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href="#The_British_occupation_of_Iraq_(1920–1932)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The British occupation of Iraq (1920–1932)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_British_occupation_of_Iraq_(1920–1932)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hashemite_monarchy_(1932–1958)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hashemite_monarchy_(1932–1958)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The Hashemite monarchy (1932–1958)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Hashemite_monarchy_(1932–1958)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Hashemite monarchy (1932–1958) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Hashemite_monarchy_(1932–1958)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li 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monarchy and Saddam Hussein (1958–1969) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Between_the_monarchy_and_Saddam_Hussein_(1958–1969)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abd_al-Karim_Qasem_and_the_"Free_Officers"_Regime_(1958–1963)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abd_al-Karim_Qasem_and_the_"Free_Officers"_Regime_(1958–1963)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" Regime (1958–1963)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abd_al-Karim_Qasem_and_the_"Free_Officers"_Regime_(1958–1963)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Various_regimes_(1963–1968)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Various_regimes_(1963–1968)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Various regimes (1963–1968)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Various_regimes_(1963–1968)-sublist" 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also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Human rights abuses in the country predated the rule of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1850_to_1920">1850 to 1920</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1850 to 1920"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Assyrian historian <a href="/wiki/Eden_Naby" title="Eden Naby">Eden Naby</a> writes that the relations between Assyrians and Kurds have been marked by a "bitter history", since Kurdish tribal chiefs in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwest Iran regularly attacked and plundered Christian tribes, and during World War I Kurds were "responsible for most of the atrocities committed against the Assyrians in particular, due to proximity and a long tradition of perceived Kurdish rights to pillage Assyrian Christians and carry away women and goods", and that "Kurdish expansion happened at the expense of Assyrians". In 1918, a Kurdish chieftain and his tribe assassinated the Patriarch of the Church of the East at the negotiation dinner.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is known that the Iraqi Kurdistan have accepted more than 200,000 Christians refugees and <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">IDPs</a> who had fled from Arab areas between 2012 and 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also known that security officers and authorities who work for Barzani tribe and his political party, the KDP, have frequently abused some local Christians and IDPs for not being "enough" loyal to them. </p><p>From the mid 19th century, "the Kurds carried out numerous massacres of Nestorians, culminating in 1915-1918 with the murder of about half of all the Nestorians and their patriarch Mar Shimun XIX - a genocide proportionally similar to the massacre of the Armenians."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The important Rabban Hormizd Monastery and the Mar Mattai monastery in Iraq was plundered countless times by the Kurds.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nestorian libraris were destroyed by Turks and Kurds over the course of centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kurds murdered thousands of women and men, slicing off the ears of the dead and sending them to Badr Khan, and young women were sold as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kurds also forcibly took possession of churches and convents, and they constantly abducted virgins, brides and women, forcing them to turn Muslim.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most notable are the first genocide carried out by Turks and Kurds in the period 1894 1896,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1915–1918.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kurd Agha Simko assassinated the patriarch Mar Shimun XXI Benyamin.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_British_occupation_of_Iraq_(1920–1932)"><span id="The_British_occupation_of_Iraq_.281920.E2.80.931932.29"></span>The British occupation of Iraq (1920–1932)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The British occupation of Iraq (1920–1932)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1920s, when Britain held a mandate from the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> (predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>), British occupational forces, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harris" title="Arthur Harris">Arthur Harris</a>, used <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delayed_action_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Delayed action bombing">delayed action bombing</a> to suppress Iraqi resistance to British rule, leading to numerous civilian casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Hashemite_monarchy_(1932–1958)"><span id="The_Hashemite_monarchy_.281932.E2.80.931958.29"></span>The Hashemite monarchy (1932–1958)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Hashemite monarchy (1932–1958)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Hashemite monarchy that took over Iraq from the British has been described as imperfect in terms of human rights, but in many ways better than the regimes that followed: </p> <dl><dd>"After the creation of Iraq as an independent kingdom in 1932, the monarchy [...] sought to maintain the status quo of Sunni dominance, prompting conflict between the Arab Sunni establishment and several minorities (such as the Assyrians and the Kurds). But the monarchy also sought solutions, compromises, and certain forms of elections and democratic expression." Because the regime's legitimacy derived from its history in Arabia and its long experience in administration and ability to work with the British, it was able "to lead with less repression and coercion."