeds.ac.uk/2003/200304.pdf">"Lucretius and the New Empedocles"</a> (PDF). Leeds International Classical Studies (Leeds International Classics Seminar) 2 (4). <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1477-3643">1477-3643</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lics.leeds.ac.uk/2003/200304.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 23 de agosto de 2014. Consultado o 07 de xuño de 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Lucretius+and+the+New+Empedocles&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Sedley&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1477-3643&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Leeds+International+Classical+Studies&rft.volume=2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flics.leeds.ac.uk%2F2003%2F200304.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Mason, Stephen F. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience00maso">A History of the Sciences</a>. Collier Books. Science Library, CS9. Nova York: Collier Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience00maso/page/43">43</a>–44. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/62003378">62003378</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/568032626">568032626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Stephen+F.&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Sciences&rft.date=1962&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=43-44&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Collier+Books&rft.series=Collier+Books.+Science+Library%2C+CS9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofscience00maso&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F62003378&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F568032626&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, pp. 256–257; <cite class="citation book">Ray, John (1686). Historia Plantarum I. Typis Mariæ Clark. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/agr11000774">agr11000774</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2126030">2126030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=John&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.btitle=Historia+Plantarum&rft.date=1686&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Typis+Mari%C3%A6+Clark&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fagr11000774&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2126030&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a> <cite class="citation web">Waggoner, Ben (7 de xullo de 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html">"Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)"</a>. Evolution. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Consultado o 11 de febreiro de 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Carl+Linnaeus+%281707-1778%29&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.chron=7+de+xullo+de+2000&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Flinnaeus.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 73–75 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/Edarwin.html">"Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)"</a>. Evolution. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 4 de outubro de 1995. Consultado o 11 de febreiro de 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Erasmus+Darwin+%281731-1802%29&rft.chron=4+de+outubro+de+1995&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2FEdarwin.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste</a> (1809). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophiezool06unkngoog">Philosophie Zoologique</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_francesa" title="Lingua francesa">francés</a>). París: Dentu et L'Auteur. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2210044">2210044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rft.aulast=Lamarck&rft.btitle=Philosophie+Zoologique&rft.date=1809&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Par%C3s&rft.pub=Dentu+et+L%27Auteur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophiezool06unkngoog&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2210044&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Nardon_Grenier91-28">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Nardon_Grenier91_28-0">28,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nardon_Grenier91_28-1">28,1</a> <cite class="citation book">Nardon, Paul; Grenier, Anne-Marie (1991). "Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution: The Role of Symbiosis". En Margulis, Lynn; Fester, René. Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. MIT Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-262-13269-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-262-13269-9">0-262-13269-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/90020439">90020439</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/22597587">22597587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Serial+Endosymbiosis+Theory+and+Weevil+Evolution%3A+The+Role+of+Symbiosis&rft.au=Grenier%2C+Anne-Marie&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.aulast=Nardon&rft.btitle=Symbiosis+as+a+Source+of+Evolutionary+Innovation%3A+Speciation+and+Morphogenesis&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-262-13269-9&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F90020439&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22597587&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould02-29">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould02_29-0">29,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould02_29-1">29,1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould02_29-2">29,2</a> <a href="#CITEREFGould2002">Gould 2002</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ImaginaryLamarck-30"><a href="#cite_ref-ImaginaryLamarck_30-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ghiselin" title="Michael Ghiselin">Ghiselin</a>, Michael T. (1994). "The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus 'History' in Schoolbooks". The Textbook Letter (The Textbook League). <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/23228649">23228649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Imaginary+Lamarck%3A+A+Look+at+Bogus+%27History%27+in+Schoolbooks&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft.aulast=Ghiselin&rft.date=1994&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Textbook+Letter&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23228649&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Magner, Lois N. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyoflifesci0000magn_n3c5">A History of the Life Sciences</a> (3ª ed.). Nova York: Marcel Dekker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-8247-0824-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-8247-0824-5">0-8247-0824-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2002031313">2002031313</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/50410202">50410202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Lois+N.&rft.aulast=Magner&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Life+Sciences&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=3%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8247-0824-5&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryoflifesci0000magn_n3c5&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002031313&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50410202&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Jablonka07-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Jablonka07_32-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Jablonka, Eva; Lamb, Marion J. (2007). "Précis of Evolution in Four Dimensions". Behavioural and Brain Sciences (Cambridge University Press) 30 (4): 353–365. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0140-525X">0140-525X</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X07002221">10.1017/S0140525X07002221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Pr%C3%A9cis+of+Evolution+in+Four+Dimensions&rft.au=Lamb%2C+Marion+J.&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.aulast=Jablonka&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0140-525X&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Behavioural+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.pages=353-365&rft.volume=30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X07002221&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Darwin91-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Darwin91_33-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Burkhardt, Frederick; Smith, Sydney, eds. (1991). The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. 7: 1858–1859. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-521-38564-4" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-521-38564-4">0-521-38564-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84045347">84045347</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/185662993">185662993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=The+Correspondence+of+Charles+Darwin&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-38564-4&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.series=The+Correspondence+of+Charles+Darwin&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84045347&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185662993&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> ; <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/entry-2532">"Darwin, C. R. to Lubbock, John"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project. Carta 2532 do 22 de novembro de 1859. University of Cambridge. Consultado o 1 de decembro de 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Lubbock%2C+John&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2Fentry-2532&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Sulloway09-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Sulloway09_34-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Sulloway, Frank J. (2009). "Why Darwin rejected intelligent design". Journal of Biosciences (Bangalore: Indian Academy of Sciences) 34 (2): 173–183. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0250-5991">0250-5991</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19550032">19550032</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12038-009-0020-8">10.1007/s12038-009-0020-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Why+Darwin+rejected+intelligent+design&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rft.aulast=Sulloway&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0250-5991&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biosciences&rft.pages=173-183&rft.volume=34&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12038-009-0020-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19550032&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawkins90-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins90_35-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (1990). The Blind Watchmaker. Penguin Science. Londres: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-14-014481-1" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-14-014481-1">0-14-014481-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60143870">60143870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.btitle=The+Blind+Watchmaker&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-14-014481-1&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.series=Penguin+Science&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60143870&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Sober09-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Sober09_36-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Sober, Elliott (16 de xuño de 2009). "Did Darwin write the Origin backwards?". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences) 106 (Supl. 1): 10048–10055. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..10610048S">2009PNAS..10610048S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0901109106">10.1073/pnas.0901109106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Did+Darwin+write+the+Origin+backwards%3F&rft.aufirst=Elliott&rft.aulast=Sober&rft.chron=16+de+xu%C3%B1o+de+2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.issue=Supl.+1&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=10048-10055&rft.volume=106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..10610048S&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0901109106&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Mayr, Ernst (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr_b5h0">What Evolution Is</a>. Science Masters. Londres: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr_b5h0/page/165">165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-297-60741-3" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-297-60741-3">0-297-60741-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2001036562">2001036562</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/248107061">248107061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.btitle=What+Evolution+Is&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-297-60741-3&rft.pages=165&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.series=Science+Masters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatevolutionis0000mayr_b5h0&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001036562&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F248107061&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 145–146 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Sokal, Robert R.; Crovello, Theodore J. (1970). "The Biological Species Concept: A Critical Evaluation". The American Naturalist (University of Chicago Press) 104 (936): 127–153. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2459191">2459191</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F282646">10.1086/282646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Biological+Species+Concept%3A+A+Critical+Evaluation&rft.au=Crovello%2C+Theodore+J.&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rft.aulast=Sokal&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft.issue=936&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.pages=127-153&rft.volume=104&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2459191&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F282646&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a>; <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Wallace, Alfred</a> (20 de agosto de 1858). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F350&viewtype=text&pageseq=1">"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection"</a>. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology 3 (9): 45–62. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1096-3642">1096-3642</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x">10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=On+the+Tendency+of+Species+to+form+Varieties%3B+and+on+the+Perpetuation+of+Varieties+and+Species+by+Natural+Means+of+Selection&rft.au=Wallace%2C+Alfred&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.chron=20+de+agosto+de+1858&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1096-3642&rft.issue=9&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Proceedings+of+the+Linnean+Society+of+London.+Zoology&rft.pages=45-62&rft.volume=3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF350%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Desmond, Adrian J. (17 de xullo de 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277746/Thomas-Henry-Huxley">"Thomas Henry Huxley"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Consultado o 2 de decembro de 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Thomas+Henry+Huxley&rft.aufirst=Adrian+J.&rft.aulast=Desmond&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F277746%2FThomas-Henry-Huxley&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Liu09-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Liu09_42-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Liu, Y. S.; Zhou, X. M.; Zhi, M. X.; Li, X. J.; Wang, Q. L. (2009). "Darwin's contributions to genetics". Journal of Applied Genetics (Poznań: Institute of Plant Genetics) 50 (3): 177–184. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1234-1983">1234-1983</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19638672">19638672</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03195671">10.1007/BF03195671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Darwin%27s+contributions+to+genetics&rft.au=Li%2C+X.+J.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Q.+L.&rft.au=Zhi%2C+M.+X.&rft.au=Zhou%2C+X.+M.&rft.aufirst=Y.+S.&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1234-1983&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Genetics&rft.pages=177-184&rft.volume=50&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03195671&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19638672&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiling-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Weiling_43-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Weiling, Franz (1991). "Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884". American Journal of Medical Genetics 40 (1): 1–25. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1887835">1887835</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fajmg.1320400103">10.1002/ajmg.1320400103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Historical+study%3A+Johann+Gregor+Mendel+1822%931884&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft.aulast=Weiling&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Medical+Genetics&rft.pages=1-25&rft.volume=40&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajmg.1320400103&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1887835&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright84-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Wright84_44-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Wright, Sewall (1984). Genetic and Biometric Foundations. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations 1. University of Chicago Press. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-226-91038-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-226-91038-5">0-226-91038-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/67025533">67025533</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/246124737">246124737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Sewall&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.btitle=Genetic+and+Biometric+Foundations&rft.date=1984&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-226-91038-5&rft.pages=480&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.series=Evolution+and+the+Genetics+of+Populations&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67025533&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F246124737&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Provine, William B. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoftheoret00prov">The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics</a>. Chicago History of Science and Medicine (2ª ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-226-68464-4" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-226-68464-4">0-226-68464-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2001027561">2001027561</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46660910">46660910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft.aulast=Provine&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Theoretical+Population+Genetics&rft.date=1971&rft.edition=2%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-226-68464-4&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.series=Chicago+History+of+Science+and+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsoftheoret00prov&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001027561&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46660910&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Stamhuis, Ida H.; Meijer, Onno G.; Zevenhuizen, Erik J. A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1999-06_90_2/page/238">"Hugo de Vries on Heredity, 1889-1903: Statistics, Mendelian Laws, Pangenes, Mutations"</a>. Isis (University of Chicago Press) 90 (2): 238–267. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/237050">237050</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10439561">10439561</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F384323">10.1086/384323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Hugo+de+Vries+on+Heredity%2C+1889-1903%3A+Statistics%2C+Mendelian+Laws%2C+Pangenes%2C+Mutations&rft.au=Meijer%2C+Onno+G.&rft.au=Zevenhuizen%2C+Erik+J.+A.&rft.aufirst=Ida+H.&rft.aulast=Stamhuis&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.pages=238-267&rft.volume=90&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F237050&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_isis_1999-06_90_2%2Fpage%2F238&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F384323&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10439561&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Quammen, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reluctantmrdarwi00quam">The Reluctant Mr. Darwin: An Intimate Portrait of Charles Darwin and the Making of His Theory of Evolution</a>. Great Discoveries (1ª ed.). Nova York: Atlas Books/W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-393-05981-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-393-05981-6">978-0-393-05981-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2006009864">2006009864</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/65400177">65400177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Quammen&rft.btitle=The+Reluctant+Mr.+Darwin%3A+An+Intimate+Portrait+of+Charles+Darwin+and+the+Making+of+His+Theory+of+Evolution&rft.date=2006&rft.edition=1%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05981-6&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Atlas+Books%2FW.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.series=Great+Discoveries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freluctantmrdarwi00quam&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006009864&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F65400177&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a> * <cite class="citation book">Bowler, Peter J. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mendelianrevolut0000bowl">The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society</a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-8018-3888-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-8018-3888-6">0-8018-3888-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/89030914">89030914</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/19322402">19322402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.btitle=The+Mendelian+Revolution%3A+The+Emergence+of+Hereditarian+Concepts+in+Modern+Science+and+Society&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8018-3888-6&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmendelianrevolut0000bowl&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F89030914&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19322402&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson53-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Watson53_49-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">Watson, J. D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Crick, F. H. C.</a> (25 de abril de 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Y/W/_/scbbyw.pdf">"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> (Londres) 171 (4356): 737–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953Natur.171..737W">1953Natur.171..737W</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13054692">13054692</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F171737a0">10.1038/171737a0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Molecular+Structure+of+Nucleic+Acids%3A+A+Structure+for+Deoxyribose+Nucleic+Acid&rft.au=Crick%2C+F.+H.+C.&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.chron=25+de+abril+de+1953&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft.issue=4356&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=737-738&rft.volume=171&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprofiles.nlm.nih.gov%2FSC%2FB%2FB%2FY%2FW%2F_%2Fscbbyw.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953Natur.171..737W&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F171737a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13054692&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hennig99-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Hennig99_50-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Hennig, Willi (1999). Phylogenetic Systematics. Tradución de D. Dwight Davis e Rainer Zangerl. University of Illinois Press. p. 280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-252-06814-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-252-06814-9">0-252-06814-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/78031969">78031969</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/722701473">722701473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Willi&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.btitle=Phylogenetic+Systematics&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-252-06814-9&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78031969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F722701473&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wiley11-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Wiley11_51-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Wiley, E. O.; Lieberman, Bruce S. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470905968">Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics</a> (2ª ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-470-90596-8" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-470-90596-8">978-0-470-90596-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010044283">2010044283</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/741259265">741259265</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118017883">10.1002/9781118017883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Lieberman%2C+Bruce+S.&rft.aufirst=E.+O.&rft.aulast=Wiley&rft.btitle=Phylogenetics%3A+Theory+and+Practice+of+Phylogenetic+Systematics&rft.date=2011&rft.edition=2%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-470-90596-8&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780470905968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118017883&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010044283&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741259265&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobzhansky73-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Dobzhansky73_52-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1973). "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution". The American Biology Teacher (National Association of Biology Teachers) 35 (3): 125–129. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F4444260">10.2307/4444260</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Nothing+in+Biology+Makes+Sense+Except+in+the+Light+of+Evolution&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=The+American+Biology+Teacher&rft.pages=125-129&rft.volume=35&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4444260&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Kutschera-53">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Kutschera_53-0">53,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kutschera_53-1">53,1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kutschera_53-2">53,2</a> <cite class="citation journal">Kutschera, Ulrich; Niklas, Karl J. (2004). "The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis". Naturwissenschaften (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Heidelberg) 91 (6): 255–276. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NW.....91..255K">2004NW.....91..255K</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-1904">1432-1904</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15241603">15241603</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-004-0515-y">10.1007/s00114-004-0515-y</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+modern+theory+of+biological+evolution%3A+an+expanded+synthesis&rft.au=Niklas%2C+Karl+J.&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.aulast=Kutschera&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1432-1904&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.pages=255-276&rft.volume=91&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004NW.....91..255K&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00114-004-0515-y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15241603&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Cracraft, Joel; Bybee, Rodger W., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150718043400/http://www.amnh.org/learn/resources/bscs_evolution.pdf">Evolutionary Science and Society: Educating a New Generation</a> (PDF). Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/1-929614-23-3" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/1-929614-23-3">1-929614-23-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/64228003">64228003</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.org/learn/resources/bscs_evolution.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 18 de xullo de 2015. Consultado o 07 de xuño de 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Science+and+Society%3A+Educating+a+New+Generation&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-929614-23-3&rft.pub=Biological+Sciences+Curriculum+Study&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.org%2Flearn%2Fresources%2Fbscs_evolution.pdf&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F64228003&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Avise10-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Avise10_55-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Avise, John C.; Ayala, Francisco J. (11 de maio de 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/johncavise/files/2011/03/311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf">"In the light of evolution IV: The human condition"</a> (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences) 107 (Supl. 2): 8897–8901. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.100321410">10.1073/pnas.100321410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=In+the+light+of+evolution+IV%3A+The+human+condition&rft.au=Ayala%2C+Francisco+J.&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.aulast=Avise&rft.chron=11+de+maio+de+2010&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.issue=Supl.+2&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=8897-8901&rft.volume=107&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.sites.uci.edu%2Fjohncavise%2Ffiles%2F2011%2F03%2F311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.100321410&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Sturm, Richard A.; Frudakis, Tony N. (2004). "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry". Trends in Genetics (Cambridge: Cell Press) 20 (8): 327–332. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0168-9525">0168-9525</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15262401">15262401</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tig.2004.06.010">10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Eye+colour%3A+portals+into+pigmentation+genes+and+ancestry&rft.au=Frudakis%2C+Tony+N.&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0168-9525&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Genetics&rft.pages=327-332&rft.volume=20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tig.2004.06.010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15262401&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson_2006-57">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_2006_57-0">57,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_2006_57-1">57,1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Pearson, Helen (25 de maio de 2006). "Genetics: What is a gene?". Nature (Londres) 441 (7092): 398–401. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..398P">2006Natur.441..398P</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16724031">16724031</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F441398a">10.1038/441398a</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Genetics%3A+What+is+a+gene%3F&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.chron=25+de+maio+de+2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft.issue=7092&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=398-401&rft.volume=441&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..398P&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F441398a&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16724031&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Visscher, Peter M.; Hill, William G.; Wray, Naomi R. (2008). "Heritability in the genomics era — concepts and misconceptions". Nature Reviews Genetics (Londres) 9 (4): 255–266. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1471-0056">1471-0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18319743">18319743</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2322">10.1038/nrg2322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Heritability+in+the+genomics+era+%94+concepts+and+misconceptions&rft.au=Hill%2C+William+G.&rft.au=Wray%2C+Naomi+R.&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rft.aulast=Visscher&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1471-0056&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.pages=255-266&rft.volume=9&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2322&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18319743&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Oetting, William S.; Brilliant, Murray H.; King, Richard A. (1996). "The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans". Molecular Medicine Today (Cambridge: Cell Press) 2 (8): 330–335. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1357-4310">1357-4310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8796918">8796918</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F1357-4310%2896%2981798-9">10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+clinical+spectrum+of+albinism+in+humans&rft.au=Brilliant%2C+Murray+H.&rft.au=King%2C+Richard+A.&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rft.aulast=Oetting&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1357-4310&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Medicine+Today&rft.pages=330-335&rft.volume=2&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F1357-4310%2896%2981798-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8796918&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma_2005-60">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_2005_60-0">60,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_2005_60-1">60,1</a> <cite class="citation book">Futuyma, Douglas J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu">Evolution</a>. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-87893-187-2" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-87893-187-2">0-87893-187-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2004029808">2004029808</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/57311264">57311264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-87893-187-2&rft.place=Sunderland&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolution0000futu&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004029808&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57311264&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Phillips, Patrick C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689140">"Epistasis—the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems"</a>. Nature Reviews Genetics (Londres) 9 (11): 855–867. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1471-0056">1471-0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689140">2689140</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18852697">18852697</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2452">10.1038/nrg2452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Epistasis%94the+essential+role+of+gene+interactions+in+the+structure+and+evolution+of+genetic+systems&rft.aufirst=Patrick+C.&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1471-0056&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.pages=855-867&rft.volume=9&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2689140&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2689140&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2452&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18852697&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lin-62">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_62-0">62,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_62-1">62,1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Rongling Wu; Min Lin (2006). "Functional mapping — how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits". Nature Reviews Genetics (Londres) 7 (3): 229–237. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1471-0056">1471-0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16485021">16485021</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1804">10.1038/nrg1804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Functional+mapping+%94+how+to+map+and+study+the+genetic+architecture+of+dynamic+complex+traits&rft.au=Min+Lin&rft.au=Rongling+Wu&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1471-0056&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.pages=229-237&rft.volume=7&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1804&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16485021&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Jablonka09-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Jablonka09_63-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Jablonka, Eva; Raz, Gal (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-review-of-biology_2009-06_84_2/page/131">"Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Implications for the Study of Heredity and Evolution"</a>. The Quarterly Review of Biology (University of Chicago Press) 84 (2): 131–176. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5770">0033-5770</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19606595">19606595</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F598822">10.1086/598822</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Transgenerational+Epigenetic+Inheritance%3A+Prevalence%2C+Mechanisms%2C+and+Implications+for+the+Study+of+Heredity+and+Evolution&rft.au=Raz%2C+Gal&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.aulast=Jablonka&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0033-5770&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.pages=131-176&rft.volume=84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_quarterly-review-of-biology_2009-06_84_2%2Fpage%2F131&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F598822&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19606595&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bossdorf10-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Bossdorf10_64-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Bossdorf, Oliver; Arcuri, Davide; Richards, Christina L.; Pigliucci, Massimo (2010). "Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in Arabidopsis thaliana". Evolutionary Ecology (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands) 24 (3): 541–553. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0269-7653">0269-7653</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10682-010-9372-7">10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Experimental+alteration+of+DNA+methylation+affects+the+phenotypic+plasticity+of+ecologically+relevant+traits+in+Arabidopsis+thaliana&rft.au=Arcuri%2C+Davide&rft.au=Pigliucci%2C+Massimo&rft.au=Richards%2C+Christina+L.&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.aulast=Bossdorf&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0269-7653&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Ecology&rft.pages=541-553&rft.volume=24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10682-010-9372-7&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Jablonka, Eva; Lamb, Marion J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutioninfourd0000jabl">Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life</a>. Ilustrado por Anna Zeligowski. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-262-10107-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-262-10107-6">0-262-10107-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2004058193">2004058193</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61896061">61896061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Lamb%2C+Marion+J.&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.aulast=Jablonka&rft.btitle=Evolution+in+Four+Dimensions%3A+Genetic%2C+Epigenetic%2C+Behavioral%2C+and+Symbolic+Variation+in+the+History+of+Life&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-262-10107-6&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutioninfourd0000jabl&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004058193&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61896061&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Jablonka02-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Jablonka02_66-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Jablonka, Eva; Lamb, Marion J. (2002). "The Changing Concept of Epigenetics". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Wiley-Blackwell) 981 (1): 82–96. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002NYASA.981...82J">2002NYASA.981...82J</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0077-8923">0077-8923</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12547675">12547675</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Concept+of+Epigenetics&rft.au=Lamb%2C+Marion+J.&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.aulast=Jablonka&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0077-8923&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=82-96&rft.volume=981&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002NYASA.981...82J&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12547675&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Laland06-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Laland06_67-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Laland, Kevin N.; Sterelny, Kim (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_2006-09_60_9/page/1751">"Perspective: Seven Reasons (Not) to Neglect Niche Construction"</a>. Evolution (John Wiley & Sons) 60 (9): 1751–1762. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0014-3820">0014-3820</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x">10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Perspective%3A+Seven+Reasons+%28Not%29+to+Neglect+Niche+Construction&rft.au=Sterelny%2C+Kim&rft.aufirst=Kevin+N.&rft.aulast=Laland&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0014-3820&rft.issue=9&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.pages=1751-1762&rft.volume=60&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_evolution_2006-09_60_9%2Fpage%2F1751&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapman98-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Chapman98_68-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Chapman, Michael J.; <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Margulis, Lynn</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062546/http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf">"Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis"</a> (PDF). International Microbiology (Barcelona: Socidedad Española para la Microbiología) 1 (4): 319–326. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1139-6709">1139-6709</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10943381">10943381</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 23 de agosto de 2014. Consultado o 16 de xullo de 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Morphogenesis+by+symbiogenesis&rft.au=Margulis%2C+Lynn&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1139-6709&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=International+Microbiology&rft.pages=319-326&rft.volume=1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.im.microbios.org%2F04december98%2F14%2520Chapman.pdf&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10943381&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson07-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson07_69-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Wilson, David Sloan; Wilson, Edward O. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511235639/http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf">"Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology"</a> (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology (University of Chicago Press) 82 (4): 327–348. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5770">0033-5770</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18217526">18217526</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F522809">10.1086/522809</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 11 de maio de 2011. Consultado o 16 de xullo de 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Theoretical+Foundation+of+Sociobiology&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Edward+O.&rft.aufirst=David+Sloan&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0033-5770&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.pages=327-348&rft.volume=82&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolution.binghamton.edu%2Fdswilson%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2010%2F01%2FRethinking-sociobiology.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F522809&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18217526&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Amos-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Amos_70-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Amos, William; Harwood, John (28 de febreiro de 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692205">"Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (Londres: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>) 353 (1366): 177–186. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692205">1692205</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9533122">9533122</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0200">10.1098/rstb.1998.0200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Factors+affecting+levels+of+genetic+diversity+in+natural+populations&rft.au=Harwood%2C+John&rft.aufirst=William&rft.aulast=Amos&rft.chron=28+de+febreiro+de+1998&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.issue=1366&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.pages=177-186&rft.volume=353&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692205&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692205&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0200&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9533122&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ewens_W.J._2004-71">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Ewens_W.J._2004_71-0">71,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ewens_W.J._2004_71-1">71,1</a> <cite class="citation book">Ewens, Warren J. (2004). Mathematical Population Genetics. Interdisciplinary Applied Mathematics. I. Theoretical Introduction (2ª ed.). Nova York: Springer-Verlag New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-387-20191-2" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-387-20191-2">0-387-20191-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2003065728">2003065728</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/53231891">53231891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Warren+J.&rft.aulast=Ewens&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Population+Genetics&rft.date=2004&rft.edition=2%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-387-20191-2&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+New+York&rft.series=Interdisciplinary+Applied+Mathematics&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003065728&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53231891&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Butlin, Roger K.; Tregenza, Tom (28 de febreiro de 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692210">"Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (Londres: Royal Society) 353 (1366): 187–198. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692210">1692210</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9533123">9533123</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0201">10.1098/rstb.1998.0201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Levels+of+genetic+polymorphism%3A+marker+loci+versus+quantitative+traits&rft.au=Tregenza%2C+Tom&rft.aufirst=Roger+K.&rft.aulast=Butlin&rft.chron=28+de+febreiro+de+1998&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.issue=1366&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.pages=187-198&rft.volume=353&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692210&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0201&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9533123&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a> *<cite class="citation journal">Butlin, Roger K.; Tregenza, Tom (29 de decembro de 2000). "Correction for Butlin and Tregenza, Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (Londres: Royal Society) 355 (1404): 1865. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2000.2000">10.1098/rstb.2000.2000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Correction+for+Butlin+and+Tregenza%2C+Levels+of+genetic+polymorphism%3A+marker+loci+versus+quantitative+traits&rft.au=Tregenza%2C+Tom&rft.aufirst=Roger+K.&rft.aulast=Butlin&rft.chron=29+de+decembro+de+2000&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft.issue=1404&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.pages=1865&rft.volume=355&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2000.2000&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Wetterbom, Anna; Sevov, Marie; Cavelier, Lucia; Bergström, Tomas F. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_2006-11_63_5/page/682">"Comparative Genomic Analysis of Human and Chimpanzee Indicates a Key Role for Indels in Primate Evolution"</a>. 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Nat. Rev. Genet. 10 (8): 531–9. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2753274">2753274</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19546856">19546856</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2603">10.1038/nrg2603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Fitness+and+its+role+in+evolutionary+genetics&rft.au=Orr+HA&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Nat.+Rev.+Genet.&rft.pages=531-9&rft.volume=10&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2753274&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2753274&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2603&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19546856&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Haldane-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Haldane_102-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFHaldane_J1959" class="citation journal">Haldane J (1959). "The theory of natural selection today". Nature 183 (4663): 710–3. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959Natur.183..710H">1959Natur.183..710H</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13644170">13644170</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F183710a0">10.1038/183710a0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+theory+of+natural+selection+today&rft.au=Haldane+J&rft.date=1959&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4663&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=710-3&rft.volume=183&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1959Natur.183..710H&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F183710a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13644170&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lande-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Lande_103-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFLande_R,_Arnold_SJ1983" class="citation journal">Lande R, Arnold SJ (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_1983-11_37_6/page/1210">"The measurement of selection on correlated characters"</a>. Evolution 37 (6): 1210–26. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2408842">2408842</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2408842">10.2307/2408842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+measurement+of+selection+on+correlated+characters&rft.au=Lande+R%2C+Arnold+SJ&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.pages=1210-26&rft.volume=37&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2408842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_evolution_1983-11_37_6%2Fpage%2F1210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2408842&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoldbergIgić2008" class="citation journal">Goldberg, Emma E; Igić, B (2008). "On phylogenetic tests of irreversible evolution". Evolution 62 (11): 2727–2741. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18764918">18764918</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1558-5646.2008.00505.x">10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00505.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=On+phylogenetic+tests+of+irreversible+evolution&rft.au=Igi%C4%87%2C+B&rft.aufirst=Emma+E&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.pages=2727-2741&rft.volume=62&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1558-5646.2008.00505.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18764918&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFCollinMiglietta2008" class="citation journal">Collin, Rachel; Miglietta, MP (2008). "Reversing opinions on Dollo's Law". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23 (11): 602–609. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18814933">18814933</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.06.013">10.1016/j.tree.2008.06.013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Reversing+opinions+on+Dollo%27s+Law&rft.au=Miglietta%2C+MP&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.aulast=Collin&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.pages=602-609&rft.volume=23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.06.013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18814933&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoekstra_H,_Hoekstra_J,_Berrigan_D,_Vignieri_S,_Hoang_A,_Hill_C,_Beerli_P,_Kingsolver_J2001" class="citation journal">Hoekstra H, Hoekstra J, Berrigan D, Vignieri S, Hoang A, Hill C, Beerli P, Kingsolver J (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC55389">"Strength and tempo of directional selection in the wild"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (16): 9157–60. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...98.9157H">2001PNAS...98.9157H</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC55389">55389</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11470913">11470913</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.161281098">10.1073/pnas.161281098</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Strength+and+tempo+of+directional+selection+in+the+wild&rft.au=Hoekstra+H%2C+Hoekstra+J%2C+Berrigan+D%2C+Vignieri+S%2C+Hoang+A%2C+Hill+C%2C+Beerli+P%2C+Kingsolver+J&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=16&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=9157-60&rft.volume=98&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC55389&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC55389&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...98.9157H&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.161281098&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11470913&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFFelsenstein" class="citation journal">Felsenstein (1 de novembro de 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1214112">"Excursions along the Interface between Disruptive and Stabilizing Selection"</a>. Genetics 93 (3): 773–95. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1214112">1214112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17248980">17248980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Excursions+along+the+Interface+between+Disruptive+and+Stabilizing+Selection&rft.au=Felsenstein&rft.chron=1+de+novembro+de+1979&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.pages=773-95&rft.volume=93&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1214112&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1214112&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17248980&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndersson_M,_Simmons_L2006" class="citation journal">Andersson M, Simmons L (2006). "Sexual selection and mate choice". Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.) 21 (6): 296–302. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16769428">16769428</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2006.03.015">10.1016/j.tree.2006.03.015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Sexual+selection+and+mate+choice&rft.au=Andersson+M%2C+Simmons+L&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Trends+Ecol.+Evol.+%28Amst.%29&rft.pages=296-302&rft.volume=21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2006.03.015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16769428&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFKokko_H,_Brooks_R,_McNamara_J,_Houston_A2002" class="citation journal">Kokko H, Brooks R, McNamara J, Houston A (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691039">"The sexual selection continuum"</a>. Proc. Biol. Sci. 269 (1498): 1331–40. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691039">1691039</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12079655">12079655</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2002.2020">10.1098/rspb.2002.2020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+sexual+selection+continuum&rft.au=Kokko+H%2C+Brooks+R%2C+McNamara+J%2C+Houston+A&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1498&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Biol.+Sci.&rft.pages=1331-40&rft.volume=269&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1691039&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1691039&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2002.2020&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12079655&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFHunt_J,_Brooks_R,_Jennions_M,_Smith_M,_Bentsen_C,_Bussière_L2004" class="citation journal">Hunt J, Brooks R, Jennions M, Smith M, Bentsen C, Bussière L (2004). 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Nature 432 (7020): 1024–7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.432.1024H">2004Natur.432.1024H</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15616562">15616562</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03084">10.1038/nature03084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=High-quality+male+field+crickets+invest+heavily+in+sexual+display+but+die+young&rft.au=Hunt+J%2C+Brooks+R%2C+Jennions+M%2C+Smith+M%2C+Bentsen+C%2C+Bussi%C3%A8re+L&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=7020&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=1024-7&rft.volume=432&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Natur.432.1024H&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature03084&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15616562&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Odum1971-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Odum1971_111-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Odum, Eugene P. 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Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-7216-6941-7" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-7216-6941-7">0-7216-6941-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/76081826">76081826</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/154846">154846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Eugene+P.&rft.aulast=Odum&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Ecology&rft.date=1971&rft.edition=3%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-7216-6941-7&rft.pub=Saunders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofec0000odum&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F76081826&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F154846&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Okasha07-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Okasha07_112-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Okasha, Samir (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionlevelso0000okas">Evolution and the Levels of Selection</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-19-926797-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-19-926797-9">0-19-926797-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2006039679">2006039679</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/70985413">70985413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Samir&rft.aulast=Okasha&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+the+Levels+of+Selection&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-926797-9&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionlevelso0000okas&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006039679&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70985413&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould-113">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_113-0">113,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould_113-1">113,1</a> <cite id="CITEREFGould_SJ1998" class="citation journal">Gould SJ (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692213">"Gulliver's further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection"</a>. 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Genet. 66 (2): 557–66. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1288109">1288109</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10677316">10677316</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F302754">10.1086/302754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+heterogeneity+in+recombination+in+the+human+pseudoautosomal+region%3A+high+resolution+analysis+by+sperm+typing+and+radiation-hybrid+mapping&rft.au=Lien+S%2C+Szyda+J%2C+Schechinger+B%2C+Rappold+G%2C+Arnheim+N&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Hum.+Genet.&rft.pages=557-66&rft.volume=66&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1288109&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1288109&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F302754&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10677316&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarton2000" class="citation journal">Barton, N H (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692896">"Genetic hitchhiking"</a>. 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Nature 409 (6823): 1102–9. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11234024">11234024</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F35059227">10.1038/35059227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Chance+and+necessity%3A+the+evolution+of+morphological+complexity+and+diversity&rft.au=Carroll+SB&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6823&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=1102-9&rft.volume=409&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35059227&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11234024&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFWhitman_W,_Coleman_D,_Wiebe_W1998" class="citation journal">Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33863">"Prokaryotes: the unseen majority"</a>. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 (12): 6578–83. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PNAS...95.6578W">1998PNAS...95.6578W</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33863">33863</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9618454">9618454</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.95.12.6578">10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Prokaryotes%3A+the+unseen+majority&rft.au=Whitman+W%2C+Coleman+D%2C+Wiebe+W&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=12&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+U+S+A&rft.pages=6578-83&rft.volume=95&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC33863&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC33863&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998PNAS...95.6578W&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.95.12.6578&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9618454&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Schloss-157">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Schloss_157-0">157,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schloss_157-1">157,1</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchloss_P,_Handelsman_J2004" class="citation journal">Schloss P, Handelsman J (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539005">"Status of the microbial census"</a>. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 68 (4): 686–91. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539005">539005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15590780">15590780</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.68.4.686-691.2004">10.1128/MMBR.68.4.686-691.2004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Status+of+the+microbial+census&rft.au=Schloss+P%2C+Handelsman+J&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Microbiol+Mol+Biol+Rev&rft.pages=686-91&rft.volume=68&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.68.4.686-691.2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15590780&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFNealson_K1999" class="citation journal">Nealson K (1999). "Post-Viking microbiology: new approaches, new data, new insights". Orig Life Evol Biosph 29 (1): 73–93. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11536899">11536899</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1006515817767">10.1023/A:1006515817767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Post-Viking+microbiology%3A+new+approaches%2C+new+data%2C+new+insights&rft.au=Nealson+K&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Orig+Life+Evol+Biosph&rft.pages=73-93&rft.volume=29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1006515817767&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11536899&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckling-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Buckling_159-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFBuckling_A,_Craig_Maclean_R,_Brockhurst_MA,_Colegrave_N2009" class="citation journal">Buckling A, Craig Maclean R, Brockhurst MA, Colegrave N (2009). "The Beagle in a bottle". Nature 457 (7231): 824–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.457..824B">2009Natur.457..824B</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19212400">19212400</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07892">10.1038/nature07892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Beagle+in+a+bottle&rft.au=Buckling+A%2C+Craig+Maclean+R%2C+Brockhurst+MA%2C+Colegrave+N&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=7231&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=824-9&rft.volume=457&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.457..824B&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07892&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19212400&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFElena_SF,_Lenski_RE2003" class="citation journal">Elena SF, Lenski RE (2003). "Evolution experiments with microorganisms: the dynamics and genetic bases of adaptation". Nat. Rev. Genet. 4 (6): 457–69. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12776215">12776215</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1088">10.1038/nrg1088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evolution+experiments+with+microorganisms%3A+the+dynamics+and+genetic+bases+of+adaptation&rft.au=Elena+SF%2C+Lenski+RE&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Nat.+Rev.+Genet.&rft.pages=457-69&rft.volume=4&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1088&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12776215&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, p. 483: "A adaptación... xa non pode ser considerada unha condición estática, un produto dun pasado creativo e en vez diso converteuse nun proceso dinámico continuado." </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">↑</a> A sexta edición do Oxford Dictionary of Science (2010) define a adaptación como calquera cambio na estrutura ou funcionamento dun organismo que o fai máis axeitado para o seu ambiente. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFOrr_H2005" class="citation journal">Orr H (2005). "The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history". Nat. Rev. Genet. 6 (2): 119–27. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15716908">15716908</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1523">10.1038/nrg1523</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+genetic+theory+of+adaptation%3A+a+brief+history&rft.au=Orr+H&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Nat.