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哲学 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

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aria-controls="toc-哲学的概念-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关哲学的概念子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-哲学的概念-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-哲学的定义" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#哲学的定义"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>哲学的定义</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-哲学的定义-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-研究基礎" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#研究基礎"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>研究基礎</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-研究基礎-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-分支" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#分支"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>分支</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-分支-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关分支子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-分支-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-主分支" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#主分支"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>主分支</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-主分支-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-特殊分支" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#特殊分支"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>特殊分支</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-特殊分支-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-歷史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#歷史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>歷史</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-歷史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关歷史子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-歷史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-古典哲学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古典哲学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>古典哲学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古典哲学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-古印度" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古印度"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>古印度</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古印度-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中国" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中国"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>中国</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中国-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-古希腊-罗马" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古希腊-罗马"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>古希腊-罗马</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古希腊-罗马-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-前苏格拉底时期" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#前苏格拉底时期"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3.1</span> <span>前苏格拉底时期</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-前苏格拉底时期-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-古典希腊时期" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古典希腊时期"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3.2</span> <span>古典希腊时期</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古典希腊时期-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-希腊化时代" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#希腊化时代"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3.3</span> <span>希腊化时代</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-希腊化时代-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-古印度_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古印度_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>古印度</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古印度_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-中世纪欧洲" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中世纪欧洲"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>中世纪欧洲</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中世纪欧洲-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-文艺复兴" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#文艺复兴"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>文艺复兴</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-文艺复兴-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-东亚" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#东亚"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>东亚</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-东亚-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-近代哲学(17-19世纪)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#近代哲学(17-19世纪)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>近代哲学(17-19世纪)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-近代哲学(17-19世纪)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-早期近代哲学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期近代哲学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>早期近代哲学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期近代哲学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-德国古典哲学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#德国古典哲学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>德国古典哲学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-德国古典哲学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-康德" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#康德"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2.1</span> <span>康德</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-康德-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-费希特和谢林" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#费希特和谢林"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2.2</span> <span>费希特和谢林</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-费希特和谢林-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-黑格尔" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#黑格尔"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2.3</span> <span>黑格尔</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-黑格尔-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-现代哲学(19-20世纪)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#现代哲学(19-20世纪)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>现代哲学(19-20世纪)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-现代哲学(19-20世纪)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-以黑格尔主义为主的潮流" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#以黑格尔主义为主的潮流"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>以黑格尔主义为主的潮流</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-以黑格尔主义为主的潮流-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-后古典现代哲学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#后古典现代哲学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>后古典现代哲学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-后古典现代哲学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-多种主义的第三潮流" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#多种主义的第三潮流"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>多种主义的第三潮流</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-多种主义的第三潮流-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-重要哲学流派" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#重要哲学流派"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>重要哲学流派</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-重要哲学流派-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关重要哲学流派子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-重要哲学流派-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-德國唯心主義" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#德國唯心主義"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>德國唯心主義</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-德國唯心主義-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-马克思主义" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#马克思主义"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>马克思主义</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-马克思主义-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-實用主義" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#實用主義"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>實用主義</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-實用主義-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-現象學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#現象學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>現象學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-現象學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-存在主义" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#存在主义"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>存在主义</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-存在主义-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-理論" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#理論"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>理論</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-理論-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-分支和交叉学科" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#分支和交叉学科"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>分支和交叉学科</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-分支和交叉学科-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-相关学科" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#相关学科"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>相关学科</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-相关学科-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-相关列表" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#相关列表"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>相关列表</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-相关列表-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-脚注" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#脚注"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>脚注</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-脚注-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-扩展阅读" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#扩展阅读"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>扩展阅读</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-扩展阅读-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关扩展阅读子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-扩展阅读-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-入门" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#入门"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>入门</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-入门-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-专题介绍" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#专题介绍"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>专题介绍</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-专题介绍-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-选集" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#选集"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>选集</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-选集-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考著作" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考著作"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>参考著作</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参考著作-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部連結" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部連結"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>外部連結</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部連結-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">开关目录</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">哲学</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。235种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-235" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">235种语言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – 亚齐语" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="亚齐语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 瑞士德语" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="瑞士德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="ፍልስፍና – 阿姆哈拉语" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፍልስፍና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AA%C3%B0witegung" title="Ūðwitegung – 古英语" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ūðwitegung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="古英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – 昂加语" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="昂加语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="فلسفة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="لفلسفة – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لفلسفة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দৰ্শন – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 阿瓦尔语" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trakopa" title="Trakopa – 科塔瓦文" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Trakopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="科塔瓦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – 阿瓦德语" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="阿瓦德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi" title="Lup&#039;intawi – 艾马拉语" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Lup&#039;intawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="艾马拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – 巴厘语" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="巴厘语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosuop%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Filosuopėjė – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Filosuopėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філасофія – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Філасофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філязофія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Філязофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilsapat" title="Pilsapat – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Pilsapat" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 比斯拉马语" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="比斯拉马语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Pa&#039;O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa&#039;O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দর্শন – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – 藏语" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="藏语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh" title="Prederouriezh – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prederouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Diék-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diék-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ – 切罗基语" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="切罗基语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="فەلسەفە – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 科西嘉语" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie" title="Filozofie – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4" title="Filozofijô – 卡舒比语" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Filozofijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="卡舒比语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth" title="Athroniaeth – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – 中部杜順文" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="中部杜順文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%AE" title="Filosofî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Filosofî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 斐济语" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐济语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – 北弗里西亚语" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 弗留利语" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy" title="Filosofy – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Filosofy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht" title="Fealsúnacht – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fealsúnacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – 赣语" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="赣语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd" title="Feallsanachd – 苏格兰盖尔语" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Feallsanachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="苏格兰盖尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupykuaaty" title="Arandupykuaaty – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arandupykuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe&#039;ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%86%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8D%89" title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉 – 哥特语" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="哥特语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piloosopia" title="Piloosopia – 瓦尤文" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Piloosopia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="瓦尤文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys" title="Fallsoonys – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fallsoonys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – 豪萨语" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Chet-ho̍k – 客家语" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chet-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פילוסופיה – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दर्शनशास्त्र – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दर्शनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Filozófia – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայություն – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 国际文字(E)" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="国际文字(E)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche" title="Ákọ na Uche – 伊博语" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ákọ na Uche" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="伊博语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia" title="Pilosopia – 伊洛卡诺语" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pilosopia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛卡诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – 印古什语" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – 因纽特语" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="因纽特语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi" title="Filasafi – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske" title="pijyske – 逻辑语" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="pijyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="逻辑语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – 卡拉卡尔帕克语" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="卡拉卡尔帕克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelsaft" title="Tafelsaft – 卡拜尔语" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tafelsaft" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡拜尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofii" title="Filozofii – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Filozofii" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyenfilosofi" title="Lyenfilosofi – 卡塔布语" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Lyenfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="卡塔布语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq" title="Inuunerup isumalerineq – 格陵兰语" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Inuunerup isumalerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="格陵兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – 高棉语" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="철학 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofieth" title="Filosofieth – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Filosofieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 拉迪诺语" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="拉迪诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 卢森堡语" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="卢森堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozof%C3%AEa" title="Filozofîa – 利古里亚语" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Filozofîa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="利古里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia" title="Filusufia – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Filusufia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ປັດຊະຍາ – 老挝语" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປັດຊະຍາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="老挝语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – 迈蒂利语" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="迈蒂利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia" title="Filôzôfia – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôzôfia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Философий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Философий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%8E%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ – 曼尼普尔语" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="曼尼普尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत्त्वज्ञान – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – 马耳他语" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="马耳他语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 米兰德斯语" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米兰德斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Эрямо койтнень содамо – 厄尔兹亚语" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эрямо койтнень содамо" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="厄尔兹亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – 马赞德兰语" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="马赞德兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie" title="Filesefie – 低萨克森语" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Filesefie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低萨克森语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – 尼瓦尔语" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 尼亚斯语" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="尼亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8C" title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ – 西非书面文字" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="西非书面文字" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoufii" title="Filosoufii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Filosoufii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama" title="Falaasama – 奥罗莫语" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Falaasama" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奥罗莫语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – 邦阿西南语" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="邦阿西南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 帕皮阿门托语" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿门托语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 庇卡底文" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="庇卡底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 普法爾茨德文" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="普法爾茨德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa" title="Filosofìa – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Filosofìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C" title="فلاسفی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فلاسفی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – 旁狄希臘文" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="旁狄希臘文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy" title="Yachay wayllukuy – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachay wayllukuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 罗曼什语" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="罗曼什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 阿罗马尼亚语" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="阿罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філозофія – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Філозофія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – 卢旺达语" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="卢旺达语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तत्त्वज्ञानम् – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – 萨丁语" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="萨丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa" title="Filusufìa – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Filusufìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88" title="فلسفو – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فلسفو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiija" title="Filosofiija – 北方萨米语" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Filosofiija" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="北方萨米语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4" title="Sêndândarä – 桑戈语" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Sêndândarä" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="桑戈语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sängö</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taflsuft" title="Taflsuft – 希尔哈语" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Taflsuft" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希尔哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="දර්ශනය – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දර්ශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – 色莱基语" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="色莱基语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugondamano" title="Ugondamano – 绍纳语" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ugondamano" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="绍纳语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtimaal" title="Murtimaal – 索马里语" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Murtimaal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="索马里语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki" title="Sabi fu denki – 苏里南汤加语" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Sabi fu denki" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="苏里南汤加语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 南索托语" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="南索托语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மெய்யியல் – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="తత్వం – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="తత్వం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filisofia" title="Filisofia – 德顿语" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Filisofia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="德顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Фалсафа – 塔吉克语" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фалсафа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัชญา – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa" title="Filosofiýa – 土库曼语" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Filosofiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土库曼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – 塔里什文" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="塔里什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi" title="Pilosopi – 托克皮辛语" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Pilosopi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="托克皮辛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-vuhleketi" title="Ntivo-vuhleketi – 聪加语" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-vuhleketi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="聪加语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – 图瓦语" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="图瓦语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95" title="پەلسەپە – 维吾尔语" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پەلسەپە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="维吾尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філософія – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82ozofia" title="Fiłozofia – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fiłozofia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – 维普森语" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="维普森语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Triết học – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop" title="Filosop – 沃拉普克语" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Filosop" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye" title="Filozofeye – 瓦隆语" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Filozofeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu" title="Xeltu – 沃洛夫语" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xeltu" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="沃洛夫语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi" title="Ifilosofi – 科萨语" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ifilosofi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="科萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פילאסאפיע – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פילאסאפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%C3%B2ye" title="Ìmòye – 约鲁巴语" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìmòye" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="约鲁巴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz" title="Cwzyoz – 壮语" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cwzyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="壮语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – 西蘭文" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="西蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ – 标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E5%B9%BE" title="通幾 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="通幾" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiat-ha̍k – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injulalwazi" title="Injulalwazi – 祖鲁语" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Injulalwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="祖鲁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5891#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/45px-System-search.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/68px-System-search.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/90px-System-search.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此條目<b>內容<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%87%86%E7%A1%AE%E6%80%A7%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE" title="Wikipedia:准确性争议">疑欠准确</a>,有待查證。</b><span class="hide-when-compact"></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">2015年12月10日</span>)</i></small><span class="hide-when-compact"><br /><small>請在<a href="/wiki/Talk:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Talk:哲学">讨论页</a>討論問題所在及加以改善,若此條目仍有爭議及<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%87%86%E7%A1%AE%E6%80%A7%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE" title="Wikipedia:准确性争议">准确度</a>欠佳,會被提出<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2%E5%AD%98%E5%BB%A2%E8%A8%8E%E8%AB%96" title="Wikipedia:頁面存廢討論">存廢討論</a>。</small></span><span class="hide-when-compact"></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div id="noteTA-fdf1c6e3" class="noteTA"><div class="noteTA-local"><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:经院哲学;zh-hant:經院哲學;zh-tw:士林哲學;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:托马斯主义;zh-hant:托馬斯主義;zh-tw:多瑪斯主義;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:终极;zh-hant:終極;zh-tw:究極;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:赫拉克利特;zh-hant:赫拉克利特;zh-tw:希拉克利塔斯;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:米利都学派;zh-hant:米利都學派;zh-tw:伊阿尼亞學派;"></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:哲学">系列条目</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">哲学</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><span title="从左到右:柏拉图、康德、尼采、释迦牟尼、孔子、伊本·西那"><img alt="从左到右:柏拉图、康德、尼采、释迦牟尼、孔子、伊本·西那" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Philbar_4.png/220px-Philbar_4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Philbar_4.png/330px-Philbar_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Philbar_4.png/440px-Philbar_4.