<sup id="cite_ref-sng_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Prime ministers, and at one point the leaders of a military coup, had enormous influence during the era of the monarchy, and civil rights varied at different points. According to a United States Library of Congress history of Iraq:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>In 1952 the depressed economic situation, which had been exacerbated by a bad harvest and by the government's refusal to hold direct elections, triggered large-scale antiregime protests; the protests turned especially violent in Baghdad. In response, the government declared martial law, banned all political parties, suspended a number of newspapers, and imposed a curfew. The immense size of the protests showed how widespread dissatisfaction with the regime had become. The middle class, which had grown considerably as a result of the monarchy's expanded education system, had become increasingly alienated from the regime, in large part because they were unable to earn an income commensurate with their status. Nuri as Said's autocratic manner, his intolerance of dissent, and his heavy-handed treatment of the political opposition had further alienated the middle class, especially the army. Forced underground, the opposition had become more revolutionary.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repression_of_Assyrians">Repression of Assyrians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Repression of Assyrians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1915, facing massacres that led to the deaths of up to two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, about 50,000 survivors streamed over the border into northern Iraq, which was largely populated by Kurds and Turkomen. The refugees were housed in British-run refugee camps. Similar upheavals in 1918 in Iran led to more flows of refugees into Iraq, where Assyrian communities already had existed for centuries. These influxes led to decades of ethnic conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-jel_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the British mandate, Assyrians were organized into militia groups called "the Assyrian Levies" and were used to put down revolts and support the British military presence in Iraq. The Assyrians were abandoned by the British once Iraq achieved independence in 1933. In the summer of that year an armed group of 800 Assyrians crossed from Iraq into Syria, where there were many other Assyrians, to "assert what they perceived as their legitimate national rights", according to Jonathan Eric Lewis, a political analyst. French colonial authorities in Syria forced them back into Iraq where the Iraqi military attacked them. On August 7, "the Iraqi army and Kurdish irregulars, with genuine popular support, committed a <a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">massacre at Simele</a>." According to Assyrian sources, the dead numbered 3,000 (other estimates put the number in the "hundreds".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "No event has shaped Iraqi Assyrian collective identity more", Lewis wrote.<sup id="cite_ref-jel_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Assyrians have suffered persecution during the early 20th century, mainly at the hands of Kurdish tribes who persecuted them as individual tribes (Shakkak), and as Muslim allies of the Committee on Union and Progress working through the Ottoman armies during World War I, and later as Kurds who took part in the 1933 Simele massacre of Assyrians.<sup id="cite_ref-aina.org_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aina.org-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1930s, the Iraqi ministries disseminated leaflets among the Kurds calling them to massacre Assyrians. This call appealed to Islamic convictions and united Arabs and Kurds against the infidel Christians. Shortly before the August 11 Simmele massacre in 1933, Kurds began a campaign of looting against Assyrian settlements. The Assyrians fled to Simele, where they were also persecuted. There were many accounts by witnesses of numerous atrocities perpetrated by Arabs and Kurds on Assyrian women. Under the command of Kurdish chieftain Bakr Sidqi on August 11 the perpetrators committed the Simele massacre which targeted men almost exclusively. Under the leadership of the Kurdish General Bakr Sidqi Kurds, Arabs and others united and committed the Simele massacre against Christian Assyrians and plundered their towns, and raped and murdered women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 16th century after Sultan Selim I brought the Kurds and settled them in Assyrian lands, the Ottoman Empire began using Kurdish tribes to kill Christian Assyrians and Armenians systematically. In the beginning of World War I the Kurdish tribes, and which formed a Kurdish cavalry force in the Ottoman army known as the ""Hamidian Cavalry"" headed to the Assyrian plain villages in the east of what is today known as Turkey as well as the Assyrian villages in Tur Abdin and Hakkari and killed thousands of Assyrians. The Assyrian Patriarch Mar Binyamin Shimon (who was later assassinated by a Kurd) declared that the Assyrians joined the war on Russia's side in self-defence and for liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Between_the_monarchy_and_Saddam_Hussein_(1958–1969)"><span id="Between_the_monarchy_and_Saddam_Hussein_.281958.E2.80.931969.29"></span>Between the monarchy and Saddam Hussein (1958–1969)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Between the monarchy and Saddam Hussein (1958–1969)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the decade following the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy</a> in 1958, various regimes ruled the country, each responsible for the government's treatment of its citizens and for protecting citizens, until the 1968 coup that brought the Ba'ath Party to power with Saddam Hussein as one of the coup leaders:<sup id="cite_ref-hrw1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hrw1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Military government of Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" (1958–1963);</li> <li>First regime of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party (February–November 1963);</li> <li>Governments of the Arif brothers and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Bazzaz" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz">Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz</a> (1963–1968).