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interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%84%EB%B2%95%EC%88%98%EC%A7%91%EC%A6%9D%EA%B1%B0%EB%B0%B0%EC%A0%9C%EB%B2%95%EC%B9%99" title="위법수집증거배제법칙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="위법수집증거배제법칙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aturan_pengecualian" title="Aturan pengecualian – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aturan pengecualian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%95%E6%B3%95%E5%8F%8E%E9%9B%86%E8%A8%BC%E6%8B%A0%E6%8E%92%E9%99%A4%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87" title="違法収集証拠排除法則 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="違法収集証拠排除法則" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regra_de_exclus%C3%A3o" title="Regra de exclusão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Regra de exclusão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Exclusionary rule" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">US legal rule preventing tainted evidence from being used in a court of law</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Criminal trials and convictions</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Rights of the accused</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">Fair trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-trial">Pre-trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_trial" title="Speedy trial">Speedy trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">Jury trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">Presumption of innocence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Exclusionary rule</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">Self-incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">Double jeopardy</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">Bail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal" title="Appeal">Appeal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conviction" title="Conviction">Conviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">Acquittal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Not_proven" title="Not proven">Not proven</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_verdict" class="mw-redirect" title="Directed verdict">Directed verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">Sentencing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_sentencing" title="Mandatory sentencing">Mandatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspended_sentence" title="Suspended sentence">Suspended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custodial_sentence" title="Custodial sentence">Custodial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_detention" title="Periodic detention">Periodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_(sentence)" title="Discharge (sentence)">Discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_guidelines" title="Sentencing guidelines">Guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(law)" title="Guilt (law)">Guilt</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Totality_principle" title="Totality principle">Totality</a><sup><small>5, 6</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dangerous_offender" title="Dangerous offender">Dangerous offender</a><sup><small>4, 5</small></sup></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_warrant" title="Execution warrant">Execution warrant</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">Cruel and unusual punishment</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">Imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">Life imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_imprisonment" title="Indefinite imprisonment">Indefinite imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-strikes_law" title="Three-strikes law">Three-strikes law</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Post-sentencing</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">Parole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probation" title="Probation">Probation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_England_and_Wales" title="Life imprisonment in England and Wales">Tariff</a> <sup><small>6</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_England_and_Wales" title="Life imprisonment in England and Wales">Life licence</a><sup><small>6</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoneration" title="Exoneration">Exoneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitual_offender" title="Habitual offender">Habitual offender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice" title="Miscarriage of justice">Miscarriage of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_offender_registry" title="Sex offender registry">Sex offender registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_violent_predator_laws" title="Sexually violent predator laws">Sexually violent predator laws</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related areas of law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminal_defenses" title="Category:Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>1</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United States">US courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>2</small></sup> Not in <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">English/Welsh courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>3</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Scotland" title="Courts of Scotland">Scottish courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>4</small></sup> English/Welsh courts</span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>5</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of Canada">Canadian courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>6</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United Kingdom">UK courts</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Template:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Template talk:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <b>exclusionary rule</b> is a legal rule, based on <a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, that prevents <a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">evidence</a> collected or analyzed in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right" title="Constitutional right">constitutional rights</a> from being used in a <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">court of law</a>. This may be considered an example of a <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic_rule" title="Prophylactic rule">prophylactic rule</a> formulated by the judiciary in order to protect a constitutional right. The exclusionary rule may also, in some circumstances at least, be considered to follow directly from the constitutional language, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>'s command that no person "shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself" and that no person "shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law."