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="440" usemap="#ImageMap_b14b2c0451708ba6" resource="/wiki/File:Philbar_4.png" /></span><map name="ImageMap_b14b2c0451708ba6"><area href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" shape="rect" coords="0,0,73,73" alt="柏拉图" title="柏拉图" /><area href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" shape="rect" coords="73,0,147,73" alt="康德" title="康德" /><area href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E5%B0%BC%E9%87%87" shape="rect" coords="147,0,220,73" alt="尼采" title="尼采" /><area href="/wiki/%E9%87%8A%E8%BF%A6%E7%89%9F%E5%B0%BC" shape="rect" coords="0,73,73,147" alt="释迦牟尼" title="释迦牟尼" /><area href="/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90" shape="rect" coords="73,73,147,147" alt="孔子" title="孔子" /><area href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%A5%BF%E9%82%A3" shape="rect" coords="147,73,220,147" alt="伊本·西那" title="伊本·西那" /></map><figcaption>从左到右:柏拉图、康德、尼采、释迦牟尼、孔子、伊本·西那</figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption" style="white-space:nowrap;border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">康德</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E5%B0%BC%E9%87%87" title="弗里德里希·尼采">尼采</a></li></ul></div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8A%E8%BF%A6%E7%89%9F%E5%B0%BC" title="释迦牟尼">释迦牟尼</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90" title="孔子">孔子</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%A5%BF%E9%82%A3" title="伊本·西那">伊本·西那</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF" title="Category:哲学分支">分支</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" title="形上學">形而上学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="美学">美学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑学</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%84%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:各时期哲学">时期</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古典哲学">古典</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">古希腊</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">古印度</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%B8%E5%AD%90%E7%99%BE%E5%AE%B6" title="诸子百家">古中国</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀哲學">中世紀</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="经院哲学">经院哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%98%8E%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="宋明理学">宋明理学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="近代哲學">近代</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="德国古典哲学">德国古典哲学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="现代哲学">当代</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E9%99%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="歐陸哲學">欧陆哲学</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%84%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:各國哲學">地域</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="东方哲学">东方</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中国哲学">中国</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">印度</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="日本哲學">日本</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="美國哲學">美</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="英國哲學">英</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="法国哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="French philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="法国哲学(页面不存在)">法</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:French philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">French philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="德国古典哲学">德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="意大利哲学">意</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="俄国哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Russian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BF%84%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="俄国哲学(页面不存在)">俄</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Russian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Russian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9D%B1%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中東哲學">中东</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰哲学">伊斯兰哲学</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F" title="Category:哲学传统">传统</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="宗教信仰哲學">各宗教的哲学信仰</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家">儒家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%AE%B6" title="道家">道家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">印度哲学</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%95%99" title="印度教">印度教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="佛教哲学">佛教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%86%E9%82%A3%E6%95%99" title="耆那教">耆那教</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="猶太教哲學">猶太教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="基督教神學">基督教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰哲学">伊斯兰教</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE" title="Category:哲学文献">文献</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE" title="Category:美学文献">美学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C" title="Category:知识论著作">知识论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE" title="Category:伦理学文献">伦理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AD%A6%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C" title="Category:逻辑学著作">逻辑学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE" title="Category:形而上学文献">形而上学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="Category:政治哲学文献" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Category:Political philosophy literature"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%87%E7%8D%BB" title="Category:政治哲學文獻">政治哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature" class="extiw" title="en:Category:Political philosophy literature"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Category:Political philosophy literature</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="Category:哲学家">哲学家</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="美學家列表">美学家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96%E8%80%85%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="知識論者列表">知识论者</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="伦理学家列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of ethicists"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="伦理学家列表(页面不存在)">伦理学家</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethicists" class="extiw" title="en:List of ethicists"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of ethicists</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="逻辑学家">逻辑学家</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="形而上學學者列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List_of_metaphysicians"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="形而上學學者列表(页面不存在)">形而上学学者</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" class="extiw" title="en:List of metaphysicians"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List_of_metaphysicians</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会和政治哲学家列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%92%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="社会和政治哲学家列表(页面不存在)">社会和政治哲学家</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" class="extiw" title="en:Index of sociopolitical thinkers"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Index of sociopolitical thinkers</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="哲学中的女性" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学中的女性(页面不存在)">女哲学家</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" class="extiw" title="en:Index of sociopolitical thinkers"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Index of sociopolitical thinkers</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%9B%B8%E9%97%9C%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="Category:哲學相關列表">列表</a></span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="哲学索引" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Index of philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学索引(页面不存在)">索引</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Index of philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Index of philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81" class="mw-redirect" title="哲学概要">概要</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%B9%B4%E9%91%91" title="哲學年鑑">年份</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AA%E8%A7%A3%E6%B1%BA%E7%9A%84%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" title="未解決的哲學問題">問題</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="重要哲学出版物列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of important publications in philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8D%E8%A6%81%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%89%A9%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="重要哲学出版物列表(页面不存在)">出版物</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:List of important publications in philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of important publications in philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="哲学列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of philosophies"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学列表(页面不存在)">理论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" class="extiw" title="en:List of philosophies"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of philosophies</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="哲学词汇表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Glossary of philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学词汇表(页面不存在)">词汇表</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Glossary of philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Glossary of philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="哲學家列表">哲學家</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:哲学">哲学主题</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="line-height:1.6"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84244141">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy-sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy-sidebar"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:Philosophy-sidebar" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:Philosophy-sidebar"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg/350px-David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg/525px-David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg/700px-David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3896" data-file-height="2559" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95" class="mw-redirect" title="蘇格拉底">蘇格拉底</a>之死,由<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="雅克·路易·大卫">雅克·路易·大卫</a>所繪(1787年)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>哲學</b>是研究普遍的、基本问题的学科,包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8" title="存在">存在</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识">知识</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%B7%E5%80%BC" title="价值">价值</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%99%BA" title="理智">理智</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="心灵">心灵</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="语言">语言</a>、人生、道德等领域<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。哲学与其他学科不同之處在於哲學有獨特之思考方式,例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E6%80%A7%E6%80%9D%E7%BB%B4" title="批判性思维">批判</a>的方式、通常是系统化的<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" class="mw-disambig" title="方法">方法</a>,并以理性<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%BA%E8%AF%81" class="mw-redirect" title="论证">论证</a>為基礎<sup id="cite_ref-justification_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-justification-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。从历史上看,许多单独的学科,例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物理学">物理学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学">生物学</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="自然科学">自然科学</a>,或<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="法学">法学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="政治学">政治学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="心理学">心理学</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="社会科学">社会科学</a>,都曾被视作哲学的一部分或其分支学科。直至其得到后续发展后,才逐渐被视作现代意义上的独立学科。 </p><p>哲学的词义在现代末期发生了变化,成为了今天常见的、更狭隘的含义。在这个新意义上,该术语主要与<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>和美学等哲学学科相关。除其他主题外,它涵盖了对<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E5%AE%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="现实">现实</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识">知识</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%B7%E5%80%BC%E8%A7%82" class="mw-redirect" title="价值观">价值观</a>的理性研究。然而,它不同于其他理性探究学科,例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="经验科学">经验科学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="数学">数学</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="词源"><span id=".E8.AF.8D.E6.BA.90"></span>词源</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="编辑章节:词源"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>英語詞語<span lang="en">philosophy</span>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>:<span lang="la">philosophia</span>)源于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="古希臘語">古希臘語</a>中的<span lang="grc">φιλοσοφία</span>,意思為「愛智慧」,有时也译为「智慧的朋友」<sup id="cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Webster&#39;s_New_World_Dictionary_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster&#39;s_New_World_Dictionary-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,该词由<span lang="grc">φίλος</span>(philos,爱)的派生词<span lang="grc">φιλεῖν</span>(philein,去爱)和<span lang="grc">σοφία</span>(sophia,智慧)组合而成。一般认为,<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>思想家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" title="毕达哥拉斯">毕达哥拉斯</a>最先在著作中引入“<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="哲学家">哲学家</a>”和“哲学”这两个<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="术语">术语</a><sup id="cite_ref-tufts1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tufts1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>“哲”一词在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="中国">中国</a>古代指那些善于思辨、学问精深者,如“<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E9%97%A8%E5%8D%81%E5%93%B2" title="孔门十哲">孔门十哲</a>”、“古圣先哲”等,“哲”或“哲人”意义类似西方近世所谓“哲学家”、“<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%AE%B6" title="思想家">思想家</a>”。1874年,<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC" title="日本">日本</a>啟蒙家<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%91%A8_(%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E5%AE%B6)" title="西周 (启蒙家)">西周</a>,在《百一新論》中首先用漢语词「哲學」來翻譯「philosophy」一詞<sup id="cite_ref-jap_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jap-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jap2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jap2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。哲学中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>(英语:metaphysics)的中文名稱取自《<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%93%E7%BB%8F#易傳" title="易经">易經</a>·<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E7%BF%BC" title="十翼">繫辭上傳</a>》「形而上者谓之道,形而下者谓之器」<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>一語。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="哲学的概念"><span id=".E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.E7.9A.84.E6.A6.82.E5.BF.B5"></span>哲学的概念</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="编辑章节:哲学的概念"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="哲学的定义"><span id=".E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.E7.9A.84.E5.AE.9A.E4.B9.89"></span>哲学的定义</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="编辑章节:哲学的定义"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>哲学家们对哲学本身的定义存在分歧。没有共同的共识,这归因于哲学本身的性质是一个开放的哲学问题。许多伟大的哲学家,如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔">黑格尔</a>等,对问题“什么是哲学?”提出了答案,但这些答案在今天不太可能被广泛接受。其中一个原因是哲学的本质本身就是一个哲学问题,因此不应期望得到无争议的答案——如果哲学家们停止争论,哲学家的职业就将结束。<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="哲学家">哲学家</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素">罗素</a>对哲学的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E4%B9%89" title="定义">定义</a>是: </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">哲学,就我对这个词的理解来说,乃是某种介乎神学与科学之间的东西。它和神学一样,包含着人类对于那些迄今仍为科学知识所不能肯定之事物的思考;但它又像科学一样,是诉之于人类的理性而不是诉之于权威的,不论是传统的权威还是启示的权威。一切确切的知识(罗素认为)都属于科学;一切涉及超乎确切知识之外的教条都属于神学。但介乎神学与科学之间还有一片受到双方攻击的无人之域,這片无人之域就是哲学。<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E9%81%A9" title="胡適">胡適</a>在《中国哲学史大纲》中称「凡研究人生切要的问题,从根本上着想,要寻一个根本的解决:这种学问叫做哲学」<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>雖然哲學源自<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="西方世界">西方</a>的傳統,但許多文明在歷史上都存在著一些相似的論題<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="東亞">東亞</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="南亞">南亞</a>的哲學被稱之為<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="東方哲學">東方哲學</a>,而<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%9D%9E" title="北非">北非</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9D%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="中東">中東</a>則因為其和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="歐洲">歐洲</a>密切的互動,因此常被視為是<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="西方哲學">西方哲學</a>的一部份。 </p><p>對哲學的主題亦存在許多看法。一些人認為哲學是對問題本身過程的觀察。<sup id="cite_ref-Blackburn_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="後現代主義">後現代主義</a>把哲學定義為創造概念的學術。</li> <li>哲学所涉及的研究范畴是其它学科的总和,它给出对世界<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B4%A8" title="本质">本质</a>的解释,在很大程度上影响着接受者的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%A7%82" title="世界观">世界观</a>。</li> <li>哲学是研究范畴及其相互关系的一门<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E9%97%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="学问">学问</a>。范畴涉及到一门学科的最基本的定義、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="概念">概念</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%85%E5%AE%B9" class="mw-disambig" title="内容">内容</a>,哲学具有一般<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="方法论">方法论</a>的功能。</li> <li>哲學和其他陈述問題方法的差異是有<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4" title="批判">批判</a>性的、有代入問題的方法以及以<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>為答案的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E8%AB%96" title="辯論">辯論</a>。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="研究基礎"><span id=".E7.A0.94.E7.A9.B6.E5.9F.BA.E7.A4.8E"></span>研究基礎</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="编辑章节:研究基礎"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>古希臘哲學家經常提出問題,他們所提出的問題大概可以歸類為三類,這三類問題分別形成了哲學的基礎學科——分别是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-amencps-1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>现代哲学上出現"不要求精确理由"之哲学理論,例如"<a href="/wiki/%E8%99%9B%E5%81%87" class="mw-redirect" title="虛假">虛假</a>"(认定本质不可知),这种现象将<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%AF%E7%9F%A5%E8%AE%BA" title="不可知论">不可知论</a>(世界上终究有人不能理解的存在)的重要程度提高了。 </p><p>自<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>时代以来,在古典或者现代哲学当中,<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑</a>通常都扮演着重要的角色。特别是其提出的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E6%AE%B5%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="三段论">三段论</a>,对西方哲学发展有着深远影响。<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="分支"><span id=".E5.88.86.E6.94.AF"></span>分支</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="编辑章节:分支"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="主分支"><span id=".E4.B8.BB.E5.88.86.E6.94.AF"></span>主分支</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="编辑章节:主分支"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>哲學可以分为很多不同的分支,主要包括形而上學、知識論、倫理學、邏輯學和美學<sup id="cite_ref-nyu_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyu-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aesthetics-_definition_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aesthetics-_definition-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="邏輯學">邏輯學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上學">形而上學</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="宇宙論">宇宙論</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E9%AB%94%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="本體論">本體論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="認識論">認識論</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="知識論">知識論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="倫理學">倫理學</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E5%83%B9%E5%80%BC%E8%AB%96" title="價值論">價值論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="美學">美學</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="特殊分支"><span id=".E7.89.B9.E6.AE.8A.E5.88.86.E6.94.AF"></span>特殊分支</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="编辑章节:特殊分支"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>这些分支是应用在其他学科,或者交叉学科的哲学研究。 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="元哲学">後設哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="宗教哲学">宗教哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E9%9D%88%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="心靈哲學">心靈哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="科学哲学">科学哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="法律哲學">法律哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="道德哲學">道德哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="人生哲学">人生哲學</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="歷史"><span id=".E6.AD.B7.E5.8F.B2"></span>歷史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="编辑章节:歷史"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85100532">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="哲學史">哲學史</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方哲学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="东方哲学">东方哲学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="西方哲学史">西方哲学史</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="东方哲学史">东方哲学史</a></div> <p>很多人类社群思考过哲学问题并且互相学习建立了各种哲学流派。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="东方哲学">东方哲学</a>是通过每个地区的历史时期来组织的。西方哲学一般可以分为三个或更多时期,最重要的是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古典哲学">古典哲学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀哲學">中世纪哲学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="近代哲學">近代哲学</a><sup id="cite_ref-renaissance_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renaissance-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="古典哲学"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.85.B8.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6"></span>古典哲学</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="编辑章节:古典哲学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古典哲学">古典哲学</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="古印度"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.8D.B0.E5.BA.A6"></span>古印度</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="编辑章节:古印度"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="印度哲學">印度哲學</a>的歷史源遠流長,早在<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="吠陀时代">吠陀時代</a>已經開始,至公元前6世紀為全盛時期。當時<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="印度历史">古印度</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3" title="思想">思想</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E8%8A%B1%E9%BD%8A%E6%94%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="百花齊放">百花齊放</a>,其中最著名的包括<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教">佛教</a>創始人<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8B%E8%BF%A6%E7%89%9F%E5%B0%BC%E4%BD%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="釋迦牟尼佛">釋迦牟尼佛</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%86%E9%82%A3%E6%95%99" title="耆那教">耆那教</a>創始人<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A9%E9%A7%84%E6%91%A9%E9%82%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="笩駄摩那">笩駄摩那</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%80%86%E5%A4%9A%C2%B7%E7%BF%85%E8%88%8D%E9%92%A6%E5%A9%86%E7%BD%97" title="阿耆多·翅舍钦婆罗">阿耆多·翅舍欽婆羅</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%8B%98%E9%99%80%C2%B7%E8%BF%A6%E6%97%83%E5%BB%B6" title="波拘陀·迦旃延">波拘陀·迦旃延</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E9%82%A3%C2%B7%E8%BF%A6%E8%91%89" title="富蘭那·迦葉">富蘭那·迦葉</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E8%AE%BA%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="数论派">數論派</a>等。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="中国"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E5.9B.BD"></span>中国</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="编辑章节:中国"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中国哲学">中国哲学</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%90%88%E6%B3%95%E6%80%A7" title="中国哲学的合法性">中国哲学的合法性</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="中國哲學">中國哲學</a>的主要部分起源<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E5%91%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="東周">東周</a>時期,当时以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%B8%E5%AD%90%E7%99%BE%E5%AE%B6" title="诸子百家">诸子百家</a>广为人知<sup id="cite_ref-pe_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,以<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90" title="孔子">孔子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家">儒家</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%81%E5%AD%90" title="老子">老子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%AE%B6" title="道家">道家</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E5%AD%90" title="墨子">墨子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E5%AE%B6" title="墨家">墨家</a>及晚期的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家">法家</a>為代表,还有一些流派例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E5%AE%B6" title="农家">农家</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%B4%E9%98%B3%E5%AE%B6" title="阴阳家">阴阳家</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E5%AE%B6" title="名家">名家</a>在之后则名声不显。在<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%A6%E6%9C%9D" title="秦朝">秦朝</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%9A%E4%B9%A6%E5%9D%91%E5%84%92" title="焚书坑儒">焚书坑儒</a>后除了法家、儒家、道家外其他流派都不再活跃。在當代,中國哲學仍然在亞洲文化扮演一定作用,但是學理上仍在爭辯中國哲學是否應歸為哲學。 </p><p>如<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9F%E5%AE%97%E4%B8%89" title="牟宗三">牟宗三</a>曾對哲學下定義:「凡是對人性的活動所及,以理智及觀念加以反省說明的,便是哲學。」牟宗三認為,中國有數千年文化史,確有哲學。只是中國哲學重視主體性,西方重視客體性。因此如果以西方的<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="邏輯">邏輯</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="知識論">知識論</a>等對哲學下定義,中國沒有這些。但如果以主體性方向對哲學下定義,中國文化就擁有哲學。反之西方對人生的哲學多表現在<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="文學">文學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93" class="mw-redirect" title="藝術">藝術</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%82" class="mw-redirect" title="音樂">音樂</a>等等。就以西方哲學史來說,沒有一章特別談及<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E7%A9%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="耶穌">耶穌</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="古希腊-罗马"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.B8.8C.E8.85.8A-.E7.BD.97.E9.A9.AC"></span>古希腊-罗马</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="编辑章节:古希腊-罗马"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%8C%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="希臘化哲學">希腊化哲学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">古希腊哲学</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/200px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/300px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/400px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>(左)和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>(右):裁剪自<i><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%B8%E5%AD%B8%E9%99%A2_(%E7%95%AB%E4%BD%9C)" title="雅典學院 (畫作)">雅典學院</a></i>,<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%96%90%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%9C%A3%E9%BD%90%E5%A5%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="拉斐尔·圣齐奥">拉斐尔·圣齐奥</a>作,1509</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">古希腊-</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%8C%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="希臘化哲學">罗马</a>哲学是西方哲学的一个时期,时间为公元前6世纪[约585]到公元6世纪。它一般被分为三个时期:<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%8B%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="前苏格拉底哲学">前苏格拉底时期</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="古典希臘時期">古典希腊时期</a>、和后亚里士多德(或<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%8C%96%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="希腊化时代">希腊化</a>)时期:有时候会把<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新柏拉图主义">新柏拉图主义</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>哲学家们的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%99%9A%E6%9C%9F" title="古典时代晚期">古典时代晚期</a>加入作为第四个时期。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="前苏格拉底时期"><span id=".E5.89.8D.E8.8B.8F.E6.A0.BC.E6.8B.89.E5.BA.95.E6.97.B6.E6.9C.9F"></span>前苏格拉底时期</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="编辑章节:前苏格拉底时期"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%8B%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="前苏格拉底哲学">前苏格拉底哲学</a></div> <p>在公元前6世纪的希腊,<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方哲学</a>就从古代<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E8%AF%9D" title="神话">神话</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%97%E6%AD%8C" title="诗歌">诗歌</a>中脱颖而出,逐步开始对<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>的组成以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E4%BD%93%E8%AE%BA_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="本体论 (哲学)">本源</a>的思考而开始了独立发展。前苏格拉底时期的<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="自然主義">自然派哲學家</a>们多关注<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%95%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="自然界">自然界</a>,被認為是西方最早的<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="哲學家">哲學家</a><sup id="cite_ref-ebao_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebao-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,不管他們認識以及解释世界的方式是否正確,但是他們的想法之所以有別於<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%B7%E4%BF%A1" title="迷信">迷信</a>的原因在於,這些哲學家是以理性輔佐證據的方式歸納出<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%95%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="自然界">自然界</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="现象">现象</a>。诸如: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%88%A9%E9%83%BD%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="米利都学派">米利都学派</a>,其代表有最早的哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%8B%92%E6%96%AF" title="泰勒斯">泰勒斯</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%82%A3%E5%85%8B%E8%A5%BF%E6%9B%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="阿那克西曼德">阿那克西曼德</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%82%A3%E5%85%8B%E8%A5%BF%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="阿那克西米尼">阿那克西米尼</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%AF%BA%E8%8A%AC%E5%B0%BC" title="色诺芬尼">色诺芬尼</a>。皆是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E5%85%83%E8%AE%BA" title="一元论">一元论</a>者,即世界万物皆来自一个本源。如泰勒斯的“水”,阿那克西曼德的“无限物”,阿那克西米尼的“气”,而<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%AF%BA%E8%8A%AC%E5%B0%BC" title="色诺芬尼">色诺芬尼</a>发展了阿那克西米尼学说,提出神主宰一切,并主张一神论。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="伊利亚学派">伊利亚学派</a>,其代表有<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%97%A8%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="巴门尼德">巴门尼德</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%8A%9D%E8%AF%BA" title="埃利亚的芝诺">芝诺</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%97%A8%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="巴门尼德">巴门尼德</a>提出一个重要的理论:无不能生有,有不能变无,则一切运动变化都是不存在。爱利亚的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%8A%9D%E8%AF%BA" title="埃利亚的芝诺">芝诺</a>进一步发展了老师的理论,即世界只有“存在”,而没有“不存在”,只有“一”,而没有“多”,因此,世界是不变的。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="赫拉克利特">赫拉克利特</a>,他强调“变”。认为变才是真实的,而永久的不变是不存在的(万物流变)。他便向外界宣传自己的理论,世界是一团熊熊燃烧的<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E7%84%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="火焰">火焰</a>,火就是一切事物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B4%A8" title="本质">本质</a>。他更加暗示世界中的变存在着秩序和<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%85%83%E8%AB%96" title="多元論">多元论</a>者,如<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E5%9F%B9%E5%A4%9A%E5%85%8B%E5%8B%92" title="恩培多克勒">恩培多克勒</a>提出的“<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="四元素">四元素</a>”;<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%82%A3%E5%85%8B%E8%90%A8%E6%88%88%E6%8B%89" class="mw-redirect" title="阿那克萨戈拉">阿那克萨戈拉</a>的“种子”,即粒子论;<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>又指出了“原子”,即<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="原子論">原子论</a>等。皆认为变是若干物体的不同组合。</li></ul> <p>公元前5世纪中期,<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E7%BD%97%E6%B3%B0%E6%88%88%E6%8B%89" title="普罗泰戈拉">普罗泰戈拉</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%B0%94%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="高尔吉亚">高尔吉亚</a>等所形成的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E5%A3%AB%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="辯士學派">辯士學派</a>将研究的重点由自然转移到<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="人类">人类</a>本身。认为“人才是万物之本”。他们都不相信有真正的存在和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理">真理</a>。普罗泰戈拉认为是非善恶都是相对于人的<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E8%A6%BA" title="感覺">感觉</a>而言,而高尔吉亚却认为所有的都是同样的假,这是<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E8%AE%BA" title="怀疑论">怀疑论</a>的雏形。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-brencps-13_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-13_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-13-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>公元前6世纪末,以<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" title="毕达哥拉斯">毕达哥拉斯</a>为主的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="毕达哥拉斯学派">毕达哥拉斯学派</a>所主张的哲学与前述的观点既相近又有不同。罗马古代的历史上记载毕达哥拉斯第一个称自己为哲学家,或者说是爱智慧<sup id="cite_ref-tufts2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tufts2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。他认为“一切都是<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" class="mw-redirect" title="数字">数字</a>”。其意思就是说一切事物的实质和结构都是它们所包含的数字关系所决定的。他称<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%B3%E5%9D%87" class="mw-redirect" title="平均">平均</a>、秩序和调和是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>的三大基调,并以<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%B9%90" title="音乐">音乐</a>的调和说明宇宙的调和。他所在的学派将宇宙总结为十种性质相异的组合:有限与无限、奇与偶、少与多、左与右、男与女、静与动、直与曲、光明与黑暗、善与恶、方与圆。至此之后,<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="数学">数学</a>的本质及其地位,一直都是哲学的主要问题之一,数学不受观察和<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C" title="实验">实验</a>造成的不确定性影响,而且是通过纯粹的思想加以理解的。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-12_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-20_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-20-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-20_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-20-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-20_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-20-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tufts2_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tufts2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>其中关于变与不变的关系的争论,真实世界与直觉世界的差别,<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理">真理</a>与意见的矛盾,导致产生了<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a>的问题。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="古典希腊时期"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.85.B8.E5.B8.8C.E8.85.8A.E6.97.B6.E6.9C.9F"></span>古典希腊时期</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="编辑章节:古典希腊时期"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在古典希腊时期西方哲学方法的关键特质被建立:依靠诉诸理性和论证,通过一种批判性的方法来接受或建立观点。这包括<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95" title="苏格拉底">苏格拉底</a>被称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E5%8F%8D%E8%A9%B0%E6%B3%95" title="蘇格拉底反詰法">蘇格拉底反詰法</a>或“反驳论证”方法的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E6%B3%95" title="辩证法">辩证法</a>,他主要用其来检验例如善良和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%B9%B3%E6%AD%A3%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="公平正義">公平正義</a>的关键道德概念。这种方法将一个问题分解成一系列的疑问,在对疑问的回答中逐步提取想要找到的答案,其极大影响可以从现在使用的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法">科学方法</a>中看出,在科学方法中<a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E8%AF%B4" title="假说">假说</a>是第一个阶段。 </p><p>苏格拉底没有直接教过人,但之后的柏拉图深受其影响。而其整个哲学思想来源于两大理论:其一,永远不要做坏事;其二,一个内心真正<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%AF%E6%B4%81" title="纯洁">纯潔</a>且<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="正义">正义</a>的人绝不会做相反之事。他认为<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理">真理</a>有其客观性,试图推翻智者们以个人主观感觉为真理的思想。然后提出<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7" title="德">德</a>的概念,以作为人生行事的方向。对于<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7" title="道德">道德</a>是什么的问题,苏格拉底的回复为“<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识">知识</a>即道德。”