</li></ul> <p>The second regime of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party began with a coup in July 1968, with Saddam Hussein, one of the leaders of the coup, growing in power and eventually assuming the presidency of the country in 1979. He was overthrown in the United States-led invasion of 2003. </p><p>In the 1950s and 1960s, Iraqis and many other Arabs often supported the idea of a strong leader "along the lines of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a>" who would act as "a political savior", acting with great power, a sense of mission and ruling with justice. <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, the eleventh-century Islamic hero who defeated the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a>, was looked on as a model and even <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk" class="mw-redirect" title="Atatürk">Atatürk</a>, the founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, was viewed as a leader from whom an example could be drawn. In Iraq, many felt a strong leader was needed to hold the country together despite its ethnic divisions and other problems.<sup id="cite_ref-sng_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abd_al-Karim_Qasem_and_the_"Free_Officers"_Regime_(1958–1963)"><span id="Abd_al-Karim_Qasem_and_the_.22Free_Officers.22_Regime_.281958.E2.80.931963.29"></span>Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" Regime (1958–1963)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Abd al-Karim Qasem and the "Free Officers" Regime (1958–1963)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1958 military coup that overthrew the Hashemite monarchy brought to power members of "rural groups that lacked the cosmopolitan thinking found among Iraqi elites". Iraq's new leaders had an "exclusivist mentality [that] produced tribal conflict and rivalry, which in turn called forth internal oppression [...]"<sup id="cite_ref-sng_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Shafeeq N. Ghabra, a professor of political science at Kuwait University, and, in 2001, director of the Kuwait Information Office in Washington D.C.:<sup id="cite_ref-sng1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>After the 1958 revolution, Iraq's ruling establishment created a state devoid of political compromise. Its leaders liquidated those holding opposing views, confiscated property without notice, trumped up charges against its enemies, and fought battles with imaginary domestic foes. This state of affairs reinforced an absolute leader and a militarized Iraqi society totally different from the one that existed during the monarchy.</dd></dl> <p>Hundreds of thousands of Iraqis fled the country within four years of the 1958 revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-sng_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1959 there was a massacre committed against the Iraqi Turkmen, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk_Massacre_of_1959" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirkuk Massacre of 1959">Kirkuk Massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Assyrians fared rather well under the five-year regime, but since Baathist rule began again in 1968, they fared much worse, according to Jonathan Eric Lewis. "As Baathist power increased, Assyrian influence and rights within Iraq decreased," he wrote in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-jel_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A power struggle developed among the coup leaders Brigadier Abd al Karim Qasim and Colonel Abd as Salaam Arif. Arif's pro-Nasserite sympathies were supported by the Baath Party, while Qasim found support for his anti-union position in the ranks of the communists. Qasim eventually emerged victorious, first dismissing Arif, then bringing him to trial for treason. He was condemned to death in January 1959, then pardoned in December 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-locri_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-locri-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aware of plotting for a coup by officers opposed to Qasim's increasing links with the communists, Qasim had his communist allies mobilize 250,000 of their supporters in Mosul in March 1959. The coup attempt never materialized, but the communists massacred nationalists and some well-to-do Mosul families. As a result of the killings, and a riot in Kirkuk, Baath Party leaders decided assassination was the only way to dislodge Qasim. Their attempt to kill him, led by <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, failed while injuring Qasim, and the dictator reacted by aligning himself more with the communists and by suppressing the Baath and other nationalist parties. But by 1960 and 1961, Qasim decided the communists had become too strong and he moved against them, purging communists from sensitive government positions, cracking down on trade unions and on peasant associations, and shutting down the communist press.