<sup id="cite_ref-Re_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Re-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exclusionary rule is grounded in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, and it is intended to protect citizens from illegal searches and seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exclusionary rule is also designed to provide a <a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">remedy</a> and disincentive for criminal prosecution from <a href="/wiki/Prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecutors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> who illegally gather evidence in violation of the Fifth Amendment and its protection against <a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">self-incrimination</a>. The exclusionary rule also protects against violations of the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a>, which guarantees the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">right to counsel</a>. </p><p>Most states also have their own exclusionary remedies for illegally obtained evidence under their state constitutions or statutes, some of which predate the federal constitutional guarantees against unlawful searches and seizures and compelled self-incrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This rule is occasionally referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Legal_technicality" title="Legal technicality">legal technicality</a> because it allows defendants a defense that does not address whether the crime was actually committed. In this respect, it is similar to the explicit rule in the Fifth Amendment protecting people from <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Double_jeopardy" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">double jeopardy</a>. In strict cases, when an illegal action is used by the police or the prosecution to gain any incriminating result, <i>all</i> evidence whose recovery stemmed from the illegal action—this evidence is known as "<a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_poisonous_tree" title="Fruit of the poisonous tree">fruit of the poisonous tree</a>"—can be thrown out from a jury (or be grounds for a <a href="/wiki/Mistrial_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mistrial (law)">mistrial</a> if too much information has been irrevocably revealed). </p><p>The exclusionary rule applies to all persons within the United States regardless of whether they are citizens, immigrants (legal or illegal), or visitors. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_rule">History of the rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of the rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Up until the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">independence of the United States</a>, the courts of England excluded self-incriminating evidence that was provided as a result of official compulsion, regardless of its reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1769, <a href="/wiki/William_Murray,_1st_Earl_of_Mansfield" title="William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield">Lord Chief Justice Mansfield</a> explained as follows:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[I]n civil causes, the court will force parties to produce evidence which may prove against themselves; or leave the refusal to do it (after proper notice) as a strong presumption, to the jury....But in a criminal or penal cause, the defendant is never forced to produce any evidence; though he should hold it in his hands in court.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Lord Mansfield also explained that "If any evidence or confession has been extorted from her, it will be of no prejudice to her on the trial."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a defendant could sue to suppress and regain possession of at least some types of illegally seized evidence, in a <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> action for <a href="/wiki/Replevin" title="Replevin">replevin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Warden_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in the 1783 case of <i>Ceglinski v. Orr</i>, the English courts declined to suppress evidence obtained by illegal coercion. In the <i>Warickshall</i> case, evidence was gathered as a result of an involuntary confession, and the court held that the evidence (but not the confession itself) could be admitted.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is questionable whether the <i>Warickshall</i> rule became known in the United States before 1789 (when the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Bill of Rights">U.S. Bill of Rights</a> was written), and whether it applied to confessions obtained by both governmental and private parties.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any event, no decision by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> has ever endorsed the <i>Warickshall</i> rule as a constitutional matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally speaking, <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> before 1789 did not provide as strong an exclusionary rule as the one that later developed under the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, regarding unlawful searches and seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-Warden_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fourth Amendment, after all, was partly a reaction against English law including the <a href="/wiki/General_warrant" class="mw-redirect" title="General warrant">general warrant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Writs_of_assistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Writs of assistance">writs of assistance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Warden_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1886 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Boyd_v._United_States" title="Boyd v. United States">Boyd v. United States</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court addressed compulsory production of business papers, and the Court excluded those papers based on a combination of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. <i>Boyd</i> was closely limited to its facts, and several years later the Court stated that the Fourth Amendment does not extend to "excluding testimony" about wrongful searches and seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1897, the U.S. Supreme Court held, in <i>Bram v. United States</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that involuntary confessions are inadmissible as evidence. The Court in <i>Bram</i> did not announce a strong version of the exclusionary rule that would apply uniformly to exclude all evidence gathered in violation of the Bill of Rights, but instead announced a weak version that excluded only self-incriminating testimony that was compelled in violation of the Fifth Amendment. The distinction between testimonial versus other self-incriminating evidence is a matter of continuing debate.