对于知识是何物的问题,他回答说知识是透过理性而得的概念。苏格拉底开创了<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>,如此奠定了他的哲学地位<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-21_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-21-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-21_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-21-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-21_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-21-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-21_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-21-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>古典希臘時期的哲学家中<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>对后世的影响力最大<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,特别是柏拉图被认为是西方哲学的创始人。哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%88%BE%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%AB%BE%E6%80%9D%C2%B7%E6%87%B7%E7%89%B9%E9%BB%91%E5%BE%B7" title="阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德">阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德</a>评价柏拉图:“欧洲哲学传统最被普遍公认的特点,就是它包含了一系列对柏拉图的注脚。我的意思不是怀疑学者们系统体系的思想是提取自柏拉图的著作。我暗示的是那些他们散落的一般思想的财富。”<sup id="cite_ref-process_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-process-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>換言之即使數千年後,人們依舊在試著回答他所提出的問題,這也代表著人們依然為這些問題或是這些問題所延伸的更多問題而感到困惑。 </p><p>毕达哥拉斯的思想对柏拉图产生了显著的影响,并通过柏拉图影响了整个西方哲学。柏拉图和亚里士多德作为最早的古典希腊哲学家批判地引用了其它的一些“智者”,当时这些人在希腊被称为“<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E5%A3%AB%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="辯士學派">辩士</a>”并在毕达哥拉斯之前相当普遍。从他们的批判看来,在他们的古典时代一个在更高尚地、纯粹地“爱智慧”(真的哲学家)与那些更早更普遍的旅行教师——经常也通过自己的技艺来赚钱——之间的分水岭之后被建立。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="希腊化时代"><span id=".E5.B8.8C.E8.85.8A.E5.8C.96.E6.97.B6.E4.BB.A3"></span>希腊化时代</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="编辑章节:希腊化时代"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>亚里士多德死后,整个哲学界陷入了独立时期,称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%8C%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="希臘化哲學">希腊化哲学</a>时期。因为整个社会和政治陷入混乱。这段时期产生了<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E8%91%9B%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="斯多葛学派">斯多葛学派</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%A3%81%E9%B8%A0%E9%B2%81%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="伊壁鸠鲁学派">伊壁鸠鲁学派</a>,以及<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E6%B5%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="皮浪主义">怀疑主义派</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新柏拉图主义">新柏拉图派</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%95%A2%E9%81%94%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="新畢達哥拉斯主義">新毕达哥拉斯主义</a>。这些学派的共同特点是伦理化。斯多葛学派主要是顺应自然和自制。伊壁鸠鲁学派则是把快乐作为生活的本质和善的标准。而新柏拉图派和新毕达哥拉斯派都是带有<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" title="宗教">宗教</a>主义的哲学,并逐渐产生融化<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>和希腊哲学于一体的理论,即为后来的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="基督教哲学">基督教哲学</a>。 </p><p>直到公元529年,罗马皇帝<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%A3%AB%E4%B8%81%E5%B0%BC%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%96" title="查士丁尼一世">查士丁尼一世</a>尼命令关闭雅典的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2" title="柏拉图学院">柏拉图学院</a><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-23_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-23-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-23_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-23-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-23_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-23-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-23_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-23-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。<a href="/wiki/J.B.%E4%BC%AF%E9%87%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="J.B.伯里">J.B.伯里</a>称一些余下的学院成员逃入了<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E7%8F%8A%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="萨珊王朝">萨珊王朝</a>首都<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%A5%BF%E5%B0%81" title="泰西封">泰西封</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="古印度_2"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.8D.B0.E5.BA.A6_2"></span>古印度</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="编辑章节:古印度"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="印度哲學">印度哲學</a>是指起源於<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%AC%A1%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8" title="印度次大陸">印度次大陸</a>的哲學思想,包括<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="印度教哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Hindu philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="印度教哲學(页面不存在)">印度教哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Hindu philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Hindu philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="佛教哲學">佛教哲學</a>、<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="耆那教哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Jainism philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%86%E9%82%A3%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="耆那教哲學(页面不存在)">耆那教哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Jainism philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Jainism philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>等,這些印度哲學具有一些共同且複雜的起源,都有有關<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="佛法">佛法</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%AD" title="業">業</a>的主題,而且都希望達到個人的解放。這些哲學約在西元前一世紀到西元幾世紀的時間成形。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E4.B8.96.E7.BA.AA.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.EF.BC.885-16.E4.B8.96.E7.BA.AA.EF.BC.89"></span>中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="编辑章节:中世纪哲学(5-16世纪)"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="中世纪欧洲"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E4.B8.96.E7.BA.AA.E6.AC.A7.E6.B4.B2"></span>中世纪欧洲</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="编辑章节:中世纪欧洲"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀哲學">中世纪哲学</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/150px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/225px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/300px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>圣<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A5%8E%E9%82%A3" title="托马斯·阿奎那">托马斯·阿奎那</a></figcaption></figure> <p>中世纪哲学指的是<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%AC%A7" title="西欧">西欧</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%9C" title="中东">中东</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA" title="中世纪">中世纪</a>的哲学体系,其时间范围没有定论,大致上是从基督化的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="罗马帝国">罗马帝国</a>时期至<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4" title="文艺复兴">文艺复兴</a>时期<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。中世纪哲学被部分定义为对古典<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="希臘哲學">希腊</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%8C%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="希臘化哲學">希腊化哲学</a>的再发现和进一步发展,另一部分是需要解决神学问题并把<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95%E8%AB%B8%E6%95%99" title="亞伯拉罕諸教">亞伯拉罕諸教</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99" title="伊斯兰教">伊斯兰教</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>)的教条同<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E4%BF%97%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="世俗主义">世俗</a>知识一同整合并推广。 </p><p>文艺复兴人文学者们排斥中世纪时期,把它当作在希腊罗马的古典时代与古典文化“复兴”之间的一个“过渡”的野蛮时期。然而在中世纪这将近一千年中哲学在欧洲仍取得了长足地发展。<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="荷黑·格拉西亚" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Jorge Gracia"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8D%B7%E9%BB%91%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="荷黑·格拉西亚(页面不存在)">荷黑·格拉西亚</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Gracia" class="extiw" title="en:Jorge Gracia"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Jorge Gracia</span></a></span>)</span></span>认为"在强度、复杂度还有成就上,可以确信地说哲学在十三世纪的兴盛能与公元前四世纪古希腊哲学的黄金时期媲美。"<sup id="cite_ref-gracia_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gracia-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>这个时代讨论的问题有<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0" title="信仰">信仰</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%99%BA" title="理智">理智</a>的关系,<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E_(%E4%B8%80%E7%A5%9E%E6%95%99)" title="神 (一神教)">神</a>的存在与统一,<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="神学">神学</a>话题和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>,关于<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识">知识</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>和个人的问题。 </p><p>中世纪的哲学家包括基督教学者<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%A2%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" title="希波的奥古斯丁">希波的奥古斯丁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%88%B1%E4%BF%AE%E6%96%AF" title="波爱修斯">波爱修斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E7%91%9F%E5%80%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="安瑟倫">安瑟倫</a>、<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="普瓦捷的吉尔波特" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Gilbert of Poitiers"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E7%93%A6%E6%8D%B7%E7%9A%84%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%A2%E7%89%B9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="普瓦捷的吉尔波特(页面不存在)">普瓦捷的吉尔波特</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_of_Poitiers" class="extiw" title="en:Gilbert of Poitiers"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Gilbert of Poitiers</span></a></span>)</span></span>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94" title="皮埃尔·阿伯拉尔">皮埃尔·阿伯拉尔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" title="罗吉尔·培根">罗吉尔·培根</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E6%96%87%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="圣文德">圣文德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A5%8E%E9%82%A3" title="托马斯·阿奎那">托马斯·阿奎那</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%93%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8F%B8%E5%90%84%E8%84%B1" title="邓斯·司各脱">邓斯·司各脱</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8D%A1%E5%A7%86%E7%9A%84%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89" title="奥卡姆的威廉">奥卡姆的威廉</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%87%8C%E4%B8%B9" title="让·布里丹">让·布里丹</a>等;犹太哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%88%E8%92%99%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="迈蒙尼德">迈蒙尼德</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E6%9D%BE%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="吉尔松尼德">吉尔松尼德</a>;还有<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97" title="穆斯林">穆斯林</a>哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%AF%E8%BF%AA" title="肯迪">肯迪</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94" title="法拉比">法拉比</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%A5%BF%E9%82%A3" title="伊本·西那">伊本·西那</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%96%A9%E9%87%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="安薩里">安薩里</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E5%93%B2" title="伊本·巴哲">伊本·巴哲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%9B%BE%E8%B4%B9%E5%8B%92" title="伊本·图费勒">伊本·图费勒</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%8B%92%E6%95%A6" title="伊本·赫勒敦">伊本·赫勒敦</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本·魯世德">伊本·魯世德</a>等。中世纪的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="经院哲学">经院哲学</a>传统一直到17世纪仍在活跃,例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%C2%B7%E8%8B%8F%E4%BA%9A%E9%9B%B7%E6%96%AF" title="弗朗西斯科·苏亚雷斯">弗朗西斯科·苏亚雷斯</a>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="约翰·波音索特" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="John of St. Thomas"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A2%E7%89%B9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="约翰·波音索特(页面不存在)">约翰·波音索特</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" class="extiw" title="en:John of St. Thomas"><span lang="en" dir="auto">John of St. Thomas</span></a></span>)</span></span>等人物。其中<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="托马斯主义">托马斯主义</a>之父阿奎那极大地影响了整个天主教欧洲,他特别强调理性和论证,是最先开始使用亚里士多德形而上学和认识论的著作的新译本的学者之一。他的工作明显远离了统治大部分早期经院哲学的<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新柏拉图主义">新柏拉图主义</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%A2%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" title="希波的奥古斯丁">奥古斯丁</a>的思想。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="文艺复兴"><span id=".E6.96.87.E8.89.BA.E5.A4.8D.E5.85.B4"></span>文艺复兴</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="编辑章节:文艺复兴"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="文艺复兴时期哲学">文艺复兴时期哲学</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/100px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/150px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/200px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A6%E7%88%BE%E9%81%94%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%AD%AF%E8%AB%BE" title="焦爾達諾·布魯諾">焦爾達諾·布魯諾</a></figcaption></figure> <p>从<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4" title="文艺复兴">文艺复兴</a>开始,人们的<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3" title="思想">思想</a>开始从<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E5%87%80" title="清净">清净</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%83%A7%E9%99%A2" title="僧院">僧院</a>走出,来到喧嚣的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="世界">世界</a>。从而发展自然,也发展人类自身。从而形成<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="人文主义">人文主义</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="自然哲学">自然哲学</a>两股既有联系又有区别的<a href="/wiki/%E6%83%B3%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="想法">想法</a>。 </p><p>"文艺复兴"是对<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA" title="中世纪">中世纪</a>到<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-disambig" title="近代">近代</a>之间过渡时期的通称,<sup id="cite_ref-contemporaries_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporaries-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>那时对古典文献的重新学习帮助把哲学界的兴趣从对<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="逻辑学">逻辑学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="神学">神学</a>领域的钻研转移到包括<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7" title="道德">道德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%A7%98%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="神秘主义">神秘主义</a>的更加广泛的研究。<sup id="cite_ref-philosophies_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophies-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-renaissance3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renaissance3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>对经典和人文艺术例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="历史学">历史学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="文学">文学</a>的研究在基督教世界学术界中享有前所未有的兴趣,这个趋势被称为<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="人文主义">人文主义</a><sup id="cite_ref-transmission_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transmission-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-naturalistic_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naturalistic-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,它受到<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="柏拉图主义">柏拉图主义</a>、希腊<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E6%B5%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="皮浪主义">怀疑主义</a>和罗马<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E4%BA%9E%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="斯多亞學派">斯多葛主义</a>的影响。人文主义者的哲学兴趣跟随<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E5%88%87%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%C2%B7%E5%BD%BC%E7%89%B9%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" title="弗朗切斯科·彼特拉克">彼特拉克</a>转移到造物主与其美德上,替代了中世纪时对形而上学和逻辑学的兴趣<sup id="cite_ref-intellectual_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intellectual-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>那时对古典哲学的研究出现了两种新方式。一方面对亚里士多德的研究因为<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="阿威罗伊主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Averroism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%A8%81%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%8A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="阿威罗伊主义(页面不存在)">阿威罗伊主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" class="extiw" title="en:Averroism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Averroism</span></a></span>)</span></span>的影响而产生了变化。阿威罗伊亚里士多德主义者和更正统的天主教亚里士多德主义者譬如<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E7%88%BE%E4%BC%AF%E5%9C%96%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%BA%A5%E6%A0%BC%E5%8A%AA%E6%96%AF" title="艾爾伯圖斯·麥格努斯">艾爾伯圖斯·麥格努斯</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A5%8E%E9%82%A3" title="托马斯·阿奎那">托马斯·阿奎那</a>之间的分歧最终在文艺复兴发展出一种“人文亚里斯多德哲学”,譬如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E5%A4%9A%E7%A5%BF%C2%B7%E8%93%AC%E6%B3%A2%E7%BA%B3%E9%BD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="伯多祿·蓬波纳齐">伯多祿·蓬波纳齐</a>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="贾科莫·萨巴瑞拉" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Giacomo Zabarella"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B4%BE%E7%A7%91%E8%8E%AB%C2%B7%E8%90%A8%E5%B7%B4%E7%91%9E%E6%8B%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="贾科莫·萨巴瑞拉(页面不存在)">贾科莫·萨巴瑞拉</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Zabarella" class="extiw" title="en:Giacomo Zabarella"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Giacomo Zabarella</span></a></span>)</span></span>的思想。另一方面,在一些之前不为西欧所熟知的作品的重发现的帮助下,对<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新柏拉图主义">新柏拉图主义</a>的研究作为另一个选择变得普遍起来。著名的文艺复兴时期的柏拉图主义者包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E8%90%A8%E7%9A%84%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89" class="mw-redirect" title="库萨的尼古拉">库萨的尼古拉</a>,还有之后的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%94%E8%A5%BF%E5%88%A9%E5%A5%A5%C2%B7%E8%B4%B9%E5%A5%87%E8%AF%BA" title="马尔西利奥·费奇诺">马尔西利奥·费奇诺</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%A5%E6%9C%9B%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E7%A7%91%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E7%B1%B3%E8%98%AD%E5%A4%9A%E6%8B%89" class="mw-redirect" title="若望·皮科·德拉·米蘭多拉">若望·皮科·德拉·米蘭多拉</a><sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>文艺复兴也重新产生了对反亚里士多德的把自然看作一个有机的、活生生的整体而不取决于神学的理论的兴趣,例如在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E8%90%A8%E7%9A%84%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89" class="mw-redirect" title="库萨的尼古拉">库萨的尼古拉</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC" title="尼古拉·哥白尼">尼古拉·哥白尼</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A6%E7%88%BE%E9%81%94%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%AD%AF%E8%AB%BE" title="焦爾達諾·布魯諾">焦爾達諾·布魯諾</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%BA%B3%E8%92%82%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%89%B9%E5%8B%92%E8%82%96" title="波纳蒂特·特勒肖">波纳蒂特·特勒肖</a>还有<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E7%B4%A2%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%B8%95%E5%86%85%E6%8B%89" title="托马索·康帕内拉">托马索·康帕内拉</a>的著作中<sup id="cite_ref-renaissance4_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renaissance4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。在<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="自然哲学">自然哲学</a>中这样的运动与对<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%A7%98%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="神秘主义">神秘主义</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%94%E6%B3%95" title="魔法">魔法</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E5%A2%A8%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="赫尔墨斯主义">赫尔墨斯主义</a>还有<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A0%E6%98%9F%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="占星学">占星学</a>等兴趣重燃相契合,它们被认为隐藏着收获知识和掌控自然方法的大门。<sup id="cite_ref-philosophicae_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophicae-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>这些新的哲学运动伴随着欧洲宗教和政治的剧变同时出现:<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" title="宗教改革">宗教改革</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6_(%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2)" title="封建制度 (歐洲)">封建制</a>的衰落。虽然参与宗教改革的神学家们对哲学没有直接的兴趣,他们打破了神学和知识权威的传统基础。同时还伴随着<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="信仰主義">信仰主义</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="怀疑主义">怀疑主义</a>的复兴,体现在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%A5%BF%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E4%B9%8C%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E8%B0%9F" title="德西德里乌斯·伊拉斯谟">伊拉斯谟</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%AD%87%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%92%99%E6%B3%B0%E6%B6%85" class="mw-redirect" title="米歇爾·德·蒙泰涅">蒙泰涅</a>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="弗朗西斯科·桑切斯" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Francisco Sanches"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%C2%B7%E6%A1%91%E5%88%87%E6%96%AF&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="弗朗西斯科·桑切斯(页面不存在)">桑切斯</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" class="extiw" title="en:Francisco Sanches"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Francisco Sanches</span></a></span>)</span></span>等思想家身上<sup id="cite_ref-scepticism_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scepticism-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-copleston_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-copleston-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reformation_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reformation-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。同时,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="民族国家">民族国家</a>政治上逐步的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E9%9B%86%E6%9D%83" title="中央集权">中央集权</a>的过程得到了世俗政治哲学的响应,如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%AF%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E5%9F%BA%E4%BA%9A%E7%BB%B4%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="尼可罗·马基亚维利">尼可罗·马基亚维利</a>(常被描述为第一个现代政治思想家,或者是现代政治思想形成的关键点<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>)、<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%8E%AB%E5%B0%94" title="托马斯·莫尔">托马斯·莫尔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%A5%BF%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E4%B9%8C%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E8%B0%9F" title="德西德里乌斯·伊拉斯谟">伊拉斯谟</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%A4%E6%96%AF%E5%9B%BE%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%88%A9%E6%99%AE%E4%BF%AE%E6%96%AF" title="尤斯图斯·利普修斯">尤斯图斯·利普修斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9%C2%B7%E5%8D%9A%E4%B8%B9" title="让·博丹">让·博丹</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E6%9E%9C%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E8%80%81%E7%A7%80%E6%96%AF" title="胡果·格老秀斯">胡果·格老秀斯</a>等的著作<sup id="cite_ref-renaissance5_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renaissance5-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-renaissance6_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renaissance6-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-25_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-25_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-25-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="东亚"><span id=".E4.B8.9C.E4.BA.9A"></span>东亚</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="编辑章节:东亚"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%98%8E%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="宋明理學">宋明理學</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%A4%E6%B1%89%E7%BB%8F%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="两汉经学">两汉经学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E7%8E%84%E5%AD%B8" title="魏晉玄學">魏晉玄學</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E5%AD%90%E7%99%BE%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="諸子百家">先秦諸子</a>之后的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%A4%E6%B1%89%E7%BB%8F%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="两汉经学">兩漢經學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E7%8E%84%E5%AD%B8" title="魏晉玄學">魏晉玄學</a>等都是中國哲學的一部份,自<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D" title="唐朝">唐朝</a>起<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教">佛教</a>也开始对哲学产生重要影响;不过<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2#隋唐五代时期" title="中国历史">中世纪中国</a>哲学最主要的部分是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%98%8E%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="宋明理學">宋明理學</a>的发展。 </p><p>宋明理学反对汉代后开始影响儒学的<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教">道教</a>和佛教中的迷信和神秘的元素,是一股倡导更加理性和世俗化儒学的哲学运动<sup id="cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。尽管理学遭到道教和佛教徒的批评,<sup id="cite_ref-huang5_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huang5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>理学仍借鉴了它们两个的部分术语和概念。然而和佛教和道教把<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上学">形而上学</a>看作心灵发展、宗教启示的催化剂并且是不朽的不同,宋明理学把形而上学当作建立一个理性的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理</a>体系的指导<sup id="cite_ref-CSB_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSB-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。宋明理学的起源可以追溯到唐朝:<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A9%E6%84%88" title="韩愈">韩愈</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%BF%B1" title="李翱">李翱</a>被视为宋代理学的先驱<sup id="cite_ref-huang5_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huang5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。宋代理学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%95%A6%E9%A2%90" title="周敦颐">周敦颐</a>以道教形而上学理论为框架建立了他的伦理哲学体系,他被看作是宋明理学的创始人<sup id="cite_ref-CSB_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSB-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>在东亚的其他地方,<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="日本哲學">日本哲学</a>形成于本土的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E9%81%93" title="神道">神道</a>信仰和佛教、儒家以及另一些<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中国哲学">中国哲学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">印度哲学</a>学派混合发展。与日本类似,在<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="朝鲜哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Korean philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="朝鲜哲学(页面不存在)">朝鲜哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Korean philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Korean philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>中<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E5%B7%AB%E6%95%99" title="朝鮮巫教">巫教</a>的情绪化内容被混合到了从中国传入的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%93%E5%9C%8B%E5%84%92%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="韓國儒學">理学</a>当中。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="近代哲学(17-19世纪)"><span id=".E8.BF.91.E4.BB.A3.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.EF.BC.8817-19.E4.B8.96.E7.BA.AA.EF.BC.89"></span>近代哲学(17-19世纪)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="编辑章节:近代哲学(17-19世纪)"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>主條目:<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="近代哲學">近代哲學</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="早期近代哲学"><span id=".E6.97.A9.E6.9C.9F.E8.BF.91.E4.BB.A3.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6"></span>早期近代哲学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="编辑章节:早期近代哲学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="巴洛克时期哲学">巴洛克时期哲学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="启蒙时代">启蒙时代</a></div> <p>西方哲学史上的近代早期一般指17世纪和18世纪,其中18世纪常被称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="启蒙时代">启蒙时代</a><sup id="cite_ref-philosophers_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophers-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。现代哲学不同于其前身,它和传统权威例如教会、学院、亚里士多德的关系更加独立<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical8_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical8-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-approaching_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-approaching-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,出现了对知识基础和形而上学体系建设的新兴趣<sup id="cite_ref-epistemology_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epistemology-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-metaphysical_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metaphysical-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>;和摆脱了自然哲学的近代物理学的出现<sup id="cite_ref-independently_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-independently-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。从17世纪开始,近代哲学就以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a>为研究重点。由于<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="經驗主義">经验论</a>(经验主义)与<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="理性主義">唯理论</a>(理性主义)的争论,使物质与精神的关系作为认识论的首要问题突显出来。 </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/120px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/180px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/240px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%84%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="勒内·笛卡儿">勒内·笛卡儿</a></figcaption></figure> <p>当时其他的哲学焦点包括精神的天性和其与身体的关系,新的自然科学对诸如自由意志和神的传统上属于神学的话题的影响,和伦理学和政治哲学的世俗基础 <sup id="cite_ref-philosophy9_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy9-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。这种潮流最早被鲜明地体现在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E5%85%B0%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="弗兰西斯·培根">弗兰西斯·培根</a>的被称为用来扩展知识的新的、经验主义的程序,并很快在笛卡儿的机械主义物理学和理性主义的形而上学中建立了具有巨大影响力的形式<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical10_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical10-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。培根运用<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E7%BA%B3%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="归纳推理">归纳法</a>,第一个提出思维的主体“人”应该主动干涉自然来为人服务<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-25_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-26_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-26-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>近现代政治哲学的鼻祖<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%9C%8D%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF" title="托马斯·霍布斯">托马斯·霍布斯</a>最早将这套方法论系统地应用在<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治哲学</a>上,包括"<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%A5%91%E7%B4%84" title="社會契約">社會契約</a>"的近代理论<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。早期近代哲学的学术经典一般包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="笛卡尔">笛卡尔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%AD%AF%E8%B5%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E8%8E%8E" title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎">斯賓諾莎</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8" title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨">莱布尼茨</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" title="约翰·洛克">洛克</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E5%85%8B%E8%8E%B1" title="乔治·贝克莱">贝克莱</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%AB%C2%B7%E4%BC%91%E8%B0%9F" title="大卫·休谟">休谟</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">康德</a><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical12_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical12-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-traditional_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-traditional-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical13_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical13-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。同时期的其他思想家也对哲学做出了贡献,例如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E8%8E%B1" title="伽利略·伽利莱">伽利略</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E6%A1%91%E7%8B%84" title="皮埃尔·伽桑狄">皮埃尔·伽桑狄</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E8%8E%B1%E5%85%B9%C2%B7%E5%B8%95%E6%96%AF%E5%8D%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="布莱兹·帕斯卡">布莱兹·帕斯卡</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E5%8B%92%E4%BC%AF%E6%9C%97%E5%A3%AB" title="尼古拉·马勒伯朗士">马勒伯朗士</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿">艾萨克·牛顿</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E8%92%82%E5%AE%89%C2%B7%E6%B2%83%E7%88%BE%E5%A4%AB" title="克里斯蒂安·沃爾夫">克里斯蒂安·沃爾夫</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B8%A0" title="孟德斯鸠">孟德斯鸠</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94" title="皮埃尔·贝尔">皮埃尔·贝尔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7" title="托马斯·里德">托马斯·里德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9%C2%B7%E5%8B%92%E6%9C%97%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E6%9C%97%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94" title="让·勒朗·达朗贝尔">让·勒朗·达朗贝尔</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86" title="亚当·斯密">亚当·斯密</a>,而<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭">让-雅克·卢梭</a>是反启蒙运动的开创性人物。早期近代哲学的大致结束通常被确定为<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">伊曼努尔·康德</a>的试图限定形而上学范围、证明科学知识并用道德和自由来调和两者的体系<sup id="cite_ref-rutherford_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rutherford-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy14_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy14-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy15_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy15-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>理性主义者中<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%84%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="勒内·笛卡儿">勒内·笛卡儿</a>认为物质世界是由<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="数学关系">数学关系</a>组成的单一体系,他企图将物理学转化为数学。他在其著作中,对整个经院哲学以及在他那个时代流行的<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="教育">教育</a>与哲学体系加以讽刺。其认为“<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%91%E6%80%9D%E6%95%85%E6%88%91%E5%9C%A8" title="我思故我在">我思故我在</a>”是认识论的无可怀疑之出发点。