+Rev.+Genet.&rft.pages=119-27&rft.volume=6&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1523&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15716908&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1968). "On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology". En Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. Evolutionary Biology. Volume 2 (1ª ed.). Nova York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/24875357">24875357</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1">10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=On+Some+Fundamental+Concepts+of+Darwinian+Biology&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Biology.+Volume+2&rft.date=1968&rft.edition=1%AA&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=1-34&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24875357&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">↑</a> * <cite class="citation book">Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geneticsevolutio00dobz">Genetics of the Evolutionary Process</a>. 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XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis in Some Localities in California"</a>. 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"High-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to interplay of the MexAB-OprM efflux pump and the DNA gyrase mutation". Microbiol. Immunol. 46 (6): 391–5. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12153116">12153116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=High-level+fluoroquinolone+resistance+in+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+due+to+interplay+of+the+MexAB-OprM+efflux+pump+and+the+DNA+gyrase+mutation&rft.au=Nakajima+A%2C+Sugimoto+Y%2C+Yoneyama+H%2C+Nakae+T&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Microbiol.+Immunol.&rft.pages=391-5&rft.volume=46&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12153116&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFBlount_ZD,_Borland_CZ,_Lenski_RE2008" class="citation journal">Blount ZD, Borland CZ, Lenski RE (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430337">"Inaugural Article: Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of Escherichia coli"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (23): 7899–906. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..105.7899B">2008PNAS..105.7899B</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430337">2430337</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18524956">18524956</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0803151105">10.1073/pnas.0803151105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Inaugural+Article%3A+Historical+contingency+and+the+evolution+of+a+key+innovation+in+an+experimental+population+of+Escherichia+coli&rft.au=Blount+ZD%2C+Borland+CZ%2C+Lenski+RE&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=23&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=7899-906&rft.volume=105&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2430337&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2430337&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.7899B&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0803151105&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18524956&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFOkada_H,_Negoro_S,_Kimura_H,_Nakamura_S1983" class="citation journal">Okada H, Negoro S, Kimura H, Nakamura S (1983). "Evolutionary adaptation of plasmid-encoded enzymes for degrading nylon oligomers". Nature 306 (5939): 203–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Natur.306..203O">1983Natur.306..203O</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6646204">6646204</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F306203a0">10.1038/306203a0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+adaptation+of+plasmid-encoded+enzymes+for+degrading+nylon+oligomers&rft.au=Okada+H%2C+Negoro+S%2C+Kimura+H%2C+Nakamura+S&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5939&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=203-6&rft.volume=306&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Natur.306..203O&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F306203a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6646204&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFOhno_S1984" class="citation journal">Ohno S (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC345072">"Birth of a unique enzyme from an alternative reading frame of the preexisted, internally repetitious coding sequence"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81 (8): 2421–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984PNAS...81.2421O">1984PNAS...81.2421O</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC345072">345072</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6585807">6585807</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.81.8.2421">10.1073/pnas.81.8.2421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Birth+of+a+unique+enzyme+from+an+alternative+reading+frame+of+the+preexisted%2C+internally+repetitious+coding+sequence&rft.au=Ohno+S&rft.date=1984&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=2421-5&rft.volume=81&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC345072&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC345072&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984PNAS...81.2421O&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.81.8.2421&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6585807&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFCopley_SD2000" class="citation journal">Copley SD (2000). 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Evolution 57 (7): 1498–1512. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12940355">12940355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+the+evolvability+properties+of+the+yeast+prion+%5BPSI%2B%5D&rft.au=Masel+J%2C+Bergman+A%2C&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=7&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.pages=1498-1512&rft.volume=57&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_evolution_2003-07_57_7%2Fpage%2F1498&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12940355&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Lancaster AK, Bardill JP, True HL, Masel J (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2828720">"The Spontaneous Appearance Rate of the Yeast Prion [PSI+] and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Evolvability Properties of the [PSI+] System"</a>. 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Science 268 (5207): 52–8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...268...52B">1995Sci...268...52B</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7701342">7701342</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7701342">10.1126/science.7701342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Diversification+and+extinction+in+the+history+of+life&rft.au=Benton+MJ&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5207&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=52-8&rft.volume=268&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...268...52B&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7701342&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7701342&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFRaup_DM1986" class="citation journal">Raup DM (1986). 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Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnas.org/biodiversity_and_extinction">o orixinal</a> o 02 de maio de 2019. 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Marshall (20 de xuño de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2013/06/19/science.1239431">"How the Red Queen Drives Terrestrial Mammals to Extinction"</a>. Science Express. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1239431">10.1126/science.1239431</a>. Consultado o 26 de xuño de 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=How+the+Red+Queen+Drives+Terrestrial+Mammals+to+Extinction&rft.au=Charles+R.+Marshall&rft.aufirst=Tiago+B.&rft.aulast=Quental&rft.chron=20+de+xu%C3%B1o+de+2013&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Express&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2Fearly%2F2013%2F06%2F19%2Fscience.1239431&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1239431&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-UCB62013-246"><a href="#cite_ref-UCB62013_246-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation web">Robert Sanders, Media Relations (20 de xuño de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/06/20/the-red-queen-was-right-life-must-continually-evolve-to-avoid-extinction/">"The Red Queen was right: Life must continually evolve to avoid extinction"</a> (News release). University of California Berkeley. Consultado o 26 de xuño de 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Robert+Sanders%2C+Media+Relations&rft.btitle=The+Red+Queen+was+right%3A+Life+must+continually+evolve+to+avoid+extinction&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+California+Berkeley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewscenter.berkeley.edu%2F2013%2F06%2F20%2Fthe-red-queen-was-right-life-must-continually-evolve-to-avoid-extinction%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-USGS1997-247"><a href="#cite_ref-USGS1997_247-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation web"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Geological_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States Geological Survey (a páxina aínda non existe)">United States Geological Survey</a>, ed. (9 de xullo de 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html">"Age of the Earth"</a>. Consultado o 31 de maio de 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Age+of+the+Earth&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fgeotime%2Fage.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dalrymple_2001-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Dalrymple_2001_248-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Dalrymple, G. Brent (2001). "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved". En Lewis, C. L. E.; Knell, S. J. The Age of the Earth: from 4004 BC to AD 2002. Geological Society Special Publication 190. Londres: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_Society_of_London&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geological Society of London (a páxina aínda non existe)">Geological Society of London</a>. pp. 205–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/1-86239-093-2" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/1-86239-093-2">1-86239-093-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0305-8719">0305-8719</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2001.190.01.14">10.1144/gsl.sp.2001.190.01.14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+Earth+in+the+twentieth+century%3A+a+problem+%28mostly%29+solved&rft.aufirst=G.+Brent&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Earth%3A+from+4004+BC+to+AD+2002&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=1-86239-093-2&rft.issn=0305-8719&rft.pages=205-221&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+London&rft.series=Geological+Society+Special+Publication&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2001.190.01.14&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Elsevier-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Elsevier_249-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Manhesa, Gérard; Allègre, Claude J.; Dupréa, Bernard; Hamelin, Bruno (maio de 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_earth-and-planetary-science-letters_1980-05_47_3/page/370">"Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Earth_and_Planetary_Science_Letters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Earth and Planetary Science Letters (a páxina aínda non existe)">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a> (Amsterdam: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsevier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elsevier (a páxina aínda non existe)">Elsevier</a>) 47 (3): 370–382. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0012-821X">0012-821X</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0012-821X%2880%2990024-2">10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Lead+isotope+study+of+basic-ultrabasic+layered+complexes%3A+Speculations+about+the+age+of+the+earth+and+primitive+mantle+characteristics&rft.au=All%C3%A8gre%2C+Claude+J.&rft.au=Dupr%C3%A9a%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Hamelin%2C+Bruno&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft.aulast=Manhesa&rft.chron=maio+de+1980&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0012-821X&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.pages=370-382&rft.volume=47&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_earth-and-planetary-science-letters_1980-05_47_3%2Fpage%2F370&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0012-821X%2880%2990024-2&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-RavenJohnson2002-250"><a href="#cite_ref-RavenJohnson2002_250-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Kirk, Geoffrey; Raven, John; Schofield, Malcolm (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7">The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts</a> (2ª ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7/page/68">68</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-521-27455-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-521-27455-9">0-521-27455-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Raven%2C+John&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Malcolm&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.btitle=The+Presocratic+Philosophers%3A+A+Critical+History+with+a+Selection+of+Texts&rft.date=1983&rft.edition=2%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-27455-9&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AP-20131113-251"><a href="#cite_ref-AP-20131113_251-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation news">Borenstein, Seth (13 de novembro de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html">"Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Excite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Excite (a páxina aínda non existe)">Excite</a> (Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network). Associated Press. Consultado o 31 de maio de 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Oldest+fossil+found%3A+Meet+your+microbial+mom&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft.aulast=Borenstein&rft.chron=13+de+novembro+de+2013&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Excite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapnews.excite.com%2Farticle%2F20131113%2FDAA1VSC01.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-TG-20131113-JP-252"><a href="#cite_ref-TG-20131113-JP_252-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation news">Pearlman, Jonathan (13 de novembro de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html">"'Oldest signs of life on Earth found'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a> (Londres: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telegraph_Media_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telegraph Media Group (a páxina aínda non existe)">Telegraph Media Group</a>). Consultado o 15 de decembro de 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=%27Oldest+signs+of+life+on+Earth+found%27&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.aulast=Pearlman&rft.chron=13+de+novembro+de+2013&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fscience-news%2F10445788%2FOldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AST-20131108-253"><a href="#cite_ref-AST-20131108_253-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. (16 de novembro de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3870916">"Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrobiology_(revista)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrobiology (revista) (a páxina aínda non existe)">Astrobiology</a> (New Rochelle, NY: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mary_Ann_Liebert,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. (a páxina aínda non existe)">Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.</a>) 13 (12): 1103–1124. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1531-1074">1531-1074</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3870916">3870916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24205812">24205812</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2013.1030">10.1089/ast.2013.1030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Microbially+Induced+Sedimentary+Structures+Recording+an+Ancient+Ecosystem+in+the+ca.+3.48+Billion-Year-Old+Dresser+Formation%2C+Pilbara%2C+Western+Australia&rft.au=Christian%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Hazen%2C+Robert+M.