<sup id="cite_ref-locri_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-locri-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Various_regimes_(1963–1968)"><span id="Various_regimes_.281963.E2.80.931968.29"></span>Various regimes (1963–1968)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Various regimes (1963–1968)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Qasim was overthrown in 1963, the Baath Party took over. The party was small, with only 1,000 active members, and lacked a coherent program, having been held together largely by opposition to Qasim. Saadi, the leader of the Baathists, established a one-party state with little tolerance for opposing views. The Baath was overthrown by November 1963 in a military coup led by a small group of officers. For the next five years power shifted among the officers until 1968, when another coup brought the Baath back to power.<sup id="cite_ref-locri_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-locri-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_early_Baathist_regime_(1968–1969)"><span id="The_early_Baathist_regime_.281968.E2.80.931969.29"></span>The early Baathist regime (1968–1969)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The early Baathist regime (1968–1969)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the Baathists came back to power, two men, Saddam Hussein and Bakr, increasingly dominated the party. Although Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, by 1969 Saddam "clearly had become the moving force behind the party."<sup id="cite_ref-locsh_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-locsh-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnic_conflicts">Ethnic conflicts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ethnic conflicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human rights violations in Iraq often came from conflicts between the country's rulers and members of distinct ethnic communities, especially the Kurds and Shiite Arabs, although Sunni Arabs, members of the minority that filled the top positions in the regimes after 1958 and through Saddam's years in power, could feel the wrath of the rulers for reasons unrelated to ethnic conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-sng_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sng-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_with_the_Shi'a"><span id="Conflict_with_the_Shi.27a"></span>Conflict with the Shi'a</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Conflict with the Shi'a"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ghabra has called the treatment of the Shi'a one of the worst political mistakes of the regimes after 1958. Writing in 2001, Ghabra said the post-1958 regimes dismissed the "Shi'a majority and its rights, alienating them despite their commitment to Iraq."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_with_the_Kurds">Conflict with the Kurds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conflict with the Kurds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the regimes that followed the 1958 overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy, human rights violations in Kurdistan occurred frequently as Kurdish nationalism conflicted with the goals of various Iraqi regimes, causing violence to break out when political negotiations broke down:<sup id="cite_ref-hrw2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hrw2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>[T]he Kurds encountered a familiar pattern under each of the regimes that followed: first a period of negotiations that invariably failed to satisfy Kurdish demands for autonomy, and then, when the talks broke down, renewed outbreaks of violence. Rural villages were bombed and burned and Kurdish fighters hunted down relentlessly. The name that they adopted expressed accurately the condition of their existence. They called themselves peshmerga — "those who face death."</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Iraq portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam's Iraq">Human rights in Saddam's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">Human rights in post-invasion Iraq</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJoan_A._Argenter,_R._McKenna_Brown2004" class="citation book cs1">Joan A. Argenter, R. McKenna Brown (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UM3BMtn6TmcC&q=Kurds+were+granted+Assyrian+land&pg=PA199"><i>On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights</i></a>. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780953824861" title="Special:BookSources/9780953824861"><bdi>9780953824861</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Margins+of+Nations%3A+Endangered+Languages+and+Linguistic+Rights&rft.pages=199&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780953824861&rft.au=Joan+A.+Argenter%2C+R.+McKenna+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUM3BMtn6TmcC%26q%3DKurds%2Bwere%2Bgranted%2BAssyrian%2Bland%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+rights+in+pre-Saddam+Iraq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq" by <a href="/wiki/Eden_Naby" title="Eden Naby">Eden Naby</a>, In: On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights, Foundation for Endangered Languages. Eds:Joan A. Argenter, R. McKenna Brown <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aina.org/articles/flftel.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schanzer, Jonathan. (2004) Ansar al-Islam: Back in Iraq Middle East Quarterly</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/abandoned-and-betrayed-iraqi-christians-rise-up-to-reclaim-their-land">"Abandoned and betrayed, Iraqi Christians rise up to reclaim their land | The National"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Tauris, 2006., p95-99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. Tauris, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. Tauris, 2006., p.244</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. Tauris, 2006., p.246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. Tauris, 2006., p.247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. Tauris, 2006., p.255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, Christoph Baumer, I.B. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aina.org&rft.atitle=Assyrian+Leaders+Have+a+History+of+%27Disappearing%27+in+North+Iraq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aina.org%2Fguesteds%2F20090210174658.