笛卡尔是割裂精神和物质的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="二元论">二元论</a>者,为了厘清二者关系,他认为在上帝那里,<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E" title="精神">精神</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="物质">物质</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%80" class="mw-disambig" title="统一">统一</a>的。其理论被称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="笛卡尔主义">笛卡尔主义</a> <sup id="cite_ref-amencps-27_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-27-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-27_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-27-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-27_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-27-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%AE%BE%E8%AF%BA%E8%8E%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="斯宾诺莎">斯宾诺莎</a>是笛卡尔之后,又一位著名的現实主义者。他的认识论、<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%A0%E4%BD%95%E5%AD%A6" title="几何学">几何学</a>和机械观都来自于笛卡尔。但他不认同笛卡尔的二元论,认为精神和物质不过是唯一实体的两种属性 <sup id="cite_ref-amencps-28a_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-28a-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-28b_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-28b-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。莱布尼茨作为唯理论者坚定地维护笛卡尔的学说并反驳约翰·洛克的理论。与笛卡尔不同的是,他认为万物的实体是“<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="單子論">单子</a>”,且互相没有关系,而是由于“前定和谐”才共存一体,即存在于<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E" title="神">神</a>之中。“前定和谐”调和了笛卡尔之二元论和斯宾诺莎之实体双重性。<sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-29_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-29-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-29_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-29-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/120px-JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/180px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/240px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" title="约翰·洛克">约翰·洛克</a></figcaption></figure> <p>洛克发展了经验论,他不认同笛卡尔的“天赋观念”,提出<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E6%9D%BF%E8%AF%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="白板说">白板说</a>,他强调人们从感觉中抽象出普遍的概念,认为感觉中的个别东西才是第一位的。不过他基本认同笛卡尔的二元论。贝克莱发展了洛克的哲学理论,提出了“存在就是被感知”。他认为除了感知的主题和被感知的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%A7%89" title="知觉">知觉</a>之外,什么也没有。他非常不赞同物质的<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%BD%E8%B1%A1" class="mw-disambig" title="抽象">抽象</a>概念,认为其既无客观实在,也不能存在于人心。大卫·休谟的理论比贝克莱的更进一步,他不仅仅认为物质实体不存在,更认为精神实体不存在。只承认知觉的存在。他还以自己的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%AF%E7%9F%A5%E8%AE%BA" title="不可知论">不可知论</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E8%AE%BA" title="怀疑论">怀疑论</a>认为不存在统一性和普遍性的东西,认定多样性和个别性才是最高原理。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-28b_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-28b-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-28_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-28-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-28a_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-28a-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>经验论与唯理论的争论也包含了<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="唯物主义">唯物主义</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="唯心主义">唯心主义</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%BA" title="争论">争论</a>。在18世纪时,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD" title="法国">法国</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E5%88%A9%E5%AE%89%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E7%BE%8E%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A9" title="朱利安·奥弗雷·拉·美特利">拉美特利</a>公开宣布<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="唯物主义">唯物主义</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E4%B8%80" class="mw-disambig" title="唯一">唯一</a>的,而<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%EF%BC%8C%E6%88%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E3%80%81%E8%89%BA%E6%9C%AF%E5%92%8C%E5%B7%A5%E8%89%BA%E8%AF%A6%E8%A7%A3%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8" title="百科全书,或科学、艺术和工艺详解词典">百科全书</a>的主编<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E7%8B%84%E5%BE%B7%E7%BD%97" title="德尼·狄德罗">德尼·狄德罗</a>也怀疑神的存在。 </p><p>另外<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8F%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="伏尔泰">伏尔泰</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B8%A0" title="孟德斯鸠">孟德斯鸠</a>和其他<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="百科全书派">百科全书派</a>的学者都有涉及政治和伦理领域。他们都认为机械主义才是最终形式——物质是唯一的且处于一直运动的,<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E" title="精神">精神</a>只是人脑的属性。因此他们认为无机物与<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%BA%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="有机物">有机物</a>不可逾越,人的<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E7%BB%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="思维">思维</a>是人<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E5%AE%98" title="感官">感官</a>的结果。不过他们仍然是相信经验是一直累積的,在<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="因果关系">因果</a>性上,他们认为只有必然性才是唯一的,这就成为唯心主义的观念<sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-30_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-30-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-25_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="德国古典哲学"><span id=".E5.BE.B7.E5.9B.BD.E5.8F.A4.E5.85.B8.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6"></span>德国古典哲学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="编辑章节:德国古典哲学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>从18世纪中后期开始,直到19世纪初,哲学便进入了近代哲学的总结时期,这就是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="德国古典哲学">德国古典哲学</a>时期。有两条线索标志着转折的到来:一、思维与存在的关系更加明确;二、产生了系统<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E6%B3%95" title="辩证法">辩证法</a>。其代表人物有I.康德、J.G.费希特、F.W.谢林、G.W.F.黑格尔等。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-25_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="康德"><span id=".E5.BA.B7.E5.BE.B7"></span>康德</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="编辑章节:康德"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="康德">康德</a>给哲学带来了三个标志性的创造: </p> <ul><li>哲学意义的新规定;</li> <li>哲学方法的新概念;</li> <li>哲学写作的新结构。</li></ul> <p>他受到<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E8%B0%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="休谟">休谟</a>的诸多影响,并为<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方哲学</a>带来一次革命。他认为哲学的研究核心就是规定理性的任务。 </p><p>康德同意休谟的理论并认为,存在一些原则,使得心灵对经验和认识加以组织,而证据皆可以在数学中找到。即是,包含在<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BD%E9%A2%98" title="命题">命题</a>里的要比包含在原是<a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="概念">概念</a>的定义要多得多。他使用称之为批判哲学的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%88%E9%AA%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="先验">先验</a>方法,来展现经验的某些范畴和形式都必然地被预先存在于人们一切言谈之中。 </p><p>凭借着他的三部“批判性”的著作,为先验方法作出相应的结构: </p> <ul><li>現實论,分析理性的有效机能;</li> <li>辨证论,展示理性的可能失误;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="方法论">方法论</a>,列举实用的各种规则。</li></ul> <p>他还为道德哲学奠定了新基础,且他赋予了自由概念的新意义。因为其影响在现代依旧尚存,其理论被人们称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="康德主义">康德主义</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-32_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-32-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-32_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-32-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-32_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-32-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-33a_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-33a-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="费希特和谢林"><span id=".E8.B4.B9.E5.B8.8C.E7.89.B9.E5.92.8C.E8.B0.A2.E6.9E.97"></span>费希特和谢林</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="编辑章节:费希特和谢林"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E5%B8%8C%E7%89%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="费希特">费希特</a>本来承认斯宾诺莎的机械的因果决定论,但后来受到康德的影响,开始认为因果决定论只是表面,其实质为自我不是必然性的奴仆而是独立自由的主体。就此,他建立了主观的思维与客观的存在之统一说。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E8%B0%A2%E6%9E%97" title="弗里德里希·谢林">谢林</a>是从费希特理论出发的,但深受斯宾诺莎和文学上<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%AA%E6%BC%AB%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="浪漫主义">浪漫主义</a>的影响,创立了自己的学说。即他认为<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6" title="自然">自然</a>和精神、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8" title="存在">存在</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E7%BB%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="思维">思维</a>,客体和主体,表面相反,实则统一,是同一个“绝对”的不同发展阶段,这个“绝对”即是万事万物的根源。他认为<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BA%E6%9C%AF" title="艺术">艺术</a>才是最直观的理性。<sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-32a_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-32a-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-25_63-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-25_64-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="黑格尔"><span id=".E9.BB.91.E6.A0.BC.E5.B0.94"></span>黑格尔</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="编辑章节:黑格尔"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔">黑格尔</a>及其理论的出现将西方的哲学推上一个新高度,他创立了西方哲学史上最庞大的客观<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="唯心主义">唯心主义</a>体系,并系统地阐述了<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E6%B3%95" title="辩证法">辩证法</a>。他的理论和学说对近现代哲学产生了很深远的影响,并被称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔主义">黑格尔主义</a>。 </p><p>从黑格尔的思想体系中发展而成的多种哲学运动。其重点就是以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="历史">历史</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑</a>为主,历史方面,它从不同角度理解“凡是合理的就是现实的”;逻辑方面,它有发现其中所说的“<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理">真理</a>即整体”。 </p><p>黑格尔认为哲学的重点是放弃分裂,达到统一。他把以前的时代说成是思维与存在、理想与现实分裂,自由与必然,个人与社会、无限与有限、统一性与多样性分裂之时代。 </p><p>他从康德的“<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="心灵">心灵</a>的合理性以及在经验中的积极作用”的概念出发,但反对康德的“超越经验世界和‘<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%87%AA%E8%BA%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="物自身">物自身</a>’的世界”,并认为心灵和世界一样具有相同基础理性结构。他所认为的普遍性不是脱离特殊的抽象普遍,而是包含特殊在内之普遍,即为具体普遍;他所认为的统一也非脱离矛盾、对立的抽象统一,而是包含它们在内的统一,即为对立统一。上述综合在一起即是他的理论:最真实的无所不包的整体即是“绝对精神”,又是对立的统一。 </p><p>他认为,为了达到这个“绝对精神”,需要经过三个阶段,从逻辑、自然到精神,即是从<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E7%BB%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="思维">思维</a>到存在,再到两者统一的过程,从而完成他的统一论。 </p><p>就此,社会和历史的现象,便被赋予一种在哲学史上还是崭新的显赫地位。他还将<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>划归到这个领域,从而在伦理学理论和对思想的理解中提出重要的路线。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-33_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-33-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-33a_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-33a-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-33_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-33-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-34_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-34-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="现代哲学(19-20世纪)"><span id=".E7.8E.B0.E4.BB.A3.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.EF.BC.8819-20.E4.B8.96.E7.BA.AA.EF.BC.89"></span>现代哲学(19-20世纪)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="编辑章节:现代哲学(19-20世纪)"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>从19世纪中叶开始,西方哲学就进入现代哲学阶段。因为在19世纪中期,欧洲的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="工业革命">工业革命</a>几近完成。 </p><p>现代哲学,特别是19世纪中后期的哲学流派,有<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%94%E6%9C%AC%E5%8D%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="叔本华">叔本华</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97" title="意志">意志</a>主义,新康德主义,新黑格尔主义,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="马克思主义">马克思主义</a>。然而此時的哲學與後來的存在主義、現象學等在當代一般歸為「歐陸哲學」,與二十世紀以後著重嚴謹邏輯與語詞分析所發展出的「分析哲學」成為風格迥異的兩大西方哲學典範。 </p><p>20世纪的西方哲学上主流有两条: </p> <dl><dd>一、由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E6%A0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="弗雷格">弗雷格</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素">罗素</a>创立的,并以<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">维特根斯坦</a>为主的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析哲学</a>。它把哲学问题变成语言分析问题,由此产生了<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="逻辑经验主义">逻辑经验主义</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="逻辑实证主义">逻辑实证主义</a>以及其他语言分析相关的哲学派系。</dd> <dd>二、由<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E5%A1%9E%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="胡塞爾">胡塞尔</a>创立的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="现象学">现象学</a>发展起来,以<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="海德格尔">海德格尔</a>为主的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a>。它把哲学问题变成对个人生存状态的反思,由此产生了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="解释学">解释学</a>。</dd></dl> <p>现代哲学主要包含以下几种潮流。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-35_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-35-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-35-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="以黑格尔主义为主的潮流"><span id=".E4.BB.A5.E9.BB.91.E6.A0.BC.E5.B0.94.E4.B8.BB.E4.B9.89.E4.B8.BA.E4.B8.BB.E7.9A.84.E6.BD.AE.E6.B5.81"></span>以黑格尔主义为主的潮流</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="编辑章节:以黑格尔主义为主的潮流"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>历程哲学</b>: </p> <dl><dd>19世纪中期,黑格尔主义在中欧受到欢迎,并在此后也隐约出现在该地区。在<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD" title="美国">美国</a>也具有影响力,不仅启发了布拉德利、罗伊斯等人的观念论哲学,还形成了一种哲学气候。即形式有所修正,但是本质不变。比如<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%88%BE%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%AB%BE%E6%80%9D%C2%B7%E6%87%B7%E7%89%B9%E9%BB%91%E5%BE%B7" title="阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德">怀特海</a>的“历程哲学”。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-35_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-35-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-32_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-32-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><b>主流马克思主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D" title="卡尔·马克思">K.马克思</a>的著作本身不能说成是一种哲学,更不是一种哲学体系,但他的全部论述是对哲学,特别是对黑格尔体系中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="唯心主义">唯心主义</a>进行的激进批判。他认为哲学必须与现实取得联系。</dd></dl> <p>“哲学只是持续地解释世界,而与当下关联的则是改变世界。” </p> <dl><dd>但是尽管马克思本人批判黑格尔的观念论,但其思想却深受黑格尔的特别是辨证论的影响。并将其基本本质作了<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="自然主义">自然主义</a>的改造。这之后,从19世纪末期到20世纪初期,马克思的哲学思想才在<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="恩格斯">恩格斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E5%9F%BA%C2%B7%E7%93%A6%E8%BF%9E%E4%BA%AC%E8%AF%BA%E7%BB%B4%E5%A5%87%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E5%88%97%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%BA%E5%A4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="格奥尔基·瓦连京诺维奇·普列汉诺夫">普列汉诺夫</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%97%E5%AE%81" class="mw-redirect" title="列宁">列宁</a>等人的阐释和补充下,为<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="辩证唯物论">辩证唯物论</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="歷史唯物論">历史唯物论</a>,并形成新的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%A7%82" title="世界观">世界观</a>。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>另外<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="马克思主义">马克思主义</a>也指各种不同的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="社会主义">社会主义运动</a>,如由列宁所创立而被<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%A7%E6%9E%97" class="mw-redirect" title="斯大林">斯大林</a>修改的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联">苏联</a>马克思主义,称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E5%88%97%E5%AE%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="马克思列宁主义">马克思列宁主义</a>,为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E6%9C%88%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="十月革命">俄国革命</a>以及后来建立的各种<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A" title="共产党">共产党</a>之教义。它的旁系包括反斯大林的<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E6%B4%9B%E8%8C%A8%E5%9F%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="托洛茨基">托洛茨基</a>及其追随者的马克思主义、毛泽东的马克思列宁主义和其他第三世界马克思主义。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-37_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-37-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-37-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-37_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-37-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-37-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><b>西方马克思主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>此外,比上述类型更为复杂的版本有<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E9%83%BD%E5%A1%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="路易·皮埃尔·阿尔都塞">阿尔都塞</a>等人做出详尽阐述。然而,在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E5%8D%A1%E5%A5%87%C2%B7%E6%8D%B7%E5%B0%94%E5%90%89" class="mw-redirect" title="卢卡奇·捷尔吉">卢卡奇</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%B4%9B%E8%B5%AB" title="恩斯特·布洛赫">布洛赫</a>等人采用黑格尔学说,而非科学学说对马克思思想重新诠释,才使得马克思主义在欧洲,后来在英美等地获得新生。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>之后,新马克思主义的哲学理论受到<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%A0%BC%E8%92%99%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E4%BC%8A%E5%BE%B7" title="西格蒙德·弗洛伊德">弗洛伊德</a>、存在主义、康德、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="社会科学">社会科学</a>以及黑格尔等思想的革新,已形成不同的发展方向。如<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E5%85%8B%E6%B5%B7%E9%BB%98" class="mw-redirect" title="霍克海默">霍克海默</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%A4%9A%E8%AB%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="阿多諾">阿多诺</a>。以及与“<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E7%A6%8F%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="法蘭克福學派">法兰克福学派</a>”有联系的“批判会理论”等。后来,<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E8%90%A8%E7%89%B9" title="让-保罗·萨特">萨特</a>和不少法国学者的“存在主义的马克思主义”以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E8%B0%A2%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%8B%89%E7%A7%91%E5%A4%AB%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="莱谢克·科拉科夫斯基">科拉科夫斯基</a>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="加约·彼得罗维奇" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Gajo Petrović"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E7%BA%A6%C2%B7%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%E7%BD%97%E7%BB%B4%E5%A5%87&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="加约·彼得罗维奇(页面不存在)">加约·彼得罗维奇</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gajo_Petrovi%C4%87" class="extiw" title="en:Gajo Petrović"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Gajo Petrović</span></a></span>)</span></span>等<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%AC%A7" title="东欧">东欧</a>哲学家提出的“人道主义的马克思主义”。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-37_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-37-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-37-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-37_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-37-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-37-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><b>革新的黑格尔主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>20世纪开始,黑格尔主义的社会性方面在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E7%8B%84%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0" title="威廉·狄尔泰">狄尔泰</a>和一些德国学者重新发展。他们对其在研究<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="人类社会">人类社会</a>和文化的生活与历史的进路作出修正。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>在美国,<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E5%A3%AB" title="威廉·詹姆士">詹姆士</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%9D%9C%E5%A8%81" title="约翰·杜威">杜威</a>对黑格尔主义作出了相似的,在社会性倾向和自然主义特色的详尽阐述。实用主义运动在英美影响甚大,在此将黑格尔的思想发扬为新的哲学运动。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>英国的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="维特根斯坦">维特根斯坦</a>也转变的思路,从之前的实证主义和新康德思想,转而去研究<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="语言">语言</a>、科学,及<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史">科学史</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>等。</dd></dl> <p><b>结构主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>在法国,因<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E8%80%B6%E5%A4%AB" title="亚历山大·科耶夫">亚历山大·科耶夫</a>的影响,使得黑格尔主义对萨特等人形成冲击,当他们研究马克思主义时,这种冲击更加明显。则出现与<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E5%8B%9E%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%9D%8E%E7%B6%AD-%E5%8F%B2%E9%99%80" title="克勞德·李維-史陀">克劳德·李维</a>等相关联的“<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="结构主义">结构主义</a>”。还有<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%AD%87%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E7%A6%8F%E6%9F%AF" title="米歇尔·福柯">福柯</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E8%BE%BE" title="雅克·德里达">德里达</a>等法国“后结构主义”等思想。<sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-35_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-35-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-35-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="后古典现代哲学"><span id=".E5.90.8E.E5.8F.A4.E5.85.B8.E7.8E.B0.E4.BB.A3.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6"></span>后古典现代哲学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="编辑章节:后古典现代哲学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>分析哲学</b>: </p> <dl><dd>后古典主义是种哲学观,从培根,<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="笛卡尔">笛卡尔</a>到<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E8%B0%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="休谟">休谟</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="康德">康德</a>,这股浪潮获得科学的倾向,后来又获得<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑</a>和语言的,逐渐形成一种基本的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析哲学</a>。</dd></dl> <p><b>实证主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>19世纪上半叶英美,“苏格兰常识学派”很普及,后来英国<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%BE%B7%E5%8D%8E%C2%B7%E6%91%A9%E5%B0%94" title="乔治·爱德华·摩尔">摩尔</a>的思想和20世纪初美国“新实在论者”都发展了它。<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%AD%94%E5%BE%B7" title="奥古斯特·孔德">孔德</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实证主义">实证主义</a>在法国引起了广泛的注意。在美国得到<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86" title="斯坦利·米尔格拉姆">米尔格拉姆</a>的发展,成为“实验主义”,又形成科学性的实证主义。</dd></dl> <p><b>新康德主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>实证主义在德国由<a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E6%9B%BC%C2%B7%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B0" title="鲁道夫·赫尔曼·陆宰">陆宰</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%82%C2%B7%E4%B8%8D%E4%BC%A6%E7%91%9E%E5%85%8B" title="莱昂·不伦瑞克">不伦瑞克</a>等人的发展下,形成“新康德主义”,并经由重新发现的休谟主义和黑格尔主义的影响,在英美等地也流行起来。</dd></dl> <p><b>逻辑实证主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>一种很注重逻辑的学说,在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%91%A9%E6%A0%B9" title="奧古斯塔斯·德摩根">德摩根</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E5%85%B9%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E4%BC%A6%E5%A1%94%E8%AF%BA" title="弗朗兹·布伦塔诺">布伦塔诺</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%85%8B%E4%BF%AE%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BF%88%E5%86%9C" title="亚历克修斯·迈农">迈农</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E6%B4%9B%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E6%A0%BC" title="戈特洛布·弗雷格">弗雷格</a>等人的努力下,取得了进展。罗素和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%BE%B7%E5%8D%8E%C2%B7%E6%91%A9%E5%B0%94" title="乔治·爱德华·摩尔">摩尔</a>发动了分析运动,由此形成分析哲学的雏形。又在维特根斯坦的研究下,将分析哲学进行了重新解释,变成了语言分析问题,从而产生逻辑实证主义。</dd></dl> <p><b>语言哲学</b>: </p> <dl><dd>二战后,分析哲学更加分化,并形成多个不同的派系。但其本质相差无几,都集中研究“分析”这一概念上来,后来有不少开始研究<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a>这一分支。</dd></dl> <p><b>现象学</b>: </p> <dl><dd>而<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%BE%B7%E8%92%99%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%83%A1%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="埃德蒙德·胡塞尔">胡塞尔</a>将严谨的数学思想赋予哲学,使得笛卡尔主义进一步激进化,在<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="海德格尔">海德格尔</a>的影响下,便产生了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="现象学运动">现象学运动</a>。</dd></dl> <p><b>唯物论</b>: </p> <dl><dd>其中<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E5%AE%89%E5%BE%B7%E5%88%97%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B4%B9%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E5%93%88" class="mw-redirect" title="路德维希·安德列斯·费尔巴哈">费尔巴哈</a>作为德国古典哲学期间的一个唯物主义代表。他将黑格尔哲学称谓精致化和理性化的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="神学">神学</a>体系,他认为人是思维与存在统一的,思维不仅仅是人脑的表现也是人与人思维的表现。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>他的唯物论和实证主义以<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E8%B5%AB" title="恩斯特·马赫">马赫</a>的学说达到顶点,并在英国流行。</dd></dl> <p><b>新托马斯主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>而从公元1879年以来<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E5%AE%97" title="教宗">教宗</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E5%A5%A5%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96" class="mw-redirect" title="利奥十三世">利奥十三世</a>颁发教义宣称为“永远的父亲”之后。多玛斯哲学在基督宗教和神学中的哲学教义再度得到肯定。而<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="德西雷-约瑟夫·梅西耶" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Désiré-Joseph Mercier"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%B7%E8%A5%BF%E9%9B%B7-%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E8%A5%BF%E8%80%B6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="德西雷-约瑟夫·梅西耶(页面不存在)">梅西耶</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9-Joseph_Mercier" class="extiw" title="en:Désiré-Joseph Mercier"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Désiré-Joseph Mercier</span></a></span>)</span></span>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E9%87%8C%E9%A1%BF" title="雅克·马里顿">雅克·马里顿</a>发展了该学说并吸收了近代哲学的诸多优点,逐步形成<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新托马斯主义">新托马斯主义</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-39_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-39-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-39_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-39-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-35-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-34_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-34-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-38_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-38-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="多种主义的第三潮流"><span id=".E5.A4.9A.E7.A7.8D.E4.B8.BB.E4.B9.89.E7.9A.84.E7.AC.AC.E4.B8.89.E6.BD.AE.E6.B5.81"></span>多种主义的第三潮流</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="编辑章节:多种主义的第三潮流"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a></b>: </p> <dl><dd>在<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实证主义">實證主義</a>出現後的晚生的現代哲學流派,<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="羅素">羅素</a>等提倡的新型哲學,具有<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="科學精神">科學精神</a>,注重的是可否被<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%89%E6%98%8E" class="mw-disambig" title="證明">證明</a>與是否合乎<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="邏輯">邏輯</a>,減少提及一些像<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上學">形而上學</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%A7%80" class="mw-redirect" title="主觀">主觀</a>的問題,例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E" title="神">神</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E9%AB%94%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="本體論">本體論</a>終極的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E" title="美">美</a>等。</dd></dl> <p><b>意志主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>该潮流在费希特和谢林的学说下,又经过康德以及黑格尔的影响,终于由<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E7%91%9F%C2%B7%E5%8F%94%E6%9C%AC%E5%8D%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="亚瑟·叔本华">叔本华</a>所注意到其中尚未被探索的领域——人类生命和一切生命基本特性的东西,即是“<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97" title="意志">意志</a>”。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>而<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E9%87%87" class="mw-redirect" title="尼采">尼采</a>也有所谓的“<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%83%E5%8A%9B%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97" title="权力意志">权力意志</a>”这种学说,一种关于生命与世界的与叔本华类似的诠释。但,尼采对其进行彻底的改革,有“对所有价值重新作出评价”的论述。将其大胆的心理概括传统从宗教、艺术到道德、社会,再到科学和认识本身。</dd></dl> <p><b>实用主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>因为<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">达尔文</a>发现的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%9B%E5%8C%96%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="进化论">进化论</a>,让<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E6%96%AF%E7%93%A6%E7%88%BE%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E6%A0%BC%E5%8B%92" title="奧斯瓦爾德·斯賓格勒">斯宾格勒</a>发展为一个哲学表达,而<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E6%9F%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%A3%AE" title="亨利·柏格森">柏格森</a>为其发展提供促进作用。在一战后,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%88%8D%E5%8B%92" title="马克斯·舍勒">舍勒</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E7%A9%86%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E8%8E%B1%E6%96%AF%E7%BA%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="赫尔穆特·普莱斯纳">普莱斯纳</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%96%E4%BC%A6" title="盖伦">盖伦</a>等采用上述学说,开创了“哲学人类学”。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>上列观点在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E6%A1%91%E5%A1%94%E4%BA%9A%E9%82%A3" title="乔治·桑塔亚那">桑塔亚那</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%9D%9C%E5%A8%81" title="约翰·杜威">杜威</a>等人和怀特海的影响下,重新对黑格尔主义进行理解。由<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%A1%91%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E5%B0%94%E5%A3%AB" title="查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士">皮尔士</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E5%A3%AB" title="威廉·詹姆士">詹姆士</a>等思想家开创了<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实用主义">实用主义</a>运动,对“人类行动、利益和目的作出实际考虑”。</dd></dl> <p><b>存在主义</b>: </p> <dl><dd>而<a href="/wiki/%E9%BD%90%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="齐克果">齐克果</a>对人类生命诠释的过程中比实用主义更激进,他通过“信仰跳跃”来获得与上帝的关联。</dd></dl> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="海德格尔">海德格尔</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="雅斯培">雅斯培</a>也对齐克果的“主体性”和实用主义进行研究。雅士培强调人类存在不可能被化解到只能以客观角度加以了解的地步。海德格尔更进一步对“存在的意义”作了研究,他主要对人类存在的特性和结构做了奇特的分析。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>在萨特和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E8%B4%9D%C2%B7%E5%8A%A0%E7%BC%AA" title="阿尔贝·加缪">加缪</a>的发展下,使之流行并衍生出“<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a>”。萨特发展了海德格尔的理论,他认为人们在对“塑造人类自己”这个问题存在本质性的不确定。</dd></dl> <p><b>解释学</b>: </p> <dl><dd>研究存在主义的哲学家多采用现象学来解释人类生命和人类条件的问题。而<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%AB%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E6%B4%9B-%E5%BA%9E%E8%92%82" class="mw-redirect" title="莫里斯·梅洛-庞蒂">庞蒂</a>使用存在主义和现象学对人类存在作研究。</dd></dl> <dl><dd>从齐克果以来的这些哲学家多注重以文学风格对哲学进行研究。从此,哲学、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="语言">语言</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="文学">文学</a>三者关系更为紧密,如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%96%AF-%E6%A0%BC%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A0%BC%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E8%BE%BE%E9%BB%98%E5%B0%94" title="汉斯-格奥尔格·伽达默尔">伽达默尔</a>的“诠释学哲学”和<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E8%A5%BF%E5%B0%94" title="恩斯特·卡西尔">卡西尔</a>的“符号形式的哲学”等,逐步形成<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="解释学">解释学</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amencps-40_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-40-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-39_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-39-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-40_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-40-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-41_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-41-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="重要哲学流派"><span id=".E9.87.8D.E8.A6.81.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.A6.E6.B5.81.E6.B4.BE"></span>重要哲学流派</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="编辑章节:重要哲学流派"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="德國唯心主義"><span id=".E5.BE.B7.E5.9C.8B.E5.94.AF.E5.BF.83.E4.B8.BB.E7.BE.A9"></span>德國唯心主義</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="编辑章节:德國唯心主義"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="德国唯心主义">德國唯心主義</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/255px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/340px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">伊曼努尔·康德</a></figcaption></figure> <p>唯心主義的各种变体在18世紀晚期至20世紀早期的哲学界相当流行。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">康德</a>主张的先验唯心主义认为人们对事物的理解是有界限的,因为在客观判断条件下很多事情是办不到的。他在1781年發行的作品《<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%AF%E7%B2%B9%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4" title="纯粹理性批判">纯粹理性批判</a>》試圖調和18世紀兩大主要的哲學派別:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="經驗主義">經驗主義</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="理性主義">理性主義</a>,并且建立一个研究形而上学的新基础。<sup id="cite_ref-Critique_of_Pure_Reason_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Critique_of_Pure_Reason-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="德国唯心主义">德國唯心主義</a>最著名的作品是<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A0%BC%C2%B7%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" title="格奥尔格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格尔">黑格尔</a>于1807年出版的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%A6" title="精神现象学">精神现象学</a>》。黑格尔承认自己的理念不是新的,不过他的目标是完成之前的哲学家们的不完整的体系。黑格尔认为哲学的重点是放弃分裂,达到统一。他把以前的时代说成是思维与存在、理想与现实分裂,自由与必然、个人与社会、无限与有限、统一性与多样性分裂之时代。他从康德的“<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="心灵">心灵</a>的合理性以及在经验中的积极作用”的概念出发,但反对康德的“超越经验世界和‘<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%87%AA%E8%BA%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="物自身">物自身</a>’的世界”,并认为心灵和世界一样具有相同基础理性结构。他所认为的普遍性不是脱离特殊的抽象普遍,而是包含特殊在内之普遍,即为具体普遍;他所认为的统一也非脱离矛盾、对立的抽象统一,而是包含它们在内的统一,即为对立统一。上述综合在一起即是他的理论:最真实的无所不包的整体即是“绝对精神”,又是对立的统一。黑格尔认为需要经过三个阶段来达到这个“绝对精神”,从逻辑、自然到精神,即是从<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E7%BB%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="思维">思维</a>到<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8" title="存在">存在</a>,再到两者统一的过程,从而完成他的统一论。