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Before a strong version of the exclusionary rule was addressed and adopted by the federal courts, it had already been adopted by at least one state court, namely the <a href="/wiki/Iowa_Supreme_Court" title="Iowa Supreme Court">Iowa Supreme Court</a>, as that court would later describe:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The genesis of Iowa’s exclusionary rule was a civil case, <i>Reifsnyder v. Lee</i>, 44 Iowa 101 (1876).... The first application of the exclusionary rule in a criminal context occurred in the <i>Height</i> case, decided in 1902. <i>Height</i> involved a physical exam of the defendant against his will. 117 Iowa at 652, 91 N.W. at 935. This court held that the examination of the defendant violated the due process clause of the Iowa Constitution, as well as article 1, section 8’s prohibition of unreasonable searches.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1914, the U.S. Supreme Court announced a strong version of the exclusionary rule, in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Weeks_v._United_States" title="Weeks v. United States">Weeks v. United States</a></i>, under the Fourth Amendment prohibiting unreasonable searches and seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision, however, created the rule only on the federal level. The "<i>Weeks</i> rule," which made an exception for cases at the state level, was adopted by numerous states at a time during <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">prohibition</a>. In adopting the rule, actions by states often reflected attitudes towards prohibition, which was enacted by adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a> and was enforced through the <a href="/wiki/Volstead_Act" title="Volstead Act">Volstead Act</a>. Concerns about privacy violations also extended to other instances where criminal sanctions were permitted for "victimless" crime, such as illegal gambling or narcotics violations.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen1961_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen1961-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, the U.S. Supreme Court adopted the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Silverthorne_Lumber_Co._v._United_States" title="Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States">Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court stated that allowing evidence gathered as an indirect result of an unconstitutional search and seizure "reduces the Fourth Amendment to a form of words". </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Wolf_v._Colorado" title="Wolf v. Colorado">Wolf v. Colorado</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_338" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 338">338</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 25 (1949) ruled that states were not required to adopt the exclusionary rule. Despite the ruling, some states adopted the exclusionary rule. In 1955, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">Supreme Court of California</a> ruled in <i>People v. Cahan</i><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the exclusionary rule applied for cases in the state of California. By 1960, 22 states had adopted the rule without substantial qualifications: California, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Washington, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. Michigan also had an exclusionary rule, but with limitations for some narcotics and firearms evidence. In Alabama, Maryland, and South Dakota, the exclusionary rule applied in some situations.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen1961_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen1961-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not until <i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1961 that the exclusionary rule was also held to be binding on the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, which guarantees <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>. Up until <i>Mapp</i>, the exclusionary rule had been rejected by most states.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, <i><a href="/wiki/Utah_v._Strieff" title="Utah v. Strieff">Utah v. Strieff</a></i> dealt with the exclusionary rule and outstanding warrants and was viewed to be generally favorable towards police.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_and_limitations_of_the_rule">Scope and limitations of the rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope and limitations of the rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope">Scope</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exclusionary rule does not apply in a <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil case</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a> proceeding, or in a <a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">parole</a> revocation hearing. </p><p>The law in force at the time of the police action, not the time of the attempt to introduce the evidence, controls whether the action is illegal for exclusionary rule purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evidence_obtained_indirectly_from_illegal_activity">Evidence obtained indirectly from illegal activity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evidence obtained indirectly from illegal activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the “<a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_poisonous_tree" title="Fruit of the poisonous tree">fruit of the poisonous tree</a>” doctrine, evidence obtained as an indirect result of illegal state action is also inadmissible.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if a defendant is arrested illegally, the government may not use fingerprints taken while the defendant was in custody as evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because police would not have obtained the fingerprints without the illegal arrest, the prints are “fruit of the poisonous tree.”