&rft.au=Wacey%2C+David&rft.aufirst=Nora&rft.aulast=Noffke&rft.chron=16+de+novembro+de+2013&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1531-1074&rft.issue=12&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&rft.pages=1103-1124&rft.volume=13&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3870916&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3870916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fast.2013.1030&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24205812&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-NG-20131208-254"><a href="#cite_ref-NG-20131208_254-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; Nagase, Toshiro; Rosing, Minik T. (xaneiro de 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks". <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nature_Geoscience&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nature Geoscience (a páxina aínda non existe)">Nature Geoscience</a> (Londres: Nature Publishing Group) 7 (1): 25–28. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1752-0894">1752-0894</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo2025">10.1038/ngeo2025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+biogenic+graphite+in+early+Archaean+Isua+metasedimentary+rocks&rft.au=Ishida%2C+Akizumi&rft.au=Kakegawa%2C+Takeshi&rft.au=Nagase%2C+Toshiro&rft.au=Rosing%2C+Minik+T.&rft.aufirst=Yoko&rft.aulast=Ohtomo&rft.chron=xaneiro+de+2014&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1752-0894&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&rft.pages=25-28&rft.volume=7&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fngeo2025&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AP-20151019-255"><a href="#cite_ref-AP-20151019_255-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation news">Borenstein, Seth (19 de outubro de 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html">"Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Excite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Excite (a páxina aínda non existe)">Excite</a> (Yonkers, NY: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mindspark_Interactive_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mindspark Interactive Network (a páxina aínda non existe)">Mindspark Interactive Network</a>). <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. Consultado o 20-10-2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Hints+of+life+on+what+was+thought+to+be+desolate+early+Earth&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft.aulast=Borenstein&rft.chron=19+de+outubro+de+2015&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Excite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapnews.excite.com%2Farticle%2F20151019%2Fus-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-256"><a href="#cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_256-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; Mao, Wendy L. (24 de novembro de 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151106021508/http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf">"Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon"</a> (PDF). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (a páxina aínda non existe)">Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.</a> (Washington, D.C.: <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Academy_of_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Academy of Sciences (a páxina aínda non existe)">National Academy of Sciences</a>) 112 (47): 14518–14521. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4664351">4664351</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26483481">26483481</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1517557112">10.1073/pnas.1517557112</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 06 de novembro de 2015. Consultado o 30-12-2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Potentially+biogenic+carbon+preserved+in+a+4.1+billion-year-old+zircon&rft.au=Boehnike%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Harrison%2C+T.+Mark&rft.au=Mao%2C+Wendy+L.&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.chron=24+de+novembro+de+2015&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.issue=47&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.pages=14518-14521&rft.volume=112&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4664351&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2Fearly%2F2015%2F10%2F14%2F1517557112.full.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1517557112&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26483481&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-sa282_6_90-257"><a href="#cite_ref-sa282_6_90_257-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Doolittle, W. Ford (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_2000-06_282_6/page/90">"Uprooting the tree of life"</a>. Scientific American 282 (6): 90–95. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710791">10710791</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0200-90">10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Uprooting+the+tree+of+life&rft.aufirst=W.+Ford&rft.aulast=Doolittle&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.pages=90-95&rft.volume=282&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_scientific-american_2000-06_282_6%2Fpage%2F90&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0200-90&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10710791&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFPeretó_J2005" class="citation journal">Peretó J (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150824074726/http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf">"Controversies on the origin of life"</a> (PDF). 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PLOS Biology (San Francisco) 7 (4): e1000058. <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7885">1545-7885</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19355786">19355786</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000058">10.1371/journal.pbio.1000058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=How+to+Make+Evolution-Proof+Insecticides+for+Malaria+Control&rft.au=Lynch%2C+Penelope+A.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Matthew+B.&rft.aufirst=Andrew+F.&rft.aulast=Read&rft.chron=7+de+abril+de+2009&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1545-7885&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.pages=e1000058&rft.volume=7&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000058&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19355786&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFFraser_AS1958" class="citation journal">Fraser AS (1958). "Monte Carlo analyses of genetic models". Nature 181 (4603): 208–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Natur.181..208F">1958Natur.181..208F</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13504138">13504138</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F181208a0">10.1038/181208a0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Monte+Carlo+analyses+of+genetic+models&rft.au=Fraser+AS&rft.date=1958&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4603&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=208-9&rft.volume=181&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958Natur.181..208F&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F181208a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13504138&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Rechenberg, Ingo (1973). Evolutionsstrategie – Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis) (en alemán). Fromman-Holzboog.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Ingo&rft.aulast=Rechenberg&rft.btitle=Evolutionsstrategie+%93+Optimierung+technischer+Systeme+nach+Prinzipien+der+biologischen+Evolution+%28PhD+thesis%29&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Fromman-Holzboog&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Holland, John H. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adaptationinnatu0000holl">Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems</a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-262-58111-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-262-58111-6">0-262-58111-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.btitle=Adaptation+in+Natural+and+Artificial+Systems&rft.date=1975&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-262-58111-6&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadaptationinnatu0000holl&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Koza, John R. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geneticprogrammi0000koza">Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-262-11170-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-262-11170-5">0-262-11170-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.aulast=Koza&rft.btitle=Genetic+Programming%3A+On+the+Programming+of+Computers+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection&rft.date=1992&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-262-11170-5&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneticprogrammi0000koza&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFJamshidi_M2003" class="citation journal">Jamshidi M (2003). "Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms". Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical and engineering sciences 361 (1809): 1781–808. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RSPTA.361.1781J">2003RSPTA.361.1781J</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952685">12952685</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2003.1225">10.1098/rsta.2003.1225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Tools+for+intelligent+control%3A+fuzzy+controllers%2C+neural+networks+and+genetic+algorithms&rft.au=Jamshidi+M&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1809&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+transactions.+Series+A%2C+Mathematical%2C+physical+and+engineering+sciences&rft.pages=1781-808&rft.volume=361&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003RSPTA.361.1781J&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2003.1225&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12952685&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne2003e-315"><a href="#cite_ref-Browne2003e_315-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Browne, Janet (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/charlesdarwin0000jane">Charles Darwin: The Power of Place</a>. London: Pimlico. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/charlesdarwin0000jane/page/376">376</a>–379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-7126-6837-3" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-7126-6837-3">0-7126-6837-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Browne%2C+Janet&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%3A+The+Power+of+Place&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-7126-6837-3&rft.pages=376-379&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcharlesdarwin0000jane&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">↑</a> Para unha visión xeral das controversias filosóficas, relixiosas e cosmolóxicas, ver: <ul><li><cite class="citation book">Dennett, D (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000dani_b4q2">Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-684-82471-0" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-684-82471-0">978-0-684-82471-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=D&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Dangerous+Idea%3A+Evolution+and+the+Meanings+of+Life&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82471-0&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarwinsdangerous0000dani_b4q2&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  Para a recepción científica e social da evolución no século XIX e principios do XX, ver:</li> <li><cite class="citation web">Johnston, Ian C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170107000105/http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect3.htm">"History of Science: Origins of Evolutionary Theory"</a>. And Still We Evolve. Liberal Studies Department, Malaspina University College. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect3.htm">o orixinal</a> o 07 de xaneiro de 2017. Consultado o May 24, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=History+of+Science%3A+Origins+of+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.aufirst=Ian+C.&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=And+Still+We+Evolve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frecords.viu.ca%2F~johnstoi%2Fdarwin%2Fsect3.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFZuckerkandl_E2006" class="citation journal">Zuckerkandl E (2006). "Intelligent design and biological complexity". Gene 385: 2–18. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17011142">17011142</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gene.2006.03.025">10.1016/j.gene.2006.03.025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Intelligent+design+and+biological+complexity&rft.au=Zuckerkandl+E&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gene&rft.pages=2-18&rft.volume=385&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gene.2006.03.025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17011142&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ross2005-317"><a href="#cite_ref-Ross2005_317-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoss,_M.R.2005" class="citation journal">Ross, M.R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf">"Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism"</a> (PDF). Journal of Geoscience Education 53 (3): 319. Consultado o 28 de abril de 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Who+Believes+What%3F+Clearing+up+Confusion+over+Intelligent+Design+and+Young-Earth+Creationism&rft.au=Ross%2C+M.R.&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geoscience+Education&rft.pages=319&rft.volume=53&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nagt.org%2Ffiles%2Fnagt%2Fjge%2Fabstracts%2FRoss_v53n3p319.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFHameed" class="citation journal">Hameed, Salman (12 de decembro de 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141110031233/http://helios.hampshire.edu/~sahCS/Hameed-Science-Creationism.pdf">"Science and Religion: Bracing for Islamic Creationism"</a> (PDF). Science 322 (5908): 1637–1638. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19074331">19074331</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1163672">10.1126/science.1163672</a>. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://helios.hampshire.edu/~sahCS/Hameed-Science-Creationism.pdf">o orixinal</a> (PDF) o 10 de novembro de 2014. Consultado o 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Science+and+Religion%3A+Bracing+for+Islamic+Creationism&rft.aufirst=Salman&rft.aulast=Hameed&rft.chron=12+de+decembro+de+2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5908&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=1637-1638&rft.volume=322&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhelios.hampshire.edu%2F~sahCS%2FHameed-Science-Creationism.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1163672&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19074331&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-bowler-319"><a href="#cite_ref-bowler_319-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">↑</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://personales.us.es//alporu/legislacion/circular_orovio_1875.htm">"Circular del Ministro de Fomento de 26 de febrero de 1875 (Orovio)"</a>. Legislación y documentos sobreeducación superior – Alma mater hispalense.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Circular+del+Ministro+de+Fomento+de+26+de+febrero+de+1875+%28Orovio%29&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legislaci%C3%B3n+y+documentos+sobreeducaci%C3%B3n+superior+%93+Alma+mater+hispalense&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonales.us.es%2F%2Falporu%2Flegislacion%2Fcircular_orovio_1875.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">↑</a> <cite class="citation web">Xosé Antón Fraga Vázquez. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/587128.pdf">"Aportación ao estudo da polémica darwinista na Galiza do século XIX."</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Xos%C3%A9+Ant%C3%B3n+Fraga+V%C3%A1zquez.&rft.btitle=Aportaci%C3%B3n+ao+estudo+da+pol%C3%A9mica+darwinista+na+Galiza+do+s%C3%A9culo+XIX.&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fdescarga%2Farticulo%2F587128.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">↑</a> <cite class="citation book">Francisco Díaz Fierros (coordinador). (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=398913">O darwinismo e Galicia.</a> Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Cientifico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/9788498872651" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/9788498872651">9788498872651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Francisco+D%C3az+Fierros+%28coordinador%29.&rft.btitle=O+darwinismo+e+Galicia.&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9788498872651&rft.pub=Universidade+de+Santiago+de+Compostela.+Servizo+de+Publicaci%C3%B3ns+e+Intercambio+Cientifico.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fservlet%2Flibro%3Fcodigo%3D398913&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFSpergel_D._N.ScottOkamoto2006" class="citation journal">Spergel D. N.; Scott, EC; Okamoto, S (2006). "Science communication. Public acceptance of evolution". Science 313 (5788): 765–66. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16902112">16902112</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1126746">10.1126/science.1126746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Science+communication.