他还将<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>划归到这个领域,从而在伦理学理论和对思想的理解中提出重要的路线。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-33_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-33-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-33b_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-33b-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-33_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-33-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-34_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-34-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="马克思主义"><span id=".E9.A9.AC.E5.85.8B.E6.80.9D.E4.B8.BB.E4.B9.89"></span>马克思主义</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="编辑章节:马克思主义"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="马克思主义哲学">马克思主义哲学</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D" title="卡尔·马克思">马克思</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="恩格斯">恩格斯</a>建立的以<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="辩证唯物主义">辩证唯物主义</a>为核心的哲学体系。其认为实践是检验哲学之真理性的唯一标准,哲学应伴随着<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A" title="社会">社会</a>、科学技术和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化">文化</a>的发展而不断发展<sup id="cite_ref-dabaike_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dabaike-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Misere_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Misere-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。其主要思想体系在19世纪70年代主要由<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="恩格斯">恩格斯</a>创立,20世纪20年代在<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联">苏联</a>形成完整体系——辩证唯物主义和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="历史唯物主义">历史唯物主义</a>,这个体系在后来的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" title="社会主义国家">社会主义国家</a>推动下得以发展。<sup id="cite_ref-Misere_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Misere-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>马克思主义哲学宣称自己的理论体系具有<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学">科学</a>性,认为哲学可以成为科学的一部分<sup id="cite_ref-dabaike_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dabaike-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。同时马克思主义哲学认为哲学还具有<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81" class="mw-redirect" title="意识形态">意识形态</a>的性质<sup id="cite_ref-dabaike_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dabaike-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Misere_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Misere-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>另外<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="马克思主义">马克思主义</a>在政治上也指各种不同的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="共产主义运动">共产主义运动</a>,如由列宁所创立而被<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%A7%E6%9E%97" class="mw-redirect" title="斯大林">斯大林</a>修改的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联">苏联</a>马克思主义,称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E5%88%97%E5%AE%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="马克思列宁主义">马克思列宁主义</a>,为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E6%9C%88%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="十月革命">俄国革命</a>以及后来建立的各种<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A" title="共产党">共产党</a>之教义。它的旁系包括反斯大林的<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E6%B4%9B%E8%8C%A8%E5%9F%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="托洛茨基">托洛茨基</a>及其追随者的马克思主义、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3" title="毛泽东思想">毛泽东的马克思列宁主义</a>等。<sup id="cite_ref-amencps-37_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amencps-37-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-37-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-35_107-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-36_109-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brencps-37_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brencps-37-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b 13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d 12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cntwencps-37-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="實用主義"><span id=".E5.AF.A6.E7.94.A8.E4.B8.BB.E7.BE.A9"></span>實用主義</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="编辑章节:實用主義"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="實用主義">實用主義</a>產生於19世紀70年代的現代哲學派別,在20世紀的美國成為一種主流思潮。對法律、政治、教育、社會、宗教和藝術的研究產生了很大的影響。實用主義也試圖在<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="理性主義">理性主義</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="經驗主義">經驗主義</a>找出一條中間道路來,是「經驗主義思想方法與人類的比較具有宗教性需要的適當的調和者。」 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="現象學"><span id=".E7.8F.BE.E8.B1.A1.E5.AD.B8"></span>現象學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="编辑章节:現象學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%B8" title="現象學">現象學</a>是由德國哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E5%A1%9E%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="胡塞爾">胡塞爾</a>在1900年提出的理論,強調對直接<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B4%E8%A6%BA_(%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96)" title="直覺 (知識論)">直觀</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97" title="經驗">經驗</a>感知的區分,認為哲學(或至少是現象學)的主要任務是釐清二者之間的關聯,並且在直觀中獲得對<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%B4%A8" title="本质">本質</a>的認識。现象学是对经验结构与意识结构的哲学性研究。作为一个哲学运动,现象学于二十世纪早期由埃德蒙德·胡塞尔创立,之后被他在德国的哥廷根大学和慕尼黑大学中的一派追随者发展壮大。在此之后现象学传播到法国、美国以及其他地区,并远超出了胡塞尔早期著作的语境。<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 其他主要哲學家包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%A0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="海德格">海德格</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%AB%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E6%B4%9B-%E5%BA%9E%E8%92%82" class="mw-redirect" title="莫里斯·梅洛-庞蒂">莫里斯·梅洛-庞蒂</a> 以及<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E7%B4%90%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%88%97%E7%B6%AD%E7%B4%8D%E6%96%AF" title="伊曼紐爾·列維納斯">伊曼纽尔·列维纳斯</a>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="存在主义"><span id=".E5.AD.98.E5.9C.A8.E4.B8.BB.E4.B9.89"></span>存在主义</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="编辑章节:存在主义"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/170px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/255px-Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E5%80%AB%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E8%B2%9D%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E7%88%BE%E5%87%B1%E9%83%AD%E7%88%BE" title="索倫·奧貝·克爾凱郭爾">索倫·奧貝·克爾凱郭爾</a>(1813–1855)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nietzsche1882.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nietzsche1882.jpg/115px-Nietzsche1882.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nietzsche1882.jpg/173px-Nietzsche1882.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nietzsche1882.jpg/230px-Nietzsche1882.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E5%B0%BC%E9%87%87" title="弗里德里希·尼采">弗里德里希·尼采</a>(1844–1900)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a>是一个哲学的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="非理性主义">非理性主义</a>思潮,该术语被用在十九世纪晚期到二十世纪的一些哲学家的工作上,尽管他们的学说相差巨大<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy25_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy25-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,但他们都相信哲学思考开始于人类主体——而不仅仅是思维主体,而且包括行为、感知、人类个体<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism26_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism26-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。存在主义强调个人、獨立自主和主观经验,認為人存在的意義是無法經由理性思考而得到答案<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。在存在主义中,个体的出发点的特征是被称为“存在的态度”,或一种面对显然是一个无意义的或荒谬的世界的迷失和混乱的感觉<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism27_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism27-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。很多存在主义者还认为传统的体系和哲学学术无论是内容和风格都过于抽象并远离人类经验<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism28_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism28-134"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialism29_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism29-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>19世纪哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E5%80%AB%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E8%B2%9D%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E7%88%BE%E5%87%B1%E9%83%AD%E7%88%BE" title="索倫·奧貝·克爾凱郭爾">克尔凯郭尔</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E9%87%87" class="mw-redirect" title="尼采">尼采</a>被看作存在主义的先驱,尽管他们没有使用这个术语。然而他们的影响延伸出了存在主义思想<sup id="cite_ref-kierkegaard_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kierkegaard-136"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bob_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bob-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialists_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialists-138"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。克尔凯郭尔著作主要针对的是<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔">黑格尔</a>的唯心主义哲学体系,他认为其忽视或排除了人类的内在主观生命。相反克尔凯郭尔认为"真理是主观的",主张对一个现实的人类来说最重要的问题是处理个人与存在内在关系的问题。克尔凯郭尔作为一个基督徒相信宗教信仰的真相是一个主观问题,而且人应该用热情去深思这个问题<sup id="cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-140"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="理論"><span id=".E7.90.86.E8.AB.96"></span>理論</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="编辑章节:理論"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79074265">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-count:3; column-width:auto;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="利他主義">利他主義</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="反現實主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Anti-realism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E7%8F%BE%E5%AF%A6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="反現實主義(页面不存在)">反現實主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism" class="extiw" title="en:Anti-realism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Anti-realism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AB%E6%A8%82%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="享樂主義">享樂主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="唯物主義">唯物主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="唯心主義">唯心主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%83%B3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-disambig" title="理想主義">理想主義</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="非現實主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Irrealism (philosophy)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E7%8F%BE%E5%AF%A6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="非現實主義(页面不存在)">非現實主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrealism_(philosophy)" class="extiw" title="en:Irrealism (philosophy)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Irrealism (philosophy)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="逻辑实证主义">逻辑实证主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%82%B2%E8%A7%82%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="悲观主义">悲觀主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%82%E8%A7%80%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="樂觀主義">乐观主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="儒家思想">儒家思想</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%AE%B6%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="道家思想">道家思想</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="佛教哲学">佛教思想</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99" class="mw-redirect" title="天主教">至公(舊教)主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%95%99" title="新教">抗辯(新教)主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%88%91%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="自我主義">自我主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="理性主義">理性主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E5%AF%A6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="現實主義">現實主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%BE%8E%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="唯美主義">唯美主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="形上學唯物主義">形而上學唯物主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E8%AD%89%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="辯證唯物主義">辯證唯物主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A2%E8%A7%82%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="客观唯心主义">客觀唯心主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%A7%82%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="主观唯心主义">主觀唯心主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="非理性主义">非理性主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E8%91%9B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="斯多葛主義">斯多葛主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="存在主義">存在主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="形而上學">形而上學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9F%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="功利主義">功利主義</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="分支和交叉学科"><span id=".E5.88.86.E6.94.AF.E5.92.8C.E4.BA.A4.E5.8F.89.E5.AD.A6.E7.A7.91"></span>分支和交叉学科</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="地理哲學">地理哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会科学的哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of social science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="社会科学的哲学(页面不存在)">社会科学的哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of social science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of social science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="历史哲学">历史哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="经济哲学">经济哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="教育哲學">教育哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="人生哲学">人生哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="精神哲学">精神哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="宗教哲学">宗教哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="法律哲学">法律哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="元伦理学">元伦理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%83%B9%E5%80%BC%E8%AB%96" title="價值論">價值論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E6%99%BA%E6%85%A7" title="生態智慧">生態智慧</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="環境哲學">環境哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA%E5%AD%B8" title="人類行為學">人類行為學</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="相关学科"><span id=".E7.9B.B8.E5.85.B3.E5.AD.A6.E7.A7.91"></span>相关学科</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39" title="编辑章节:相关学科"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="神學">神學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="科學">科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="心理學">心理學</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="相关列表"><span id=".E7.9B.B8.E5.85.B3.E5.88.97.E8.A1.A8"></span>相关列表</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40" title="编辑章节:相关列表"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="哲學家列表">哲学家列表</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="脚注"><span id=".E8.84.9A.E6.B3.A8"></span>脚注</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41" title="编辑章节:脚注"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-philosophy-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, <i>Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide</i>(Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "哲学研究那些终极、抽象和非常基本的问题。这些问题聚焦在存在、知识、道德、理性和人生的意义。"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="A.C.格雷林" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="A.C. Grayling"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=A.C.%E6%A0%BC%E9%9B%B7%E6%9E%97&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="A.C.格雷林(页面不存在)">A.C.格雷林</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Grayling" class="extiw" title="en:A.C. Grayling"><span lang="en" dir="auto">A.C. Grayling</span></a></span>)</span></span>. Editor's Introduction. A.C. Grayling, ed (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DyIiAQAAIAAJ">Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject</a> <b>vol. 1</b>. 牛津大学出版社. 1999: 1 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-02</span>&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-875243-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-875243-1"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-19-875243-1</a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160502054428/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyIiAQAAIAAJ">存档</a>于2016-05-02). <q>哲学探索的目标是去洞察关于知识、真理、理性、现实、意义、精神和价值的问题。其它人也在试图探索与这些问题有关的方面,特别是艺术和文学上,但只有哲学对这些问题发起直击……</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Editor%27s+Introduction&amp;rft.au=%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-all+%22+data-orig-title%3D%22A.C.%E6%A0%BC%E9%9B%B7%E6%9E%97%22+data-lang-code%3D%22en%22+data-lang-name%3D%22%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%22+data-foreign-title%3D%22A.C.+Grayling%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-page%22%3EA.C.%E6%A0%BC%E9%9B%B7%E6%9E%97%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint+ilh-comment%22%3E%EF%BC%88%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-lang%22%3E%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-colon%22%3E%EF%BC%9A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-link%22%3E-%7B%3Cspan+lang%3D%22en%22+dir%3D%22auto%22%3EA.C.+Grayling%3C%2Fspan%3E%7D-%3C%2Fspan%3E%EF%BC%89%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+1%3A+A+Guide+through+the+Subject&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-875243-1&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDyIiAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-justification-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-justification_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Anthony Quinton. The ethics of philosophical practice. T. Honderich, ed (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ">牛津哲学指南(The Oxford Companion to Philosophy)</a>. 牛津大学出版社. 1995: 666 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-02</span>&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-866132-0"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-19-866132-0</a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924160731/https://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ">存档</a>于2020-09-24). <q>哲学是一种理性的批判性思维,或多或少对自然世界进行<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8C%96" class="extiw" title="wikt:系统化">系统化</a>(形而上学或存在论),信仰辩护(认识论或知识论),和人生引导(伦理学或价值理论)。上述列表中的三个元素都有一个非哲学的副本,区别在于哲学那理性批判的程序和其系统性。每个人对自己所生活的自然世界都有自己的基本观念。形而上学替代那些未加辩论的假设归纳出这么一个作为一个整体理性地组织世界的概念。每个人都在某种情境下会在对他们在做的事并没有任何理论认识的情况下质疑自己或他人的信仰并伴随着或多或少的成功。认识论寻求通过辩论来明确正确信仰形成的规则。每个人通过把行为引导到期望的或有价值的目标来支配自己的行为。伦理学或道德哲学在其最包容的意义下旨在阐明在理性的系统化情境下包含的规则或原则。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=The+ethics+of+philosophical+practice&amp;rft.au=Anthony+Quinton&amp;rft.btitle=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%88The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy%EF%BC%89&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&amp;rft.pages=666&amp;rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsI4YAAAAIAAJ&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r82655520"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>,Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFGrayling2019 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>)</span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFRegenbogen2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>)</span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFTen1999">Ten 1999</a>,第<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&amp;pg=PA9">9</a>頁<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFTen1999 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>)</span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFAHD_Staff2022">AHD Staff 2022</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFAHD_Staff2022 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>)</span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Douglas Harper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/philosophy">philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-06-11</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170913065035/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=philosophy">存档</a>于2017-09-13).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=philosophy&amp;rft.au=Douglas+Harper&amp;rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fphilosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Webster&#39;s_New_World_Dictionary-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Webster&#39;s_New_World_Dictionary_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">哲學的定義為:「1.智慧或知識的源頭、熱愛,或對此之追尋;2.對行為、思考、知識與宇宙的本質等原則、理論或邏輯的分析。」<cite class="citation book">Webster新世界字典 Second College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%E6%96%B0%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%AD%97%E5%85%B8&amp;rft.edition=Second+College&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tufts1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tufts1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E6%AC%A7%E6%A0%B9%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BF%AE" title="第欧根尼·拉尔修">第欧根尼·拉尔修</a>:"哲人言行录", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1">I, 12</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20201110080906/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>); <a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BD%97" title="西塞罗">西塞罗</a>:"<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="图斯库卢姆辩论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Tusculan Disputations"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%E6%96%AF%E5%BA%93%E5%8D%A2%E5%A7%86%E8%BE%A9%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="图斯库卢姆辩论(页面不存在)">图斯库卢姆辩论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="extiw" title="en:Tusculan Disputations"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Tusculan Disputations</span></a></span>)</span></span>", V, 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jap-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jap_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">陳瑋芬. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103140435/http://www.eastasia.ntu.edu.tw/chinese/data/9-2/9-2-1/9-2-1.pdf">「哲學」之創譯與演繹──兼論「哲學」與「理學」之辨</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. 臺灣東亞文明研究學刊. 2012年12月, <b>9</b> (2) <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-01-03</span>&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eastasia.ntu.edu.tw/chinese/data/9-2/9-2-1/9-2-1.pdf">原始内容</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>存档于2014-01-03). <q>我以「哲學」所翻譯的philosophy,不僅論辨天道人道,兼立教法,且是西洋自古以來所論之事</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=%E3%80%8C%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E3%80%8D%E4%B9%8B%E5%89%B5%E8%AD%AF%E8%88%87%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E5%85%BC%E8%AB%96%E3%80%8C%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E3%80%8D%E8%88%87%E3%80%8C%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E3%80%8D%E4%B9%8B%E8%BE%A8&amp;rft.au=%E9%99%B3%E7%91%8B%E8%8A%AC&amp;rft.date=2012-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%9E%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%8A&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eastasia.ntu.edu.tw%2Fchinese%2Fdata%2F9-2%2F9-2-1%2F9-2-1.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jap2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jap2_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">高野繁男. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://human.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/kenkyu/publ/pdf/syoho/no37/3707.pdf">『哲学字彙』の和製漢語―その語基の生成法・造語法</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. 人文学研究所報. 2004 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-11</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220120942/http://human.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/kenkyu/publ/pdf/syoho/no37/3707.pdf">存档</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>于2020-12-20).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=%E3%80%8E%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%97%E5%BD%99%E3%80%8F%E3%81%AE%E5%92%8C%E8%A3%BD%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E%E2%80%95%E3%81%9D%E3%81%AE%E8%AA%9E%E5%9F%BA%E3%81%AE%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E6%B3%95%E3%83%BB%E9%80%A0%E8%AA%9E%E6%B3%95&amp;rft.au=%E9%AB%98%E9%87%8E%E7%B9%81%E7%94%B7&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80%E5%A0%B1&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhuman.kanagawa-u.ac.jp%2Fkenkyu%2Fpubl%2Fpdf%2Fsyoho%2Fno37%2F3707.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">參見《<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%93%E4%BC%A0#第十二章" class="extiw" title="s:易传">繫辭上傳</a>》<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%93%E4%BC%A0#第十二章" class="extiw" title="s:易传">第十二章</a>(朱子周易之章節分目)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graham Priest, What is Philosophy?, Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 September 2006, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy/article/abs/what-is-philosophy/C6F91CBD86DA5D3E578DE806F130F3A0">https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy/article/abs/what-is-philosophy/C6F91CBD86DA5D3E578DE806F130F3A0</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20220513020323/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy/article/abs/what-is-philosophy/C6F91CBD86DA5D3E578DE806F130F3A0">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">哲學的定義(摘自《西方哲学史》(英罗素著)绪论第三段,略有小改动)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.confuchina.com/01%20zong%20lun/zhongguozhexue%20chengli.htm">“中国哲学”能成立吗?黃玉順</a>. Confuchina.com. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-01-12</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120715140835/http://www.confuchina.com/01%20zong%20lun/zhongguozhexue%20chengli.htm">存档</a>于2012-07-15).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E2%80%9C%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E2%80%9D%E8%83%BD%E6%88%90%E7%AB%8B%E5%90%97%EF%BC%9F%E9%BB%83%E7%8E%89%E9%A0%86&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=Confuchina.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.confuchina.com%2F01%2520zong%2520lun%2Fzhongguozhexue%2520chengli.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cua, Anthony S. "Emergence of the history of Chinese philosophy", Comparative Approaches to Chinese Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=Cua%2C+Anthony+S.&amp;rft.btitle=%22Emergence+of+the+history+of+Chinese+philosophy%22%2C+Comparative+Approaches+to+Chinese+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blackburn-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blackburn_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blackburn, Simon. 牛津哲学词典. 牛津: 牛津大学出版社. 1994.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=Blackburn%2C+Simon&amp;rft.btitle=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5&amp;rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">杜保瑞. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103205843/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~duhbauruei/4pap/9ord/25.htm">中國哲學的知識論問題意識之定位</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-01-03</span>&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~duhbauruei/4pap/9ord/25.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2014-01-03). <q>西方哲學的三大哲學基本問題:形上學、知識論及倫理學,各是基於一類哲學問題意識而發展的哲學理論系統</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E6%9D%9C%E4%BF%9D%E7%91%9E&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%9A%84%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C%E6%84%8F%E8%AD%98%E4%B9%8B%E5%AE%9A%E4%BD%8D&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepage.ntu.edu.tw%2F~duhbauruei%2F4pap%2F9ord%2F25.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-2_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">中国大百科全书条目:哲学研究对象章节. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社. 2009年3月. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5000-7958-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5000-7958-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-7-5000-7958-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE%EF%BC%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E5%AF%B9%E8%B1%A1%E7%AB%A0%E8%8A%82&amp;rft.date=2009-03&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-7-5000-7958-3&amp;rft.place=%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC&amp;rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Smith, Robin. Aristotle’s Logic. Zalta, Edward N. (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/aristotle-logic/">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> Summer 2019. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2019 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2020-04-22</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519182741/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/aristotle-logic/">存档</a>于2020-05-19).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotle%E2%80%99s+Logic&amp;rft.aufirst=Robin&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.edition=Summer+2019&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2019%2Fentries%2Faristotle-logic%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyu-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyu_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.fas.nyu.edu/page/undergrad">Undergraduate Program &#124; Department of Philosophy &#124; NYU</a>. Philosophy.fas.nyu.edu. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-03</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605200726/http://philosophy.fas.nyu.edu/page/undergrad">存档</a>于2017-06-05).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=Undergraduate+Program+%26%23124%3B+Department+of+Philosophy+%26%23124%3B+NYU&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=Philosophy.fas.nyu.edu&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.fas.nyu.edu%2Fpage%2Fundergrad&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aesthetics-_definition-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aesthetics-_definition_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics">Aesthetics- definition</a>. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-03</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180727152823/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics">存档</a>于2018-07-27).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=Aesthetics-+definition&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Faesthetics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">例如,多作者的牛津西方哲学史把这门学科分为八卷:古典,中世纪,文艺复兴,两卷内容覆盖了1600–1750年,另两卷内容覆盖了1750–1945年,还有一卷内容覆盖了1945年后的分析哲学。安东尼·肯尼的<i>New History of Western Philosophy</i>分为四卷:古典,中世纪,近代前期(1500–1830年),近代后期(1830年至今)。更专业的剑桥哲学史把话题分为九个时期:前亚里士多德希腊哲学、希腊化时期哲学、后希腊时期和早期中世纪哲学、晚期中世纪、文艺复兴、三卷为17–19世纪,最后一卷包含1870–1945年的内容。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pe-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pe_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ebrey, Patricia. 剑桥插图中国史. 劍橋大學出版社. 2010: 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft.aulast=Ebrey&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%89%91%E6%A1%A5%E6%8F%92%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B2&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=%E5%8A%8D%E6%A9%8B%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9F%E5%AE%97%E4%B8%89" title="牟宗三">牟宗三</a>. 第一章. 中國哲學的特質 再版. 臺灣: 臺灣學生書局. 2015年10月: 4. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-957-15-0141-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-957-15-0141-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-957-15-0141-3</a> <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到中文(繁體)网页">(中文(繁體))</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E7%AB%A0&amp;rft.au=%E7%89%9F%E5%AE%97%E4%B8%89&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%9A%84%E7%89%B9%E8%B3%AA&amp;rft.date=2015-10&amp;rft.edition=%E5%86%8D%E7%89%88&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-15-0141-3&amp;rft.pages=4&amp;rft.place=%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3&amp;rft.pub=%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%AD%B8%E7%94%9F%E6%9B%B8%E5%B1%80&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebao-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebao_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebaomonthly.com/window/discovery/travel/greece/greece_phil.htm">希臘哲学</a>. 翼報. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-01-03</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220120950/http://www.ebaomonthly.com/window/discovery/travel/greece/greece_phil.htm">存档</a>于2020-12-20).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=%E7%BF%BC%E5%A0%B1&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebaomonthly.com%2Fwindow%2Fdiscovery%2Ftravel%2Fgreece%2Fgreece_phil.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tufts2-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tufts2_31-0"><sup><b>25.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tufts2_31-1"><sup><b>25.