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+rights+in+pre-Saddam+Iraq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aina.org/news/20160331123112.htm">"The Kurds and Assyrians: Everything You Didn't Know"</a>. <i>www.aina.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aina.org&rft.atitle=The+Kurds+and+Assyrians%3A+Everything+You+Didn%27t+Know&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aina.org%2Fnews%2F20160331123112.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+rights+in+pre-Saddam+Iraq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aina.org/releases/20111010102607.htm">"The Genocide of Assyrians -- Then and Now"</a>. <i>www.aina.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aina.org&rft.atitle=The+Genocide+of+Assyrians+--+Then+and+Now&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aina.org%2Freleases%2F20111010102607.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+rights+in+pre-Saddam+Iraq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hrw1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hrw1_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFAL1.htm#P35_6150">[4]</a>"GENOCIDE IN IRAQ / The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds / A Middle East Watch Report / Human Rights Watch" dated 1993, Chapter 1 "Ba'athis and Kurds", Footnote 6 report at <i>Human Rights Watch</i> Web site, accessed March 21, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sng1-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sng1_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.meforum.org/article/101">[5]</a> Ghabra, Shafeeq N., "Iraq's Culture of Violence", article in <i>Middle East Quarterly</i>, Summer 2001, accessed March 21, 2007; in a footnote at the end of the first sentence ("... political compromise."), Ghabra cites Sa‘d al-Bazzaz, Ramad al-Hurub: Asrar ma Ba‘d Hurub al-Khalij, 2d ed. (Beirut: al-Mu'assasa al-Ahliya li'n-Nashr wa't-Tawzi‘, 1995), p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson2016" class="citation book cs1">Robson, Laura (2016). <i>Minorities and the Modern Arab World: New Perspectives</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minorities+and+the+Modern+Arab+World%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+rights+in+pre-Saddam+Iraq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-locri-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-locri_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-locri_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-locri_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+iq0021)">[6]</a> Library of Congress Country Report:Iraq, Web page titled "Iraq:Republican Iraq", accessed March 21, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-locsh-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-locsh_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+iq0023)">[7]</a> Library of Congress, Web page titled "Iraq: The Emergence of Saddam Husayn, 1968-79", accessed March 21, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.meforum.org/article/101">[8]</a> Ghabra, Shafeeq N., "Iraq's Culture of Violence", article in <i>Middle East Quarterly</i>, Summer 2001, accessed March 21, 2007; Ghabra cites Arzi, <i>Mushkilat al-Hukm fi'l-‘Iraq</i>, p. 271, and Yitzhak Nakash, <i>The Shi‘is of Iraq</i> (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 278. "The Nakash study, it bears noting, was translated into Arabic and published in Damascus in 1996, even though it is by a scholar of Israeli origins."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hrw2-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hrw2_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFAL1.htm#P35_6150">[9]</a>"Genocide in Iraq / The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds / A Middle East Watch Report / Human Rights Watch" dated 1993, Chapter 1 "Ba'athis and Kurds"; report at <i>Human Rights Watch</i> Web site, accessed March 21, 2007</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Template:Human rights in the Middle East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Template talk:Human rights in the Middle East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human rights in the Middle East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human rights in the Middle East">Human rights in the Middle East</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Bahrain" title="Human rights in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Cyprus" title="Human rights in Cyprus">Cyprus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Human rights in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Egypt" title="Human rights in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Imperial_State_of_Iran" title="Human rights in the Imperial State of Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Iran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pre-Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Human rights in Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'ath era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">Post-Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Kurdistan_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Kurdistan Region">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Israel" title="Human rights in Israel">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_against_Palestinians_by_Israel" title="Human rights violations against Palestinians by Israel">Palestinians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Jordan" title="Human rights in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Kuwait" title="Human rights in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Lebanon" title="Human rights in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Oman" title="Human rights in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Human rights in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Qatar" title="Human rights in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Human rights