+Public+acceptance+of+evolution&rft.au=Okamoto%2C+S&rft.au=Scott%2C+EC&rft.au=Spergel+D.+N.&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5788&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=765-66&rft.volume=313&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1126746&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16902112&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-wmap-324"><a href="#cite_ref-wmap_324-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFSpergelVerdePeirisKomatsu2003" class="citation journal">Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N. (2003). "First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 148 (1): 175–94. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ApJS..148..175S">2003ApJS..148..175S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302209">astro-ph/0302209</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F377226">10.1086/377226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=First-Year+Wilkinson+Microwave+Anisotropy+Probe+%28WMAP%29+Observations%3A+Determination+of+Cosmological+Parameters&rft.au=Bennett%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Halpern%2C+M.&rft.au=Hinshaw%2C+G.&rft.au=Jarosik%2C+N.&rft.au=Komatsu%2C+E.&rft.au=Nolta%2C+M.+R.&rft.au=Peiris%2C+H.+V.&rft.au=Verde%2C+L.&rft.aufirst=D.+N.&rft.aulast=Spergel&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.pages=175-94&rft.volume=148&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0302209&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ApJS..148..175S&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F377226&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-zircon-325"><a href="#cite_ref-zircon_325-0">↑</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilde_SA,_Valley_JW,_Peck_WH,_Graham_CM2001" class="citation journal">Wilde SA, Valley JW, Peck WH, Graham CM (2001). "Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago". Nature 409 (6817): 175–78. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11196637">11196637</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F35051550">10.1038/35051550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Evidence+from+detrital+zircons+for+the+existence+of+continental+crust+and+oceans+on+the+Earth+4.4+Gyr+ago&rft.au=Wilde+SA%2C+Valley+JW%2C+Peck+WH%2C+Graham+CM&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6817&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=175-78&rft.volume=409&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35051550&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11196637&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-BioScience-326"><a href="#cite_ref-BioScience_326-0">↑</a> <cite class="citation journal">Branch, Glenn (marzo de 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1641/B570313">"Understanding Creationism after Kitzmiller"</a>. BioScience (American Institute of Biological Sciences) 57 (3): 278–284. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1641%2FB570313">10.1641/B570313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Understanding+Creationism+after+Kitzmiller&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.chron=marzo+de+2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.pages=278-284&rft.volume=57&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioone.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1641%2FB570313&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1641%2FB570313&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Véxase_tamén">Véxase tamén</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=28" title="Editar a sección: «Véxase tamén»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=28" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Véxase tamén">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base, #a2a9b1);color:inherit"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Portada_galega" class="extiw" title="commons:Portada galega">Wikimedia Commons</a> ten máis contidos multimedia na categoría:  <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Evolution">Evolución</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1063" title="Modificar a ligazón no Wikidata"><img alt="Modificar a ligazón no Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/12px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/18px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Arbcom_ru_editing.svg/24px-Arbcom_ru_editing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png/100px-QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png/150px-QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png/200px-QR-GLWP_Evoluci%C3%B3n.png 2x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliografía">Bibliografía</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=29" title="Editar a sección: «Bibliografía»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=29" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Bibliografía">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBowler2003" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8">Evolution: The History of an Idea</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>) (3ª ed.). University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-520-23693-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-520-23693-9">0-520-23693-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2002007569">2002007569</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/49824702">49824702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.date=2003&rft.edition=3%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-520-23693-9&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002007569&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49824702&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFCarrollGrenierWeatherbee2005" class="citation book">Carroll, Sean B.; Grenier, Jennifer K.; Weatherbee, Scott D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromdnatodiversi0000carr">From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>) (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/1-4051-1950-0" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/1-4051-1950-0">1-4051-1950-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2003027991">2003027991</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/53972564">53972564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Grenier%2C+Jennifer+K.&rft.au=Weatherbee%2C+Scott+D.&rft.aufirst=Sean+B.&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.btitle=From+DNA+to+Diversity%3A+Molecular+Genetics+and+the+Evolution+of+Animal+Design&rft.date=2005&rft.edition=2nd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-4051-1950-0&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromdnatodiversi0000carr&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003027991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53972564&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFCoyne2009" class="citation book">Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn">Why Evolution is True</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Nova York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-670-02053-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-670-02053-9">978-0-670-02053-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2008033973">2008033973</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/233549529">233549529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Jerry+A.&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.btitle=Why+Evolution+is+True&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-670-02053-9&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhyevolutionistr00coyn&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008033973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233549529&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1859" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1859). <a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</a> [A orixe das especies] (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a> e galego) (1ª ed.). Londres: John Murray. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/06017473">06017473</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/741260650">741260650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.date=1859&rft.edition=1%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F06017473&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741260650&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, R.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selfishgene0000dawk_f8y9">The Selfish Gene: 30th Anniversary Edition</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-19-929115-2" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-19-929115-2">0-19-929115-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Dawkins%2C+R.&rft.btitle=The+Selfish+Gene%3A+30th+Anniversary+Edition&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-929115-2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fselfishgene0000dawk_f8y9&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma2004" class="citation book">Futuyma, Douglas J. (2004). "The Fruit of the Tree of Life: Insights into Evolution and Ecology". En Cracraft, Joel; Donoghue, Michael J. Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-19-517234-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-19-517234-5">0-19-517234-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2003058012">2003058012</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61342697">61342697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=The+Fruit+of+the+Tree+of+Life%3A+Insights+into+Evolution+and+Ecology&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.btitle=Assembling+the+Tree+of+Life&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-19-517234-5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003058012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61342697&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  "Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, 2002."</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma2005" class="citation book">Futuyma, Douglas J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu">Evolution</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-87893-187-2" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-87893-187-2">0-87893-187-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2004029808">2004029808</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/57311264">57311264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-87893-187-2&rft.place=Sunderland&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolution0000futu&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004029808&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57311264&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, S.J.</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wonderfullifebur00goul">Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Nova York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-393-30700-X" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-393-30700-X">0-393-30700-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Gould%2C+S.J.&rft.btitle=Wonderful+Life%3A+The+Burgess+Shale+and+the+Nature+of+History&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-393-30700-X&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwonderfullifebur00goul&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFGould2002" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, S.J.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structureofevolu00goul">The Structure of Evolutionary Theory</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-674-00613-5" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-674-00613-5">0-674-00613-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2001043556">2001043556</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47869352">47869352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=S.J.&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-674-00613-5&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstructureofevolu00goul&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001043556&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47869352&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008" class="citation book">Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall">Strickberger's Evolution</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>) (4ª ed.). Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-7637-0066-9" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-7637-0066-9">978-0-7637-0066-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2007008981">2007008981</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">85814089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Hallgr%C3msson%2C+Benedikt&rft.aufirst=Brian+K.&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.btitle=Strickberger%27s+Evolution&rft.date=2008&rft.edition=4%AA&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-0066-9&rft.place=Sudbury&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstrickbergersevo0000hall&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007008981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F85814089&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr">The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Tradución de John Ray. Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-674-36445-7" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-674-36445-7">0-674-36445-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/81013204">81013204</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/7875904">7875904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.date=1982&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-674-36445-7&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrowthofbiologic00mayr&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F81013204&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7875904&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Mayr, Ernst (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr">What Evolution Is</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Nova York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-465-04426-3" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-465-04426-3">0-465-04426-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Mayr%2C+Ernst&rft.btitle=What+Evolution+Is&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-465-04426-3&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatevolutionis0000mayr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFNAS2008" class="citation book">National Academy of Sciences; Institute of Medicine (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866">Science, Evolution, and Creationism</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/978-0-309-10586-6">978-0-309-10586-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2007015904">2007015904</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/123539346">123539346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Creationism&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780309105866&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007015904&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123539346&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRidley1993" class="citation book">Ridley, Matt (1993). The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Nova York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-670-84357-1" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-670-84357-1">0-670-84357-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/636657988">636657988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.btitle=The+Red+Queen%3A+Sex+and+the+Evolution+of+Human+Nature&rft.date=1993&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-670-84357-1&rft.place=Nova+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F636657988&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Zimmer, C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution00carl">Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). Londres: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_bibliogr%C3%A1ficas/0-06-019906-7" title="Especial:Fontes bibliográficas/0-06-019906-7">0-06-019906-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.au=Zimmer%2C+C.&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Triumph+of+an+Idea&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-06-019906-7&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolution00carl&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ligazóns_externas">Ligazóns externas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&veaction=edit&section=30" title="Editar a sección: «Ligazóns externas»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">editar</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evoluci%C3%B3n&action=edit&section=30" title="Editar o código fonte da sección: Ligazóns externas">editar a fonte</a>]</div> <ul><li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution/evolution.htm">"How Evolution Works"</a>. Howstuffworks (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=How+Evolution+Works&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Howstuffworks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Fevolution%2Fevolution.