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BD%97" title="西塞罗">西塞罗</a>, <i><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="图斯库卢姆辩论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Tusculan Disputations"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%E6%96%AF%E5%BA%93%E5%8D%A2%E5%A7%86%E8%BE%A9%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="图斯库卢姆辩论(页面不存在)">图斯库卢姆辩论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="extiw" title="en:Tusculan Disputations"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Tusculan Disputations</span></a></span>)</span></span></i>, 5.3.8–9 = <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="赫拉克利德斯·彭提烏斯" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Heraclides Ponticus"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B5%AB%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BD%AD%E6%8F%90%E7%83%8F%E6%96%AF&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="赫拉克利德斯·彭提烏斯(页面不存在)">赫拉克利德斯·彭提烏斯</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" class="extiw" title="en:Heraclides Ponticus"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Heraclides Ponticus</span></a></span>)</span></span> fr. 88 Wehrli, <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E6%AC%A7%E6%A0%B9%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BF%AE" title="第欧根尼·拉尔修">第欧根尼·拉尔修</a>1.12, 8.8, <a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%8A%E5%B8%83%E9%87%8C%E7%A7%91%E6%96%AF" title="楊布里科斯">楊布里科斯</a><i>VP</i> 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by C.J. De Vogel, <i>Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism</i>(1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, <i>Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence</i>(2005), p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>牛津哲学指南</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-process-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-process_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="过程与实在" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Process and Reality"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B%E4%B8%8E%E5%AE%9E%E5%9C%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="过程与实在(页面不存在)">过程与实在</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_and_Reality" class="extiw" title="en:Process and Reality"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Process and Reality</span></a></span>)</span></span></i> p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/22*.html#3">Chapter XXII, ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY, § 3. The Suppression of Paganism</a>. 芝加哥大学.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+XXII%2C+ECCLESIASTICAL+POLICY%2C+%C2%A7+3.+The+Suppression+of+Paganism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=%E8%8A%9D%E5%8A%A0%E5%93%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FBURLAT%2F22%2A.html%233&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-encyclopedia-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%99%AE%E6%96%AF%E9%A1%BF" title="弗雷德里克·科普斯顿">弗雷德里克·科普斯顿</a>, <i>哲学史,卷II:从奥古斯丁到司各脱</i>(Burns &amp; Oates, 1950), p. 1,”中世纪哲学恰当的时间范围是从八世纪的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%B4%9B%E6%9E%97%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="加洛林文艺复兴">加洛林文艺复兴</a>到十四世纪结束,即使它包括了先驱者<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%A2%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" title="希波的奥古斯丁">奥古斯丁</a>和教父们。“<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="德斯蒙德·保罗·亨利" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Desmond Paul Henry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%92%99%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="德斯蒙德·保罗·亨利(页面不存在)">德斯蒙德·保罗·亨利</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Paul_Henry" class="extiw" title="en:Desmond Paul Henry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Desmond Paul Henry</span></a></span>)</span></span>, in Paul Edwards(ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>(Macmillan, 1967), vol. 5, pp. 252–257,”从奥古斯丁开始直到十四世纪末的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%85%8B%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A7%86" class="mw-redirect" title="尼克爾·奧里斯姆">尼克爾·奧里斯姆</a>为止。“David Luscombe, <i>Medieval Thought</i>(牛津大学出版社, 1997),”中世纪哲学的时间从<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E5%A3%AB%E5%9D%A6%E4%B8%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D" title="君士坦丁大帝">君士坦丁</a>312年皈依起至1520年代的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" title="宗教改革">宗教改革</a>为止。“Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling(ed.), <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i>(牛津大学出版社, 1998),包括从奥古斯丁起至<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8D%A1%E5%A7%86%E7%9A%84%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89" title="奥卡姆的威廉">奥坎</a>的哲学家。<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="荷黑·格拉西亚" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Jorge Gracia"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8D%B7%E9%BB%91%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="荷黑·格拉西亚(页面不存在)">荷黑·格拉西亚</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Gracia" class="extiw" title="en:Jorge Gracia"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Jorge Gracia</span></a></span>)</span></span>,in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James(eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed.(Blackwell, 2003), p. 620,”标识中世纪哲学为从奥古斯丁至17世纪的<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="约翰·波音索特" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="John of St. Thomas"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A2%E7%89%B9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="约翰·波音索特(页面不存在)">约翰·波音索特</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" class="extiw" title="en:John of St. Thomas"><span lang="en" dir="auto">John of St. Thomas</span></a></span>)</span></span>。“<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%9D%B1%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E8%82%AF%E5%B0%BC" title="安東尼·肯尼">安东尼·肯尼</a>, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy,卷二II:中世纪哲学</i>(牛津大学出版社, 2005),”从奥古斯丁开始至1512年的<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%94%E6%AC%A1%E6%8B%89%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%97%E5%85%AC%E6%9C%83%E8%AD%B0" title="第五次拉特朗公會議">拉特朗会议</a>。“</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gracia-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gracia_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gracia, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-contemporaries-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-contemporaries_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Schmitt and Quentin Skinner(eds.),<i>剑桥文艺复兴哲学史</i>(劍橋大學出版社, 1988), p. 5,宽松得定义这个时期范围“从奥卡姆的年代到培根、笛卡尔和他们同代人的修正工作为止”。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophies-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophies_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%99%AE%E6%96%AF%E9%A1%BF" title="弗雷德里克·科普斯顿">弗雷德里克·科普斯顿</a>, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez</i>(The Newman Press, 1953)p. 18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy ... one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance3-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance3_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Copenhaver and Charles Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>(牛津大学出版社, 1992), p. 4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-transmission-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-transmission_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jorge J.E. Gracia in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James(eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed.(Blackwell, 2002), p. 621: "the humanists ... restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-naturalistic-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-naturalistic_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, <i>ibid.</i>: "The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians ... but none the less the classical revival ... helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-intellectual-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-intellectual_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles B. Schmitt and Quentin Skinner(eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 61 and 63: "From Petrarch the early humanists learnt their conviction that the revival of <i>humanae literae</i> was only the first step in a greater intellectual renewal" [...] "the very conception of philosophy was changing because its chief object was now man—man was at centre of every inquiry".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-0"><sup><b>37.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-1"><sup><b>37.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall (编). Introduction. The Renaissance Philosophy of Man. 芝加哥大学出版社. 1948.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.au=Cassirer&amp;rft.au=Kristeller&amp;rft.au=Randall&amp;rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+Philosophy+of+Man&amp;rft.date=1948&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=%E8%8A%9D%E5%8A%A0%E5%93%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance4-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance4_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 285–328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophicae-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophicae_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pico Della Mirandola, Conclusiones philosophicae, cabalisticae et theologicae; Giordano Bruno, De Magia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scepticism-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scepticism_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Popkin, <i>The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle</i>(牛津大学出版社, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-copleston-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-copleston_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, pp. 228–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reformation-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reformation_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny,<i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3(牛津大学出版社, 2006), p. 8: "The Lutheran Reformation [...] gave new impetus to the sceptical trend."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Machiavelli appears as the first modern political thinker" <cite class="citation book">Williams, Garrath. Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-06</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110705135429/http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">存档</a>于2011-07-05).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Garrath&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>. "Machiavelli ought not really to be classified as either purely an "ancient" or a "modern," but instead deserves to be located in the interstices between the two." <cite class="citation book">Nederman, Cary. Niccolò Machiavelli. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-06</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014123327/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/">存档</a>于2013-10-14).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Niccol%C3%B2+Machiavelli&amp;rft.aufirst=Cary&amp;rft.aulast=Nederman&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmachiavelli%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance5-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance5_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 274–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renaissance6-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renaissance6_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmitt and Skinner, <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 430–452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blocker, H. Gene; Starling, Christopher L. Japanese Philosophy. 纽约州立大学出版社. 2001: 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=Starling%2C+Christopher+L.&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+Gene&amp;rft.aulast=Blocker&amp;rft.btitle=Japanese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.pub=%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%B7%9E%E7%AB%8B%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huang5-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-huang5_67-0"><sup><b>47.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang5_67-1"><sup><b>47.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuang1999">Huang 1999</a>,第5頁.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSB-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CSB_68-0"><sup><b>48.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSB_68-1"><sup><b>48.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF陈荣捷1963">陈荣捷 1963</a>,第460頁.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophers-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophers_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>(Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. xiii, defines its subject thus: "what has come to be known as "early modern philosophy"—roughly, philosophy spanning the period between the end of the sixteenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, or, in terms of figures, Montaigne through Kant." <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steven_Nadler&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Steven Nadler(页面不存在)">Steven Nadler</a>, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>(Blackwell, 2002), p. 1, likewise identifies its subject as "the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". Anthony Kenny, <i>The Oxford History of Western Philosophy</i>(Clarendon: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 107, introduces "early modern philosophy" as "the writings of the classical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical8-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical8_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, pp. 1–2: "By the seventeenth century [...] it had become more common to find original philosophical minds working outside the strictures of the university—i.e., ecclesiastic—framework. [...] by the end of the eighteenth century, [philosophy] was a secular enterprise."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-approaching-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-approaching_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%9D%B1%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E8%82%AF%E5%B0%BC" title="安東尼·肯尼">安东尼·肯尼</a>, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3(Oxford University Press, 2006), p. xii: "To someone approaching the early modern period of philosophy from an ancient and medieval background the most striking feature of the age is the absence of Aristotle from the philosophic scene."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-epistemology-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-epistemology_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>(Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metaphysical-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-metaphysical_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, p. 211: "The period between Descartes and Hegel was the great age of metaphysical system-building."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-independently-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-independently_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, pp. 179–180: "the seventeenth century saw the gradual separation of the old discipline of natural philosophy into the science of physics [...] [b]y the nineteenth century physics was a fully mature empirical science, operating independently of philosophy."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy9-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy9_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, pp. 212–331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical10-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical10_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, pp. 2–3: "Why should the early modern period in philosophy begin with Descartes and Bacon, for example, rather than with Erasmus and Montaigne? [...] Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and especially with Bacon and Descartes, certain questions and concerns come to the fore—a variety of issues that motivated the inquiries and debates that would characterize much philosophical thinking for the next two centuries."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-06</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110705135429/http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">存档</a>于2011-07-05).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>: "Hobbes is the founding father of modern political philosophy. Directly or indirectly, he has set the terms of debate about the fundamentals of political life right into our own times."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Cudd, Ann; Eftekhari, Seena. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/contractarianism/">Contractarianism</a>. Edward N. Zalta (编). <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%B9%E4%BD%9B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8" title="史丹佛哲學百科全書">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> Winter 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-06-11</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230127194605/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/contractarianism/">存档</a>于2023-01-27).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=Contractarianism&amp;rft.au=Eftekhari%2C+Seena&amp;rft.aufirst=Ann&amp;rft.aulast=Cudd&amp;rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.edition=Winter+2021&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2021%2Fentries%2Fcontractarianism%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>: "Contractarianism [...] stems from the Hobbesian line of social contract thought"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical12-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical12_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 1: "Most often this [period] has been associated with the achievements of a handful of great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists'(Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz)and 'empiricists'(Locke, Berkeley, Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant's 'Critical philosophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philosophical questions..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-traditional-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-traditional_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 2: "The study of early modern philosophy demands that we pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expansive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical figures(Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophical13-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical13_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bruce_Kuklick&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bruce Kuklick(页面不存在)">Bruce Kuklick</a>, "Seven Thinkers and How They Grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant" in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner(eds.), <i>Philosophy in History</i>(Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 125: "Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often rely on a notion of what is <i>canonical</i>. In American philosophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey; in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F. Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes and Locke [...] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, constitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of' American literature, economic thought, and so on. The most conventional of such histories are embodied in university courses and the textbooks that accompany them. This essay examines one such course, the History of Modern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the initial response would be: they were the best, and there are historical and philosophical connections among them."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rutherford-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rutherford_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy14-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy14_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, p. xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy15-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy15_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Critique_of_Pure_Reason-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Critique_of_Pure_Reason_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">伊曼努尔·康德. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/critiqueofpurere0000kant_v5l5">纯粹理性批判</a>. Prometheus Books. 1990. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-87975-596-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-87975-596-6"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-87975-596-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7&amp;rft.btitle=%E7%BA%AF%E7%B2%B9%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87975-596-6&amp;rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcritiqueofpurere0000kant_v5l5&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dabaike-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dabaike_126-0"><sup><b>66.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dabaike_126-1"><sup><b>66.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dabaike_126-2"><sup><b>66.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">中国大百科全书总编委. 哲学. 中国大百科全书. 中国大百科全书出版社. 2009年3月: 153. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5000-7958-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5000-7958-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-7-5000-7958-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.atitle=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E6%80%BB%E7%BC%96%E5%A7%94&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.date=2009-03&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-7-5000-7958-3&amp;rft.pages=153&amp;rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Misere-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Misere_127-0"><sup><b>67.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Misere_127-1"><sup><b>67.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Misere_127-2"><sup><b>67.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">卡尔·马克思. Misère de la philosophie. Réponse à la philosophie de la misère de M.Proudhon哲学的贫困. 1847.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D&amp;rft.btitle=Mis%C3%A8re+de+la+philosophie.+R%C3%A9ponse+%C3%A0+la+philosophie+de+la+mis%C3%A8re+de+M.Proudhon%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E8%B4%AB%E5%9B%B0&amp;rft.date=1847&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Zahavi, Dan (2003), Husserl's Phenomenology, Stanford: Stanford University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="约翰·麦奎利" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="John Macquarrie"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%A5%8E%E5%88%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="约翰·麦奎利(页面不存在)">约翰·麦奎利</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Macquarrie" class="extiw" title="en:John Macquarrie"><span lang="en" dir="auto">John Macquarrie</span></a></span>)</span></span>,<i>存在主义</i>, New York (1972), pages 18–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philosophy25-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy25_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), page 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism26-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism26_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="约翰·麦奎利" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="John Macquarrie"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%A5%8E%E5%88%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="约翰·麦奎利(页面不存在)">约翰·麦奎利</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Macquarrie" class="extiw" title="en:John Macquarrie"><span lang="en" dir="auto">John Macquarrie</span></a></span>)</span></span>,<i>存在主义</i>, New York (1972), pages 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111121205113/http://db1x.sinica.edu.tw/caat/caat_rptcaatc.php?_op=%3FSUBJECT_ID%3A300068735">藝術與建築索引典—存在主義</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;2011年3月14日&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://db1x.sinica.edu.tw/caat/caat_rptcaatc.php?_op=?SUBJECT_ID:300068735">原始内容</a>存档于2011年11月21日).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93%E8%88%87%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E5%85%B8%E2%80%94%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdb1x.sinica.edu.tw%2Fcaat%2Fcaat_rptcaatc.php%3F_op%3D%3FSUBJECT_ID%3A300068735&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism27-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism27_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="罗伯特·所罗门" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Robert C. Solomon"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%89%80%E7%BD%97%E9%97%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="罗伯特·所罗门(页面不存在)">罗伯特·所罗门</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" class="extiw" title="en:Robert C. Solomon"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Robert C. Solomon</span></a></span>)</span></span>,<i>存在主义</i>(McGraw-Hill, 1974, pages 1–2)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism28-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism28_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), page 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialism29-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism29_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Kaufmann, <i>Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre</i>, New York (1956) page 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kierkegaard-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kierkegaard_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Matustik, Martin J. Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity. Indiana University Press. 1995. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-253-20967-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-253-20967-2"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-253-20967-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+in+Post%2FModernity&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-253-20967-2&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bob-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bob_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Solomon, Robert. What Nietzsche Really Said. Schocken. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-8052-1094-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-8052-1094-1"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-8052-1094-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=Solomon%2C+Robert&amp;rft.btitle=What+Nietzsche+Really+Said&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8052-1094-1&amp;rft.pub=Schocken&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-existentialists-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialists_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gabriel_Marcel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Gabriel Marcel(页面不存在)">Gabriel Marcel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Berdyaev&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Berdyaev(页面不存在)">Nicholas Berdyaev</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Miguel_de_Unamuno&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Miguel de Unamuno(页面不存在)">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a>(although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lev_Shestov&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lev Shestov(页面不存在)">Lev Shestov</a> have also been associated with existentialism.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">克尔凯郭尔. 恐惧与颤栗. Penguin Classics. 1986. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-14-044449-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-14-044449-0"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-14-044449-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%E5%87%AF%E9%83%AD%E5%B0%94&amp;rft.btitle=%E6%81%90%E6%83%A7%E4%B8%8E%E9%A2%A4%E6%A0%97&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-14-044449-0&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">克尔凯郭尔. 非科学的附启. 普林斯顿大学出版社. 1992. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-691-02081-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-691-02081-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-691-02081-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%E5%87%AF%E9%83%AD%E5%B0%94&amp;rft.btitle=%E9%9D%9E%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E9%99%84%E5%90%AF&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-02081-5&amp;rft.pub=%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E6%96%AF%E9%A1%BF%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> </ol> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="zh" dir="ltr">引用错误:在<code>&lt;references&gt;</code>标签中name属性为“Webster”的参考文献没有在文中使用</span></div> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">大美百科全书. 台北: 光复书局股份公司. 1992年6月. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780717201037" title="Special:网络书源/9780717201037"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;9780717201037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A7%E7%BE%8E%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.date=1992-06&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780717201037&amp;rft.place=%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97&amp;rft.pub=%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%B9%A6%E5%B1%80%E8%82%A1%E4%BB%BD%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li></ul> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-amencps-1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-1_18-0"><sup><b>1.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-1_18-1"><sup><b>1.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">哲学条目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-12-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-12_27-0"><sup><b>2.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-12_27-1"><sup><b>2.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-12_27-2"><sup><b>2.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史之概要部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-21-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-21_35-0"><sup><b>3.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-21_35-1"><sup><b>3.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史之苏格拉底部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-23-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-23_41-0"><sup><b>4.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-23_41-1"><sup><b>4.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史希腊化时期的哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-25-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-0"><sup><b>5.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-1"><sup><b>5.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-2"><sup><b>5.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-3"><sup><b>5.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-4"><sup><b>5.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-25_63-5"><sup><b>5.5</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史文艺复兴的思想家章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-27-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-27_86-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-27_86-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史笛卡尔章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-28a-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-28a_89-0"><sup><b>7.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-28a_89-1"><sup><b>7.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史斯宾诺莎章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-29-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-29_91-0"><sup><b>8.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-29_91-1"><sup><b>8.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史莱布尼茨部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-28b-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-28b_93-0"><sup><b>9.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-28b_93-1"><sup><b>9.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史英国经验论与怀疑论部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-32-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-32_98-0"><sup><b>10.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-32_98-1"><sup><b>10.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从起源到康德哲学史康德部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-33-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-33_103-0"><sup><b>11.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-33_103-1"><sup><b>11.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-33_103-2"><sup><b>11.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从康德到现代哲学史黑格尔及其继承人之黑格尔部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-35-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-35_106-0"><sup><b>12.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-35_106-1"><sup><b>12.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-35_106-2"><sup><b>12.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-35_106-3"><sup><b>12.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从康德到现代哲学史部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-37-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-37_112-0"><sup><b>13.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-37_112-1"><sup><b>13.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-37_112-2"><sup><b>13.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-37_112-3"><sup><b>13.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从康德到现代哲学史黑格尔及其继承人马克思部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-39-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-39_116-0"><sup><b>14.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-39_116-1"><sup><b>14.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">从康德到现代哲学史后古典现代哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amencps-40-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-40_120-0"><sup><b>15.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amencps-40_120-1"><sup><b>15.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">哲学条目从康德到现代哲学史形形色色的哲学第三潮流</span> </li> </ol> </div> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">不列颠百科全书. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社. 1999. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781593392925" title="Special:网络书源/9781593392925"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;9781593392925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%97%E9%A2%A0%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9781593392925&amp;rft.place=%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC&amp;rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li></ul> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-brencps-13-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-13_28-0"><sup><b>1.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-13_28-1"><sup><b>1.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学史古希腊罗马哲学章节前苏格拉底哲学家部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-20-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-20_32-0"><sup><b>2.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-20_32-1"><sup><b>2.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目古希腊罗马哲学章节前苏格拉底哲学家毕达哥拉斯部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-21-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-21_36-0"><sup><b>3.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-21_36-1"><sup><b>3.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目希腊哲学中的创新思想家苏格拉底部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-23-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-23_42-0"><sup><b>4.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-23_42-1"><sup><b>4.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目晚期希腊和罗马哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-25-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-0"><sup><b>5.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-1"><sup><b>5.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-2"><sup><b>5.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-3"><sup><b>5.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-4"><sup><b>5.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-5"><sup><b>5.5</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-6"><sup><b>5.6</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-25_64-7"><sup><b>5.7</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目近代哲学15-16世纪文艺复兴时代部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-27-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-27_87-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-27_87-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">笛卡尔主义条目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-28-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-28_94-0"><sup><b>7.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-28_94-1"><sup><b>7.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目近代哲学启蒙主义部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-32-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-32_99-0"><sup><b>8.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-32_99-1"><sup><b>8.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目近代哲学启蒙主义康德部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-33a-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-33a_101-0"><sup><b>9.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-33a_101-1"><sup><b>9.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-33a_101-2"><sup><b>9.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:康德“三大”批判时期章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-34-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-34_105-0"><sup><b>10.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-34_105-1"><sup><b>10.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-34_105-2"><sup><b>10.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">黑格尔主义条目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-35-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-0"><sup><b>11.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-1"><sup><b>11.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-2"><sup><b>11.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-3"><sup><b>11.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-4"><sup><b>11.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-5"><sup><b>11.5</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-6"><sup><b>11.6</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-7"><sup><b>11.7</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-35_107-8"><sup><b>11.8</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目19世纪哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-36-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-0"><sup><b>12.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-1"><sup><b>12.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-2"><sup><b>12.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-3"><sup><b>12.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-4"><sup><b>12.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-5"><sup><b>12.5</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-6"><sup><b>12.6</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-7"><sup><b>12.7</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-36_109-8"><sup><b>12.8</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目20世纪哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-37-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-37_114-0"><sup><b>13.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-37_114-1"><sup><b>13.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-37_114-2"><sup><b>13.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-37_114-3"><sup><b>13.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">马克思主义条目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brencps-33b-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-33b_125-0"><sup><b>14.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brencps-33b_125-1"><sup><b>14.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">西方哲学史条目19世纪哲学章节</span> </li> </ol> </div> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">中华百科全书. 1983年典藏版.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">请检查<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;date=</code>中的日期值 (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#bad_date" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-1_17-0"><sup><b>1.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-1_17-1"><sup><b>1.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">黄庆明哲学条目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-7-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-7_30-0"><sup><b>2.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-7_30-1"><sup><b>2.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">高怀民条目:希腊哲学前期希腊部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-20-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-20_34-0"><sup><b>3.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-20_34-1"><sup><b>3.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">高怀民希腊哲学条目前期希腊毕达哥拉斯部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-21-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-21_38-0"><sup><b>4.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-21_38-1"><sup><b>4.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">高怀民中期希腊哲学苏格拉底部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-23-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-23_44-0"><sup><b>5.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-23_44-1"><sup><b>5.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">高怀民晚期希腊哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-35-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-2"><sup><b>6.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-35_110-3"><sup><b>6.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新新多玛斯主义部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-32-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-32_111-0"><sup><b>7.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-32_111-1"><sup><b>7.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新新黑格尔主义部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-37-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-0"><sup><b>8.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-1"><sup><b>8.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-2"><sup><b>8.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-37_115-3"><sup><b>8.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新马克斯主义部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-34-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-34_118-0"><sup><b>9.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-34_118-1"><sup><b>9.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新分析哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-38-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-38_119-0"><sup><b>10.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-38_119-1"><sup><b>10.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新新康德学派部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-39-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-39_121-0"><sup><b>11.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-39_121-1"><sup><b>11.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新存在主义部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-40-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-40_122-0"><sup><b>12.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-40_122-1"><sup><b>12.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新现象学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cntwencps-41-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-41_123-0"><sup><b>13.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cntwencps-41_123-1"><sup><b>13.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学袁保新实用主义部分</span> </li> </ol> </div> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">中国大百科全书. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社. 2009年3月. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5000-7958-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5000-7958-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-7-5000-7958-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.date=2009-03&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-7-5000-7958-3&amp;rft.place=%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC&amp;rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E4%B9%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li></ul> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-13-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-13_29-0"><sup><b>1.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-13_29-1"><sup><b>1.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段古希腊哲学第一部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-20-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-20_33-0"><sup><b>2.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-20_33-1"><sup><b>2.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段古希腊哲学毕达哥拉斯部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-21-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-21_37-0"><sup><b>3.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-21_37-1"><sup><b>3.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段古希腊哲学章节苏格拉底部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-23-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-23_43-0"><sup><b>4.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-23_43-1"><sup><b>4.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段古希腊哲学章节第三部分部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-25-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-25_65-0"><sup><b>5.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-25_65-1"><sup><b>5.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段文艺复兴时期哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-26-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-26_77-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-26_77-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-27-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-27_88-0"><sup><b>7.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-27_88-1"><sup><b>7.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节笛卡尔部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-28b-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-28b_90-0"><sup><b>8.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-28b_90-1"><sup><b>8.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节斯宾诺莎部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-29-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-29_92-0"><sup><b>9.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-29_92-1"><sup><b>9.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节莱布尼茨部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-28a-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-28a_95-0"><sup><b>10.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-28a_95-1"><sup><b>10.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节洛克,贝克莱,休谟等部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-30-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-30_96-0"><sup><b>11.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-30_96-1"><sup><b>11.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段中期近代哲学章节法国哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-31-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-0"><sup><b>12.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-1"><sup><b>12.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-2"><sup><b>12.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-3"><sup><b>12.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-4"><sup><b>12.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-31_97-5"><sup><b>12.5</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段德国古典哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-32-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-32_100-0"><sup><b>13.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-32_100-1"><sup><b>13.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段德国古典哲学康德部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-32a-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-32a_102-0"><sup><b>14.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-32a_102-1"><sup><b>14.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段德国古典哲学费希特,谢林部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-33-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-33_104-0"><sup><b>15.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-33_104-1"><sup><b>15.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-33_104-2"><sup><b>15.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段德国古典哲学黑格尔部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-35-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-0"><sup><b>16.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-1"><sup><b>16.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-2"><sup><b>16.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-3"><sup><b>16.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-4"><sup><b>16.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-35_108-5"><sup><b>16.5</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段现代哲学章节</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-37-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-0"><sup><b>17.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-1"><sup><b>17.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-2"><sup><b>17.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-37_113-3"><sup><b>17.3</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段现代哲学部分</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnencps-39-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-39_117-0"><sup><b>18.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnencps-39_117-1"><sup><b>18.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">条目:西方哲学主要发展阶段德国古典哲学费尔巴哈部分</span> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="扩展阅读"><span id=".E6.89.A9.E5.B1.95.E9.98.85.E8.AF.BB"></span>扩展阅读</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42" title="编辑章节:扩展阅读"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E5%80%AB%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" title="艾倫·布洛克">艾倫·布洛克</a>, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, <i>eds</i>. <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers</i>, in series, <i>Fontana Original[s]</i>. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780006369653" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3</a></li> <li>艾倫·布洛克, and Oliver Stallybrass, <i>jt. eds</i>. <i>The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. <i>N.B</i>.: "First published in England under the title, <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>." <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780060105785" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-06-010578-5</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Didier_Julia&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Didier Julia(页面不存在)">Julia, Didier</a>. <i>Dictionnaire de la philosophie</i>. Responsible éditorial, Emmanuel de Waresquiel; secretariat de rédaction, Joelle Narjollet. [Éd. rev.]. Paris: Larousse, 2006. 301, [1] p. + xvi p. of ill. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9782035833099" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-2-03-583309-9</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_L._Reese&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="William L. Reese(页面不存在)">Reese, W. L.</a> <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought</i>. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780391006881" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-391-00688-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="入门"><span id=".E5.85.A5.E9.97.A8"></span>入门</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43" title="编辑章节:入门"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kwame_Anthony_Appiah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah(页面不存在)">Appiah, Kwame Anthony</a>. <i>Thinking it Through&#160;&#160;– An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy</i>, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195134582" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2</a></li> <li>Blumenau, Ralph. <i>Philosophy and Living</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780907845331" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Craig_(philosopher)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)(页面不存在)">Craig, Edward</a>. <i>Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780192854216" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6</a></li> <li>Curley, Edwin, <i>A Spinoza Reader</i>, Princeton, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780691000671" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" class="mw-redirect" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>, <i>Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers</i>, Pocket, 1991, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780671739164" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4</a></li> <li>Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, <i>Mastering Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780333693438" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kathleen_Higgins&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kathleen Higgins(页面不存在)">Higgins, Kathleen M.</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_C._Solomon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert C. Solomon(页面不存在)">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>A Short History of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195101966" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_Now&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy Now(页面不存在)">Philosophy Now</a></i> magazine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040807090338/http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/">The Problems of Philosophy</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195115529" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9</a></li> <li>Sinclair, Alistair J. <i>What is Philosophy? An Introduction</i>, 2008, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781903765944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliott_Sober&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Elliott Sober(页面不存在)">Sober, Elliott</a>.(2001). <i>Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings</i>. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780131898691" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_C._Solomon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert C. Solomon(页面不存在)">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780534167080" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nigel_Warburton&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nigel Warburton(页面不存在)">Warburton, Nigel</a>. <i>Philosophy: The Basics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780415146944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.cambridge.org/thi">Think: philosophy for everyone</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20081010121909/http://www.journals.cambridge.org/thi">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>) Lively and accessible articles written by philosophers pre-eminent in their fields, for a broad audience. Free articles are available online.</li> <li>Gerald Rochelle <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.practicalphilosophy.org.uk">[1]</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200607193125/http://www.practicalphilosophy.org.uk/">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>) Doing Philosophy, 2012, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781780460048" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-78046-004-8</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="专题介绍"><span id=".E4.B8.93.E9.A2.98.E4.BB.8B.E7.BB.8D"></span>专题介绍</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44" title="编辑章节:专题介绍"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Copleston, Frederick. <i>Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780268015695" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5</a></li> <li>Critchley, Simon. <i>Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780192853592" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2</a></li> <li>Hamilton, Sue. <i>Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780192853745" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5</a></li> <li>Harwood, Sterling, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000); www.sterlingharwood.com</li> <li>Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy<i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780847688418" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8</a></i></li> <li>Knight, Kelvin. <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780745619774" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4</a></li> <li>Kupperman, Joel J. <i>Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195133356" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6</a></li> <li>Leaman, Oliver. <i>A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780745619606" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6</a></li> <li>Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. <i>Eastern Philosophy For Beginners</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780863162824" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4</a></li> <li>Nagel, Thomas. <i>What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195052923" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3</a></li> <li>Scruton, Roger. <i>A Short History of Modern Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780415267632" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2</a></li> <li>Smart, Ninian. <i>World Philosophies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780415228527" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Tarnas&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Tarnas(页面不存在)">Tarnas, Richard</a>. <i>The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780345368096" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="选集"><span id=".E9.80.89.E9.9B.86"></span>选集</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=45" title="编辑章节:选集"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><i>Classics of Philosophy(Vols. 1 &amp; 2, 2nd edition)</i>by Louis P. Pojman</li> <li><i>Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century(Vol. 3)</i>by Louis P. Pojman</li> <li><i>The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill</i> by Edwin Arthur</li> <li><i>European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche</i> by Monroe Beardsley</li> <li><i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings</i> by James Baillie</li> <li><i>Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)</i> by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom</li> <li><i>The Phenomenology Reader</i> by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney</li> <li><i>Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings</i> edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi</li> <li><i>A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</i> by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore</li> <li><i>A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</i> by <a href="/wiki/%E9%99%B3%E6%A6%AE%E6%8D%B7" title="陳榮捷">陈荣捷</a>著</li> <li>Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed.(1999). <i>Metaphysics: An Anthology</i>. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li> <li><i>The Oxford Handbook of Free Will</i>(2004)edited by Robert Kane</li> <li>Husserl, Edmund and Donn Welton (1999). <i>The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology</i>, Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780253212733" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-253-21273-3</a></li> <li>Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="参考著作"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.80.83.E8.91.97.E4.BD.9C"></span>参考著作</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;section=46" title="编辑章节:参考著作"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREF陈荣捷1963" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/%E9%99%B3%E6%A6%AE%E6%8D%B7" title="陳榮捷">陈荣捷</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com.hk/books/about/A_Source_Book_in_Chinese_Philosophy.html?id=dzmMaVTvUzAC">A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</a>. Princeton University Press. 1963 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-19</span>&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0691019649" title="Special:网络书源/0691019649"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;0691019649</a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140519060627/http://books.google.com.hk/books/about/A_Source_Book_in_Chinese_Philosophy.html?id=dzmMaVTvUzAC">存档</a>于2014-05-19).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.au=%E9%99%88%E8%8D%A3%E6%8D%B7&amp;rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Chinese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1963&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0691019649&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com.hk%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_Source_Book_in_Chinese_Philosophy.html%3Fid%3DdzmMaVTvUzAC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHuang1999" class="citation book">Huang, Siu-chi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com.hk/books/about/Essentials_of_Neo_Confucianism.html?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC">Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1999 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2014-05-19</span>&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/031326449X" title="Special:网络书源/031326449X"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;031326449X</a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140519061213/http://books.google.com.hk/books/about/Essentials_of_Neo_Confucianism.html?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC">存档</a>于2014-05-19).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;rft.aufirst=Siu-chi&amp;rft.aulast=Huang&amp;rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Neo-Confucianism%3A+Eight+Major+Philosophers+of+the+Song+and+Ming+Periods&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=031326449X&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com.hk%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FEssentials_of_Neo_Confucianism.html%3Fid%3DsjzPPg8eK7sC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> edited by Ted Honderich</li> <li><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> by Robert Audi</li> <li><i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>(10 vols.)edited by Edward Craig, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luciano_Floridi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Luciano Floridi(页面不存在)">Luciano Floridi</a>(available online by subscription); or</li> <li><i>The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>(8 vols.)edited by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher)(页面不存在)">Paul Edwards</a>; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Directory_of_Philosophy_and_Philosophers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers(页面不存在)">International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Directory_of_American_Philosophers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Directory of American Philosophers(页面不存在)">Directory of American Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li><i>Routledge History of Philosophy</i>(10 vols.)edited by John Marenbon</li> <li><i>History of Philosophy</i>(9 vols.)by <a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%99%AE%E6%96%AF%E9%A1%BF" title="弗雷德里克·科普斯顿">Frederick Copleston</a></li> <li><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i>(5 vols.)by W. T. Jones</li> <li><i>History of Italian Philosophy</i>(2 vols.)by Eugenio Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.</li> <li><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies</i>(8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al.(first 6 volumes out of print)</li> <li><i>Indian Philosophy</i>(2 vols.)by <a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i>(5 vols.)by Surendranath Dasgupta</li> <li><i>History of Chinese Philosophy</i>(2 vols.)by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde</li> <li><i>Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming</i>陈荣捷著</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy</i> edited by Antonio S. Cua</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i> by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs</li> <li><i>Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i> by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam</li> <li><i>A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English</i> by John A. Grimes</li> <li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman</li> <li><i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i> edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman</li> <li><i>A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries</i> by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin</li> <li>Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed.(1994)<i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.</li> <li>Blackburn, S., Ed.(1996)<i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Mauter, T., Ed. <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. London, Penguin Books.</li> <li>Runes, D., Ed.(1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/runes/"><i>The Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20140424155352/http://www.ditext.com/runes/">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>). New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.</li> <li>Angeles, P.A., Ed.(1992). <i>The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. New York, Harper Perennial.</li> <li>Bunnin, N. et al., Ed.(1996)<i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li> <li>Hoffman, Eric, Ed.(1997)<i>Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy</i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li>Popkin, R.H.(1999). <i>The Columbia History of Western Philosophy</i>. 