<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other examples of evidence inadmissible under this doctrine include: </p> <ul><li>Evidence seized during a search, where the probable cause for the search was illegally obtained evidence<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A confession made by the defendant, prompted by the admission of illegally obtained evidence against him<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Evidence derived from information gained in illegal wiretaps<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>However, the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine does not apply to interrogations made without a <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning"><i>Miranda</i> warning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although a confession obtained in violation of <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda</a></i> is inadmissible, evidence obtained based on information in the confession is admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if police learn the identity of a witness through a confession that violates <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda</a></i>, the government may still use the witness's testimony at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even in a criminal case, the exclusionary rule does not simply bar the introduction of all evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth, Fifth, or Sixth Amendment. In <i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Michigan" title="Hudson v. Michigan">Hudson v. Michigan</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Justice Scalia</a> wrote for the U.S. Supreme Court: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Suppression of evidence, however, has always been our last resort, not our first impulse. The exclusionary rule generates "substantial social costs," <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Leon" title="United States v. Leon">United States v. Leon</a></i>, 468 U.S. 897, 907 (1984), which sometimes include setting the guilty free and the dangerous at large. We have therefore been "cautious against expanding" it, <i><a href="/wiki/Colorado_v._Connelly" title="Colorado v. Connelly">Colorado v. Connelly</a></i>, 479 U.S. 157, 166 (1986), and "have repeatedly emphasized that the rule's 'costly toll' upon truth-seeking and law enforcement objectives presents a high obstacle for those urging [its] application," <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pennsylvania_Bd._of_Probation_and_Parole_v._Scott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pennsylvania Bd. of Probation and Parole v. Scott (page does not exist)">Pennsylvania Bd. of Probation and Parole v. Scott</a></i>, 524 U.S. 357, 364–365 (1998) (citation omitted). We have rejected "indiscriminate application" of the rule, Leon, supra, at 908, and have held it to be applicable only "where its remedial objectives are thought most efficaciously served," <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Calandra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Calandra (page does not exist)">United States v. Calandra</a></i>, 414 U.S. 338, 348 (1974) – that is, "where its deterrence benefits outweigh its 'substantial social costs,'" Scott, supra, at 363, (quoting Leon, supra, at 907). Whether the exclusionary sanction is appropriately imposed in a particular case is an issue separate from the question whether the Fourth Amendment rights of the party seeking to invoke the rule were violated by police conduct.</p></blockquote> <p>Limitations on the exclusionary rule have included the following: </p> <ul><li><b>Private search doctrine:</b> Evidence unlawfully obtained from the defendant by a private person is admissible. The exclusionary rule is designed to protect privacy rights, with the Fourth Amendment applying specifically to government officials.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Standing requirement</b>: Evidence can only be suppressed if the illegal search violated the person's own (the person making the court motion) constitutional rights. The exclusionary rule does not apply to privacy rights of a third party.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is a narrow exception to this standing requirement, the <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_tertii" title="Jus tertii">jus tertii</a></i> standing exception.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Cross-examination</b>: Illegally obtained evidence may be admissible to attack the defendant’s credibility on cross-examination, at least where necessary to prevent gamesmanship.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, where the defendant affirmatively chooses to make a broad statement denying any narcotics activity, he may not use the exclusionary rule as a shield against attacks on his credibility.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the government also may not attempt to “smuggle in” excluded evidence on cross-examination by asking broad questions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Inevitable discovery doctrine</b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Nix_v._Williams" title="Nix v. Williams">Nix v. Williams</a></i> held that if the evidence obtained in the unlawful search would almost definitely have been found eventually even without said search, the evidence may be brought forth in court.</li> <li><b>Good faith exception</b>: If police officers acting in good faith (<i>bona fides</i>) rely upon a defective search warrant, then the evidence acquired may still be used under the <a href="/wiki/Good-faith_exception" title="Good-faith exception">good-faith exception</a>.</li> <li><b>Independent source doctrine</b>: If police obtain evidence illegally, but also obtain the same evidence through an independent, legal means, the evidence is admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Knock-and-announce exception</b>: Evidence that police obtain in violation of the requirement to knock and announce themselves before searching a home is admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Attenuation</b> : If the passage of time or intervening events break the causal relationship between the illegal activity and the evidence, the evidence may still be admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples include: <ul><li>If a defendant was illegally arrested, but returns to the police station voluntarily several days later and makes a statement, the statement may be admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>If a defendant was illegally stopped, but a valid outstanding arrest warrant is later discovered, evidence obtained during the stop may be admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Formerly, the <b>silver platter doctrine</b> allowed state officials that obtained evidence illegally to turn over evidence to federal officials, and have that evidence be admitted into trial. However, the doctrine was ruled unconstitutional in <i><a href="/wiki/Elkins_v._United_States" title="Elkins v. United States">Elkins v. United States</a></i> in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The