in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Rojava" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Rojava">Rojava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Turkey" title="Human rights in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Human rights in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Dubai" title="Human rights in Dubai">Dubai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Yemen" title="Human rights in Yemen">Yemen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes in the Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom_in_the_Middle_East" title="Academic freedom in the Middle East">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">Arbitrary arrest and detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Middle_East" title="Capital punishment in the Middle East">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruel,_inhuman,_or_degrading_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment">Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracy in the Middle East">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of religion in the Middle East">Freedom of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Irreligion in the Middle East">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">Kafala system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Middle East">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in the Middle East">Racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Antisemitism in the Arab world">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">Right to a fair trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_development" title="Right to development">Right to development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Arab_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Arab societies">Status of women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Women's suffrage, timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_anti_male-guardianship_campaign" title="Saudi anti male-guardianship campaign">Male guardianship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organisation">NGOs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Pan-Arab" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-Arab</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Network_for_Human_Rights_Information" title="Arabic Network for Human Rights Information">Arabic Network for Human Rights Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Commission_for_Human_Rights" title="Arab Commission for Human Rights">Arab Commission for Human Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Human_Rights_Project" title="Kurdish Human Rights Project">Kurdish Human Rights Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Initiative_for_Personal_Rights" title="Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights">Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defenders_of_Human_Rights_Center" title="Defenders of Human Rights Center">Defenders of Human Rights Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%27Tselem" title="B'Tselem">B'Tselem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Mezan_Center_for_Human_Rights" title="Al Mezan Center for Human Rights">Al Mezan Center for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_Najdeh" title="Association Najdeh">Association Najdeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Marsad" title="Al-Marsad">al-Marsad</a></li> <li><i>Saudi Arabia:</i> <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_First_Society" title="Human Rights First Society">HRFS (founded 2002)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Protection_and_Defense_of_Women%27s_Rights_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Association for the Protection and Defense of Women's Rights in Saudi Arabia">APDWRSA (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Civil_and_Political_Rights_Association" title="Saudi Civil and Political Rights Association">ACPRA (2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Development_and_Change" title="Society for Development and Change">SDC (2011)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Saudi_Organisation_for_Human_Rights" title="European Saudi Organisation for Human Rights">ESOHR (2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ALQST" title="ALQST">ALQST (2014)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government-organized_non-governmental_organization" title="Government-organized non-governmental organization">GONGOs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Saudi Arabia:</i> <a href="/wiki/National_Society_for_Human_Rights" title="National Society for Human Rights">NSHR (2004)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">Collective punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_humanitarian_crisis_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Gaza humanitarian crisis (2023–present)">Humanitarian crisis in Gaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Asia" title="Human rights in Asia">Human rights in Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Muslim-majority_countries" title="Human rights in Muslim-majority countries">Human rights in Muslim-majority countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_against_Palestinians_by_Israel" title="Human rights violations against Palestinians by Israel">Human rights violations against Palestinians by Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel and apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Association_of_Victims_of_Grave_Human_Rights_Violations_Committed_by_the_Moroccan_State" title="Sahrawi Association of Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations Committed by the Moroccan State">Sahrawi Association of Victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_Marocaine_des_Droits_Humaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Association Marocaine des Droits Humaine">Association Marocaine des Droits Humaine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives <span style="font-size:85%;">(legislative)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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