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href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="神经哲学(页面不存在)">神经哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophilosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Neurophilosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Neurophilosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E5%8B%95%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="行動理論">行动</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="数学哲学">数学</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="人工智能哲學">人工智能</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="資訊哲學">信息</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E7%A9%BA%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="时空哲学">时空</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="科学哲学">科学</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="物理哲学">物理</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="化学哲学">化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學哲學">生物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="地理哲學">地理</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="環境哲學">环境</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="技术哲学">技术</a> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="工程学哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of engineering"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="工程学哲学(页面不存在)">工程</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of engineering"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of engineering</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="医学哲学(页面不存在)">医学哲学</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E7%99%82%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="醫療衛生哲學">醫療衛生哲學</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="性哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of sex"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%80%A7%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="性哲学(页面不存在)">性</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of sex"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of sex</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会科学的哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of social science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="社会科学的哲学(页面不存在)">社会科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of social science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of social science</span></a></span>)</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%8E%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学与经济学">经济</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E7%BE%A9" title="正義">公正</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="法律哲学">法律</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="社会哲学">社会</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="戰爭哲學">战争</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD699;"><div id="哲学学派" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学体系列表(页面不存在)">哲学学派</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="哲學史">哲學史</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古典哲学">古典</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀哲學">中世纪</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="文艺复兴时期哲学">文艺复兴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="近代哲學">近代</a><small>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="巴洛克时期哲学">巴洛克时期</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="啟蒙時代">啟蒙時代</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/19%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="19世纪哲学">19世紀</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2#当代哲学" title="西方哲学史">当代</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="東方哲學">东方</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古典哲学">古典</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中国哲学">中国</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家">儒家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家">法家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E5%AE%B6" title="名家">名家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E5%AE%B6" title="墨家">墨家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E7%8E%84%E5%AD%B8" title="魏晉玄學">魏晉玄學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%AE%B6" title="道家">道家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%A8%E6%9C%B1%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%B4" title="杨朱学说">杨朱</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%85%E5%AE%97" title="禅宗">禅宗</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">希腊-</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%8C%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="希臘化哲學">希臘化哲學</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%8B%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="前苏格拉底哲学">前苏格拉底</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="毕达哥拉斯主义">毕达哥拉斯主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E8%BE%A9%E5%AE%B6" title="智辩家">诡辩学派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="柏拉图主义">柏拉图主义</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="亞里斯多德主義">亞里斯多德主義</a></b>(<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%8D%E9%81%99%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="逍遙學派">逍遙學派</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AC%E5%84%92%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="犬儒學派">犬儒學派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E9%B3%A9%E9%AD%AF%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="伊比鳩魯學派">伊比鳩魯學派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E8%91%9B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="斯多葛主義">斯多亞學派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新柏拉图主义">新柏拉图主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="解釋學">解釋學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">印度</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="佛教哲学">佛教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%BA%E4%B8%96%E8%AE%BA" title="顺世论">顺世论</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="印度教哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Hindu philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="印度教哲学(页面不存在)">印度教</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Hindu philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Hindu philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="耆那教哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Jain philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%86%E9%82%A3%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="耆那教哲学(页面不存在)">耆那教</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Jain philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Jain philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="伊朗哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Iranian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="伊朗哲学(页面不存在)">波斯</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Iranian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Iranian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%9B%E5%85%B9%E8%BE%BE%E5%85%8B" title="玛兹达克">玛兹达克</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%90%E7%BD%97%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%AF%E5%BE%B7%E6%95%99" class="mw-redirect" title="琐罗亚斯德教">祆教</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%96%E5%B0%94%E5%AE%9B" title="祖尔宛">楚尔凡教义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀哲學">中世紀</a> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">9 &#8211; 16<br />世纪</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="基督教哲学">基督</a>欧洲</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="经院哲学">经院哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="文藝復興人文主義">人文主义</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="托马斯主义">托马斯主义</a></b>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A5%8E%E9%82%A3" title="托马斯·阿奎那">阿奎那</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;">东亚</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%98%8E%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="宋明理學">宋明理學</a><small>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%8B%E6%9C%B1%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="程朱理学">程朱理学</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E5%AD%B8" title="心學">陆王心学</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E5%98%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="永嘉学派">永嘉学派</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%93%E5%9C%8B%E5%84%92%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="韓國儒學">韓國儒學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%B1%E5%AD%90%E5%AD%A6" title="日本朱子学">日本朱子学</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;">印度</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="新逻辑学派 (印度哲学)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Navya-Nyāya"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE_(%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="新逻辑学派 (印度哲学)(页面不存在)">新逻辑学派 (印度哲学)</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" class="extiw" title="en:Navya-Nyāya"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Navya-Nyāya</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="有保留的非二元论 (印度哲学)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Vishishtadvaita"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%89%E4%BF%9D%E7%95%99%E7%9A%84%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AE%BA_(%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="有保留的非二元论 (印度哲学)(页面不存在)">有保留的非二元论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" class="extiw" title="en:Vishishtadvaita"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Vishishtadvaita</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="二元论 (印度哲学)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Dvaita"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AE%BA_(%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="二元论 (印度哲学)(页面不存在)">二元论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita" class="extiw" title="en:Dvaita"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Dvaita</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰哲学">伊斯兰</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="阿威罗伊主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Averroism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%A8%81%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%8A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="阿威罗伊主义(页面不存在)">阿威罗伊主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" class="extiw" title="en:Averroism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Averroism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%A5%BF%E9%82%A3#哲学思想" title="伊本·西那">阿维森纳</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="照明主义哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Illuminationism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%85%A7%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="照明主义哲学(页面不存在)">照明主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminationism" class="extiw" title="en:Illuminationism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Illuminationism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰教义学">伊斯兰教义学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="苏菲主义哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sufi philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8B%8F%E8%8F%B2%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="苏菲主义哲学(页面不存在)">苏菲主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Sufi philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sufi philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="猶太教哲學">犹太教</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="犹太-伊斯兰哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA-%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太-伊斯兰哲学(页面不存在)">犹太-伊斯兰</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" class="extiw" title="en:Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="近代哲學">近代</a> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">17 &#8211; 19<br />世纪</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><b>人物</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新托马斯主义">新托马斯主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="笛卡尔主义">笛卡尔主义</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="康德主义">康德主义</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新康德主义">新康德主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔主义">黑格尔主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="马克思主义哲学">马克思主义哲学</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;">唯物-唯心</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="辩证唯物主义">辩证唯物主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="唯心主義">唯心主義</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="绝对唯心论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Absolute idealism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BB%9D%E5%AF%B9%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="绝对唯心论(页面不存在)">绝对唯心论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_idealism" class="extiw" title="en:Absolute idealism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Absolute idealism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="理性主义">理性主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9F%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="功利主義">效益主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实用主义">实用主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="古典自由主义">自由主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="无政府主义">无政府主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="現代主義">現代主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%B8" title="現象學">現象學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="超验主义">超验主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%8B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="日本國學">日本國學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="新儒家">新儒家</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%82%E9%9D%9C%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="寂靜主義">寂静主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="改革宗知识论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Reformed epistemology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%AE%97%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="改革宗知识论(页面不存在)">改革宗知识论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" class="extiw" title="en:Reformed epistemology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Reformed epistemology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="西方哲学史">当代</a> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">20 &#8211; 21<br />世纪</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="分析女性主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Analytical feminism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="分析女性主义(页面不存在)">分析女性主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_feminism" class="extiw" title="en:Analytical feminism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Analytical feminism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="分析马克思主义">分析马克思主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="后分析哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Postanalytic philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8E%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="后分析哲学(页面不存在)">后分析哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Postanalytic philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Postanalytic philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%9C%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="结果论">结果论</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9F%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="功利主義">功利主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%89%E5%8A%A1%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="义务伦理学">道义论</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·罗尔斯">罗尔斯主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E6%80%A7%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="德性倫理學">德性倫理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗哲學">實驗哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="内在主义与外在主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Internalism and externalism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%86%85%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E4%B8%8E%E5%A4%96%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="内在主义与外在主义(页面不存在)">内在主义与外在主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" class="extiw" title="en:Internalism and externalism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Internalism and externalism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%AF%81%E4%BC%AA%E6%80%A7" title="可证伪性">证伪主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%A1%80%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="基础主义">基础主义</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86%E8%9E%8D%E8%B4%AF%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="真理融贯论">真理融贯论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">维特根斯坦</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="逻辑实证主义">逻辑实证主义</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E4%B9%9F%E7%BA%B3%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="维也纳学派">维也纳学派</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E5%B8%B8%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="日常語言哲學">日常語言哲學</a>-<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="自然主义知识论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Naturalized epistemology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="自然主义知识论(页面不存在)">蒯因的自然主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" class="extiw" title="en:Naturalized epistemology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Naturalized epistemology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="科学主义">科学主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="法律实证主义">法律实证主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E9%99%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="歐陸哲學">欧陆</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="新馬克思主義">新馬克思主義</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="西方马克思主义">西方马克思主义</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="後馬克思主義">後馬克思主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="黑格尔主义">黑格尔主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="批判理論">批判理論</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E7%A6%8F%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="法蘭克福學派">法蘭克福學派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="結構主義">結構主義</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="後結構主義">後結構主義</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="解構主義">解構主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%B8" title="現象學">現象學</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="存在主义">存在主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="解釋學">解釋學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="符號學">符號學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="女性主義">女性主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%AD%A6" title="精神分析学">精神分析学</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%B2%A1" title="雅各·拉岡">拉康主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8E%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="后殖民主义">后殖民主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="后现代主义哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Postmodern philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8E%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="后现代主义哲学(页面不存在)">后现代主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Postmodern philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Postmodern philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%BB%BA%E6%9E%84%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="社会建构主义">社会建构主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFF1DD; text-align: center;">非西方</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="京都學派">京都學派</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="俄罗斯宇宙主义">俄国宇宙主义</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学体系列表(页面不存在)">更多</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD699;"><div id="领域" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em">领域</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" title="形上學">形上學</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="原子論">原子論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AB%96" title="二元論">二元論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E5%85%83%E8%AE%BA" title="一元论">一元论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="形而上自然主義">自然主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E4%BD%93%E8%AE%BA_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="本体论 (哲学)">本体论</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E5%8B%95%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="行動理論">行动</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="事件 (哲学)">事件</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="过程哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Process philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="过程哲学(页面不存在)">过程哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Process philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Process philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E5%AF%A6" title="現實">現實</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="反实在论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Anti-realism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E5%AE%9E%E5%9C%A8%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="反实在论(页面不存在)">反实在论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism" class="extiw" title="en:Anti-realism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Anti-realism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5%E8%AB%96" title="概念論">概念論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="唯心主義">唯心主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="唯物主义">唯物主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="自然主义">自然主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%90%8D%E8%AB%96" title="唯名論">唯名論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E5%9C%A8%E8%AB%96" title="實在論">實在論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A5%9E%E8%AE%BA" title="自然神论">自然神论</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="理性主义">理性主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E8%AA%8D%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="唯心主義認識論">唯心主義認識論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="建构主义知识论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Constructivist epistemology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BB%BA%E6%9E%84%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="建构主义知识论(页面不存在)">建构主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="extiw" title="en:Constructivist epistemology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Constructivist epistemology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="特殊主义知识论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Epistemological particularism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="特殊主义知识论(页面不存在)">特殊主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" class="extiw" title="en:Epistemological particularism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Epistemological particularism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="怀疑主义哲学#知识论和怀疑主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophical skepticism#Epistemology and skepticism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="怀疑主义哲学(页面不存在)">怀疑论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophical skepticism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophical skepticism#Epistemology and skepticism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E6%88%91%E8%AB%96" title="唯我論">唯我論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="信仰主義">信仰主義</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="心灵哲学">精神</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-disambig" title="行为主义">行为主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%96%E6%B6%88%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="取消主义">取消主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%89%AF%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="副现象主义">副现象主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="机能主义(精神哲学)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%BA%E8%83%BD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89(%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="机能主义(精神哲学)(页面不存在)">机能主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="extiw" title="en:Functionalism (philosophy of mind)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Functionalism (philosophy of mind)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A2%E8%A7%80%E6%80%A7" title="客觀性">客观主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%A7%80%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="主觀主義">主觀主義</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%9C%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="结果论">结果论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%89%E5%8A%A1%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="义务伦理学">义务伦理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E6%80%A7%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="德性倫理學">德性倫理學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97" title="自由意志">自由意志</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E8%AE%BA" title="相容论">相容论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A%E8%AB%96" title="決定論">決定論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89_(%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6)" title="自由意志主义 (形而上学)">自由意志主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="道德规范性" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Norm (philosophy)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%80%A7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="道德规范性(页面不存在)">规范性</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" class="extiw" title="en:Norm (philosophy)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Norm (philosophy)</span></a></span>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%9D%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="道德绝对主义">绝对主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="道德特殊主义" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Moral particularism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="道德特殊主义(页面不存在)">特殊主义</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_particularism" class="extiw" title="en:Moral particularism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Moral particularism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="道德相对主义">相对主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E8%99%9B%E7%84%A1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="道德虛無主義">虚无主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="道德怀疑主义">怀疑主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="道德普遍主义">普遍主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="美学">美学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="形式主义">形式主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="艺术制度论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Institutional theory of art"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%89%BA%E6%9C%AF%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="艺术制度论(页面不存在)">制度论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="extiw" title="en:Institutional theory of art"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Institutional theory of art</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美学情感" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Aesthetic emotions"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%AD%A6%E6%83%85%E6%84%9F&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="美学情感(页面不存在)">美学回应</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" class="extiw" title="en:Aesthetic emotions"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Aesthetic emotions</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="经典逻辑">经典</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%B6%93%E5%85%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非經典邏輯">非经典</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" class="mw-redirect" title="形式逻辑">形式</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="非形式逻辑">非形式</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%82%96%E8%AE%BA" title="悖论">悖论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AA%A4" title="謬誤">謬誤</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD699;"><div id="各地区哲学哲学相关列表" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%84%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:各國哲學">各地区哲学</a></li><li>哲学相关列表</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%84%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:各國哲學">各地区哲学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="非洲哲学">非洲</a><small>(<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="埃塞俄比亚哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Ethiopian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9F%83%E5%A1%9E%E4%BF%84%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="埃塞俄比亚哲学(页面不存在)">埃塞俄比亚</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Ethiopian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Ethiopian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>)</small></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="阿兹特克哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Aztec philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%85%B9%E7%89%B9%E5%85%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="阿兹特克哲学(页面不存在)">阿兹特克</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Aztec philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Aztec philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="東方哲學">东方</a><small>(<b><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中国哲学">中国</a></b><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="日本哲學">日本</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="朝韩哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Korean philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%9D%E9%9F%A9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="朝韩哲学(页面不存在)">朝韩</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Korean philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Korean philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="香港哲學">香港</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="臺灣哲學">臺灣</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <b><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="印度哲学">印度</a></b><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <b><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="伊朗哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Iranian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="伊朗哲学(页面不存在)">伊朗</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Iranian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Iranian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></b><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="印度尼西亚哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Indonesian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%B0%BC%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="印度尼西亚哲学(页面不存在)">印尼</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Indonesian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Indonesian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="巴基斯坦哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Pakistani philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="巴基斯坦哲学(页面不存在)">巴基斯坦</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Pakistani philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Pakistani philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学">西方</a><small>(<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="American philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="美國哲學">美国</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:American philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">American philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="英國哲學">英國</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="丹麦哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Danish philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%B9%E9%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="丹麦哲学(页面不存在)">丹麦</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Danish philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Danish philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="法国哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="French philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="法国哲学(页面不存在)">法国</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:French philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">French philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="德國哲學">德国</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <b><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">希腊</a></b><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="意大利哲学">意大利</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="波兰哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Polish philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="波兰哲学(页面不存在)">波兰</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Polish philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Polish philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="罗马尼亚哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Romanian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="罗马尼亚哲学(页面不存在)">罗马尼亚</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Romanian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Romanian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="俄国哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Russian philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BF%84%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="俄国哲学(页面不存在)">俄国</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Russian philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Russian philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="斯洛文尼亚哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Slovene philosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E6%B4%9B%E6%96%87%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="斯洛文尼亚哲学(页面不存在)">斯洛文尼亚</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Slovene philosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Slovene philosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.8em;background: #FFE5BE; text-align: center;">列表</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81" class="mw-redirect" title="哲学概要">概要</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学索引(页面不存在)">索引</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AA%E8%A7%A3%E6%B1%BA%E7%9A%84%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" title="未解決的哲學問題">问题</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学体系列表(页面不存在)">学派</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学词汇表(页面不存在)">词汇表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="哲學概念列表">概念</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="哲學家列表">哲学家</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哲学运动(页面不存在)">运动</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8D%E8%A6%81%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%89%A9%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="重要哲学出版物列表(页面不存在)">出版物</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD699;"><div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="主题"><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:哲学">主题</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:哲学">分类</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="专题"><img alt="专题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" 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class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="跨领域科学" data-lang-code="de" data-lang-name="德语" data-foreign-title="Interdisziplinäre Wissenschaft"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B7%A8%E9%A2%86%E5%9F%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="跨领域科学(页面不存在)">跨领域科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">德语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisziplin%C3%A4re_Wissenschaft" class="extiw" title="de:Interdisziplinäre Wissenschaft"><span lang="de" dir="auto">Interdisziplinäre Wissenschaft</span></a></span>)</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="管理科學">管理科學</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"><style 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