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/">"Evolution Resources from the National Academies"</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). U.S. National Academy of Sciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Evolution+Resources+from+the+National+Academies&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnationalacademies.org%2Fevolution%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/">"Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on Evolution"</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). University of California, Berkeley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Understanding+Evolution%3A+your+one-stop+resource+for+information+on+Evolution&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130527130449/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp">"Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species""</a> (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>). National Science Foundation. Arquivado dende <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp">o orixinal</a> o 27 de maio de 2013. Consultado o 16 de xullo de 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Evolution+%93+150+Years+of+Darwin%27s+%22On+the+Origin+of+Species%22&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fspecial_reports%2Fdarwin%2Ftextonly%2Findex.jsp&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation web">Price RG. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_evolution.htm">"Understanding Evolution: History, Theory, Evidence, and Implications"</a>. RationalRevolution (en <a href="/wiki/Lingua_inglesa" title="Lingua inglesa">inglés</a>).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fgl.wikipedia.org%3AEvoluci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Understanding+Evolution%3A+History%2C+Theory%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Implications&rft.au=Price+RG&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RationalRevolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rationalrevolution.net%2Farticles%2Funderstanding_evolution.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bioloxía_evolutiva" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-ver"><a href="/wiki/Modelo:Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva" title="Modelo:Bioloxía evolutiva"><abbr title="Ver o modelo">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-conversa"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conversa_modelo:Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conversa modelo:Bioloxía evolutiva (a páxina aínda non existe)"><abbr title="Conversa do modelo">c</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-editar"><a class="external text" href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modelo:Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva&action=edit"><abbr title="Editar o modelo">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bioloxía_evolutiva" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva" title="Bioloxía evolutiva">Bioloxía evolutiva</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolución</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_evoluci%C3%B3n_como_feito_e_teor%C3%ADa" title="A evolución como feito e teoría">A evolución como feito e teoría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiox%C3%A9nese" title="Abioxénese">Abioxénese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica">Adaptación biolóxica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_das_c%C3%A9lulas" title="Evolución das células">Evolución das células</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_humana" title="Evolución humana">Evolución humana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_molecular" title="Evolución molecular">Evolución molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinci%C3%B3n" title="Extinción">Extinción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Microevolución">Microevolución</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Macroevolución">Macroevolución</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Altimo_antepasado_com%C3%BAn_universal" title="Último antepasado común universal">Último antepasado común universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probas_da_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Probas da evolución">Probas da evolución</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diverxencia de grupos taxonómicos modernos dende o seu atepasado común"><img alt="Diverxencia de grupos taxonómicos modernos dende o seu atepasado común" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg/140px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg/210px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg/280px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified-gl.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="528" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica_de_poboaci%C3%B3ns" title="Xenética de poboacións">Xenética de poboacións</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico">Fluxo xénico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deriva_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Deriva xenética">Deriva xenética</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutaci%C3%B3n" title="Mutación">Mutación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selecci%C3%B3n_natural" title="Selección natural">Selección natural</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Desenvolvemento</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalizaci%C3%B3n_(xen%C3%A9tica)" title="Canalización (xenética)">Canalización</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento">Bioloxía evolutiva do desenvolvemento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversi%C3%B3n_(biolox%C3%ADa_evolutiva)" title="Inversión (bioloxía evolutiva)">Inversión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularidade_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Modularidade (bioloxía)">Modularidade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticidade_fenot%C3%ADpica" title="Plasticidade fenotípica">Plasticidade fenotípica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Tempo e modos</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrio_Interrompido" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrio Interrompido">Equilibrio Interrompido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradualismo" title="Gradualismo">Gradualismo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Saltacionismo" title="Saltacionismo">Saltacionismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformismo" title="Uniformismo">Uniformismo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Catastrofismo" title="Catastrofismo">Catastrofismo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Especiación">Especiación</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anax%C3%A9nese" title="Anaxénese">Anaxénese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catax%C3%A9nese" title="Cataxénese">Cataxénese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladox%C3%A9nese" title="Cladoxénese">Cladoxénese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_ecol%C3%B3xica" title="Especiación ecolóxica">Especiación ecolóxica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_h%C3%ADbrida" title="Especiación híbrida">Especiación híbrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_parap%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación parapátrica">Especiación parapátrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_perip%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación peripátrica">Especiación peripátrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_simp%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación simpátrica">Especiación simpátrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especiaci%C3%B3n_alop%C3%A1trica" title="Especiación alopátrica">Especiación alopátrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimentos_de_laboratorio_de_especiaci%C3%B3n" title="Experimentos de laboratorio de especiación">Experimentos de laboratorio de especiación</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Historia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Taxonomía (bioloxía)">Taxonomía biolóxica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_orixe_das_especies" title="A orixe das especies">A orixe das especies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_do_xene_ego%C3%ADsta" title="Teoría do xene egoísta">Visión da evolución centrada nos xenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historia_do_pensamento_evolucionista" title="Historia do pensamento evolucionista">Historia do pensamento evolucionista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neodarwinismo" title="Neodarwinismo">Neodarwinismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obxecci%C3%B3ns_%C3%A1_evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Obxeccións á evolución">Obxeccións á evolución</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historia_evolutiva_da_vida" title="Historia evolutiva da vida">Historia evolutiva da vida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Categoría:Evolución">Categoría</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Evolutionary biology">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campos_de_estudo_da_bioloxía" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-ver"><a href="/wiki/Modelo:Campos_da_Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Modelo:Campos da Bioloxía"><abbr title="Ver o modelo">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-conversa"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conversa_modelo:Campos_da_Biolox%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conversa modelo:Campos da Bioloxía (a páxina aínda non existe)"><abbr title="Conversa do modelo">c</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-editar"><a class="external text" href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modelo:Campos_da_Biolox%C3%ADa&action=edit"><abbr title="Editar o modelo">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campos_de_estudo_da_bioloxía" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Campos de estudo da <a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía">bioloxía</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatom%C3%ADa" title="Anatomía">Anatomía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiolox%C3%ADa" title="Astrobioloxía">Astrobioloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biof%C3%ADsica" title="Biofísica">Biofísica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioxeograf%C3%ADa" title="Bioxeografía">Bioxeografía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_celular" title="Bioloxía celular">Bioloxía celular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_do_desenvolvemento" title="Bioloxía do desenvolvemento">Bioloxía do desenvolvemento</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biolox%C3%ADa_humana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioloxía humana (a páxina aínda non existe)">Bioloxía humana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biolox%C3%ADa_mari%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioloxía mariña (a páxina aínda non existe)">Bioloxía mariña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_molecular" title="Bioloxía molecular">Bioloxía molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioqu%C3%ADmica" title="Bioquímica">Bioquímica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotecnolox%C3%ADa" title="Biotecnoloxía">Biotecnoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica">Botánica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolox%C3%ADa" title="Ecoloxía">Ecoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embriolox%C3%ADa" title="Embrioloxía">Embrioloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etolox%C3%ADa" title="Etoloxía">Etoloxía</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolución</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ficolox%C3%ADa" title="Ficoloxía">Ficoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisiolox%C3%ADa" title="Fisioloxía">Fisioloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xen%C3%A9tica" title="Xenética">Xenética</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histolox%C3%ADa" title="Histoloxía">Histoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inmunolox%C3%ADa" title="Inmunoloxía">Inmunoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnolox%C3%ADa" title="Limnoloxía">Limnoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micolox%C3%ADa" title="Micoloxía">Micoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiolox%C3%ADa" title="Microbioloxía">Microbioloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontoxenia" title="Ontoxenia">Ontoxenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleontoloxía">Paleontoloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiolox%C3%ADa" title="Sociobioloxía">Sociobioloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa" title="Taxonomía">Taxonomía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virolox%C3%ADa" title="Viroloxía">Viroloxía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoolox%C3%ADa" title="Zooloxía">Zooloxía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Control_de_autoridades" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Control_de_autoridades" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width: 12%; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Axuda:Control_de_autoridades" title="Axuda:Control de autoridades">Control de autoridades</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Main_Page" title="Wikidata"><img alt="Wd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1063" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q1063">Q1063</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_Central_de_Florencia" title="Biblioteca Nacional Central de Florencia">BNCF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thes.bncf.firenze.sbn.it/termine.php?id=13850">13850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Enciclopedia_Rusa" title="Grande Enciclopedia Rusa">BRE</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://old.bigenc.ru/text/4939235">4939235</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">EBID</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theory">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Enciclop%C3%A8dia_Catalana" title="Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana">GEC</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ec-gec-0182248.xml">0182248</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemeinsame_Normdatei" title="Gemeinsame Normdatei">GND</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4071050-6">4071050-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/*/https://www.jstor.org/topic/evolution">evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85046029">sh85046029</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_da_Dieta" title="Biblioteca Nacional da Dieta">NDL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571035">00571035</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_da_Rep%C3%BAblica_Checa" title="Biblioteca Nacional da República Checa">NKC</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114506">ph114506</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_t%C3%A9cnica_nacional_de_Praga" title="Biblioteca técnica nacional de Praga">PSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psh.techlib.cz/skos/PSH591">591</a></li> <li>TESF: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/evolution">evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Identificadores" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Identificadores" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width: 12%; text-align:center;">Identificadores</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005075">D005075</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/G05.045">G05.045</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Medical_Language_System" title="Unified Medical Language System">UMLS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncim-stage.nci.nih.gov/ncimbrowser/ConceptReport.jsp?dictionary=NCI%20Metathesaurus&code=C0015219">C0015219</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Traído desde «<a dir="ltr" href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolución&oldid=6811137">https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolución&oldid=6811137</a>»</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Categor%C3%ADas" title="Especial:Categorías">Categoría</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Categoría:Evolución">Evolución</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Categorías agochadas: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Wikipedia:P%C3%A1xinas_que_usan_ligaz%C3%B3ns_m%C3%A1xicas_ISBN" title="Categoría:Wikipedia:Páxinas que usan ligazóns máxicas ISBN">Wikipedia:Páxinas que usan ligazóns máxicas ISBN</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Artigos_que_toda_Wikipedia_deber%C3%ADa_ter_(m%C3%A1is_de_30_kB)" title="Categoría:Artigos que toda Wikipedia debería ter (máis de 30 kB)">Artigos que toda Wikipedia debería ter (máis de 30 kB)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Artigos_de_calidade" title="Categoría:Artigos de calidade">Artigos de calidade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Wikiproxecto_1000_artigos_de_calidade_para_alumnado_de_12_a_16_anos/Biolox%C3%ADa_e_Xeolox%C3%ADa" title="Categoría:Wikiproxecto 1000 artigos de calidade para alumnado de 12 a 16 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