exclusionary rule is not applicable to non-U.S. nationals residing outside of U.S. borders. In <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alvarez-Machain" title="United States v. Alvarez-Machain">United States v. Alvarez-Machain</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court decided that property owned by aliens in a foreign country is admissible in court. Certain persons in the U.S. receive limited protections, such as prisoners, probationers, parolees, and persons crossing U.S. borders. Corporations, by virtue of being, also have limited rights under the Fourth Amendment (see <a href="/wiki/Corporate_personhood" title="Corporate personhood">corporate personhood</a>). </p><p>In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Jimeno" title="Florida v. Jimeno">Florida v. Jimeno</a></i>, it was found that the evidence found to convict Jimeno, although at first was not admissible, later was found to in fact be admissible since it passed the test of reasonable standards. The defendant consented to a search of his car, and when the officer searched a package and found drugs, it was not said to be in violation because a reasonable person would expect illegal narcotics to be kept in a package or container.<sup id="cite_ref-Oyez_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oyez-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parallel_construction">Parallel construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Parallel construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parallel_construction" title="Parallel construction">Parallel construction</a></div> <p>The Special Operations Division of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">Drug Enforcement Administration</a> advises DEA agents to follow a process of parallel construction when launching criminal investigations of Americans based on <a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">Special Operations Division</a> tips that may be based on <a href="/wiki/NSA_warrantless_surveillance" class="mw-redirect" title="NSA warrantless surveillance">warrantless surveillance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reuters_SOD_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters_SOD-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_defense">Criticism and defense</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism and defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exclusionary rule as it has developed in the United States has been long criticized. Judge <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Cardozo" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Cardozo">Benjamin Cardozo</a>, Chief Judge of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York Court of Appeals</a> between 1927 and 1932, stated that under the rule, "The criminal is to go free because the constable has blundered." Cardozo noted that many states had rejected the rule, but suggested that the adoption by the federal courts would affect the practice in the sovereign states.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polenberg_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polenberg-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Dallin_H._Oaks" title="Dallin H. Oaks">Dallin H. Oaks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Oaks1970_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oaks1970-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Malcolm Wilkey,<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkey1978_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkey1978-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others called for the exclusionary rule to be replaced with a comprehensive judicial remedy against all illegal arrests and searches and seizures (e.g., tort remedy). By the 1980s, the exclusionary rule remained controversial and was strongly opposed by President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, but some opponents began seeking to have the rule modified, rather than abolished altogether. The case, <i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Gates" title="Illinois v. Gates">Illinois v. Gates</a></i>, before the Supreme Court brought the exclusionary rule for reconsideration. The Supreme Court also considered allowing exceptions for errors made by police in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Reagan administration also asked <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to ease the rule.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been proposed that the exclusionary rule be replaced with <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> to victims of <a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">police misconduct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major criticism of the Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule is that it allegedly defies the original intent of the Constitution. Yale Law Professor <a href="/wiki/Akhil_Amar" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhil Amar">Akhil Amar</a>, for example, has argued that "nothing in the text, history, or structure of the Fourth Amendment" supports the rule.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics like Amar, Oaks and Wilkey point to the fact that the text of the Fourth Amendment does not indicate that illegally seized evidence must be excluded. Some legal historians argue that the Constitution's Framers intended only that victims of unreasonable searches or seizures could file civil lawsuits. </p><p>In 2009, Roger Roots presented evidence that the idea of exclusion can be found in the earliest set of law books published in American history.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, Roots elaborated that certain eighteenth-century British law books and pamphlets which discuss the exclusion of illegally seized evidence circulated widely in the American colonies and were owned by numerous prominent Framing-era lawyers and statesmen.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 2014, Professor Richard Re proposed that the Due Process Clause provides an ample basis for the Exclusionary Rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Re_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Re-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_search" title="Consent search">Consent search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_construction" title="Parallel construction">Parallel construction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herring_v._United_States" title="Herring v. United States">Herring v. United States</a></i> (2009 Supreme Court decision about the good-faith exception to the exclusionary rule)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_bowl_(legal_maxim)" title="Sugar bowl (legal maxim)">Sugar bowl (legal maxim)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bunning_v_Cross" title="Bunning v Cross">Bunning v Cross</a></i>, an Australian case for which the ruling may be formulated as an exclusionary rule</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_24_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Section 24 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Section 24(2) of the <i>Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</i></a>, a constitutional provision explicitly excluding unconstitutionally obtained evidence if its admission would bring the administration of justice into disrepute</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Re-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Re_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Re_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Re, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/vol127_re.pdf">"The Due Process Exclusionary Rule: A new textual foundation for a rule in crisis"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195334/http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/vol127_re.pdf">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i>, Vol. 127, p. 1885 (2014). <i>See also</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harvardlawreview.org/2014/05/regarding-res-revisionism/">"Regarding Re’s Revisionism: Notes on The Due Process Exclusionary Rule"</a>, <i>Harvard Law Review</i>, Vol. 127, p. 302 (2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berg, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLeonetti2009" class="citation journal cs1">Leonetti, Carrie (Winter 2009). "Independent and Adequate: Maryland's State Exclusionary Rule for Illegally Obtained Evidence". <i>University of Baltimore Law Review</i>. <b>38</b>: 231.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Baltimore+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Independent+and+Adequate%3A+Maryland%27s+State+Exclusionary+Rule+for+Illegally+Obtained+Evidence&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=231&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Leonetti&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=992830">“Farther and Farther from the Original Fifth Amendment: The Recharacterization of the Right Against Self-Incrimination as a 'Trial Right' in Chavez V. Martinez”</a>, <i>Tennessee Law Review</i>, Volume 70, pages 987–1045 (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Roe v. Harvey</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtUsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2484">98 Eng. Rep. 302</a> (K.B. 1769).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rudd's Case</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYw0AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA123&dq=%22If+any+evidence+or+confession+has+been+extorted%22&ei=re9SSYjOFIjcygTjncH2Cw#PRA1-PA115,M1">168 Eng. Rep. 160</a> (K.B. 1775).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warden-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warden_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warden_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warden_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Warden v. Hayden</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/387/294.html">387 U.S. 294</a> (1967).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>King v. Warickshall</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwg-AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286">168 Eng. Rep. 234, 235</a> (K.B. 1783).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Zoo v. United States</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/116/616.html">116 U.S. 616</a> (1886).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Adams v. New York</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/192/585.html">192 U.S. 585</a> (1904).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bram v. United States</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/168/532.html">168 U.S. 532</a> (1897).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Hubbell</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=530&page=27">530 U.S. 27</a> (2000) (Thomas, J., concurring): "A substantial body of evidence suggests that the Fifth Amendment privilege protects against the compelled production not just of incriminating testimony, but of any incriminating evidence."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=ia&vol=sc%5C20000907%5C99-0412&invol=1"><i>Iowa v. Cline</i></a>, 617 N.W.2d 277, 285-86 (Iowa 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Weeks v. United States</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/232/383.html">232 U.S. 383</a> (1914).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen1961-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen1961_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen1961_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen,_Francis_A.1961" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Francis A. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol52/iss3/2">"Exclusionary Rule in the American Law of Search and Seizure, The Exclusionary Rule Regarding Illegally Seized Evidence"</a>. <i>Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 246–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1141101">10.2307/1141101</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1141101">1141101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Criminal+Law%2C+Criminology%2C+and+Police+Science&rft.atitle=Exclusionary+Rule+in+the+American+Law+of+Search+and+Seizure%2C+The+Exclusionary+Rule+Regarding+Illegally+Seized+Evidence&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=246-254&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1141101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1141101%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Allen%2C+Francis+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu%2Fjclc%2Fvol52%2Fiss3%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Silverthorne Lumber v. United States</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/251/385.html">251 U.S. 385</a> (1920).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1955) 44 Cal.2d 434</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_367" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 367">367</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/643/">643</a> (1961)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassell, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.utah.edu/_personfiles/57/HIGHLIGHTS/C1993utahlr751.pdf">"The Mysterious Creation of Search and Seizure Exclusionary Rules Under State Constitutions: The Utah Example,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225230639/http://www.law.utah.edu/_personfiles/57/HIGHLIGHTS/C1993utahlr751.pdf">Archived</a> February 25, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Utah Law Review</i>, No. 3, page 751, 756 (1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2016/06/opinion-analysis-the-exclusionary-rule-is-weakened-but-it-still-lives/">"Opinion analysis: The exclusionary rule is weakened but it still lives"</a>. June 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opinion+analysis%3A+The+exclusionary+rule+is+weakened+but+it+still+lives&rft.date=2016-06-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2016%2F06%2Fopinion-analysis-the-exclusionary-rule-is-weakened-but-it-still-lives%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21701170-supreme-court-weakens-law-against-unreasonable-searches-amended">"Amended"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Amended&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Funited-states%2F21701170-supreme-court-weakens-law-against-unreasonable-searches-amended&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChemerinsky_&_Levenson2018" class="citation book cs1">Chemerinsky & Levenson (2018). <i>Criminal Procedure Investigation</i> (3rd ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 474.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Procedure+Investigation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=474&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Chemerinsky+%26+Levenson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChemerinsky_&_Levenson2018" class="citation book cs1">Chemerinsky & Levenson (2018). <i>Criminal Procedure Investigation</i>. New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 508.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Procedure+Investigation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=508&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Chemerinsky+%26+Levenson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayes v. Fla., 470 U.S. 811 (1985)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States, 251 U.S. 385 (1920)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison v. United States, 392 U.S. 219 (1968)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nardone v. United States, 308 U.S. 338 (1939)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chemerinsky & Levenson (2018). <i>Criminal Procedure Investigation</i>. New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michigan v. Tucker, 417 U.S. 433 (1974)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Michigan" title="Hudson v. Michigan">Hudson v. Michigan</a></i>, 547 U.S. 586, 126 S.Ct. 2159 (June 15, 2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burdeau_v._McDowell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burdeau v. McDowell (page does not exist)">Burdeau v. McDowell</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=256&invol=465">256 U.S. 465</a> (1921)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Jeffers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Jeffers (page does not exist)">United States v. Jeffers</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jones_v._United_States_(1960)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jones v. United States (1960) (page does not exist)">Jones v. United States</a></i> clarify the standing requirements.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <i>Singleton v. Wulff Et Al.</i>, 96 S. Ct. 2868, 428 U.S. 106 (U.S. 1976); "The Assertion of Constitutional Jus Tertii: A Substantive Approach", Robert Allen Sedler, <i>California Law Review</i>, Vol. 70, No. 6 (Dec., 1982), pp. 1308–1344; "Standing to Assert Constitutional Jus Tertii", 88 <i>Harv.L.Rev</i>. 423, (1974).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walder v. United States, 347 U.S. 62 (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chemerinsky & Levenson (2018). <i>Criminal Procedure Investigation</i> (3rd ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chemerinsky & Levenson (2018). <i>Criminal Procedure Investigation</i> (3rd ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 542.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471 (1963)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Utah v. Strieff, 136 S. 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Liberals! You Call This Progress?</i>. Converse, Texas: <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_Free_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga Free Press">Chattanooga Free Press</a>/Fielding Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0976682605" title="Special:BookSources/0976682605"><bdi>0976682605</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/emlj32&section=39">"Resolving the Dilemma of the Exclusionary Rule: An Application of Restitutive Principles of Justice"</a>. <i>Emory L. J</i>. <b>32</b>: 937.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emory+L.+J.&rft.atitle=Resolving+the+Dilemma+of+the+Exclusionary+Rule%3A+An+Application+of+Restitutive+Principles+of+Justice&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=937&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Barnett%2C+Randy+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonlinebackup.com%2Fhol-cgi-bin%2Fget_pdf.cgi%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Femlj32%26section%3D39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExclusionary+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akhil Reed Amar, The Constitution and Criminal Procedure: First Principles 91 (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Roots, "The Originalist Case for the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule", <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gonzaga_Law_Review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gonzaga Law Review (page does not exist)">Gonzaga Law Review</a></i>, Vol. 45, pp. 1-66 (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Roots, "The Framers' Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule: The Mounting Evidence", <i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada Law Journal">Nevada Law Journal</a></i>, Vol. 15, pp. 42-76 (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=roger_roots">http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=roger_roots</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exclusionary_rule&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Berg, B.L. <i>Criminal Investigation</i> (McGraw-Hill, 2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340124-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340124-9">978-0-07-340124-9</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3243198#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85046250">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562707005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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