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href="#Regulation_of_satiety_and_obesity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Regulation of satiety and obesity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_satiety_and_obesity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_liver_fatty_acid_storage_and_fatty_liver_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_liver_fatty_acid_storage_and_fatty_liver_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Regulation of liver fatty acid storage and fatty liver disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_liver_fatty_acid_storage_and_fatty_liver_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_insulin_secretion_and_diabetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_insulin_secretion_and_diabetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Regulation of insulin secretion and diabetes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_insulin_secretion_and_diabetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_blood_pressure_and_hypertension-induced_cardiovascular_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_blood_pressure_and_hypertension-induced_cardiovascular_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Regulation of blood pressure and hypertension-induced cardiovascular disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_blood_pressure_and_hypertension-induced_cardiovascular_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_the_sympathetic_nervous_system_and_its_control_of_heart_rate_and_energy_expenditure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_the_sympathetic_nervous_system_and_its_control_of_heart_rate_and_energy_expenditure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Regulation of the sympathetic nervous system and its control of heart rate and energy expenditure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_the_sympathetic_nervous_system_and_its_control_of_heart_rate_and_energy_expenditure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_allergic_asthma_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_allergic_asthma_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Regulation of allergic asthma reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_allergic_asthma_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:26.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold">FFAR3</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Gene_nomenclature" title="Gene nomenclature">Aliases</a></span></th><td colspan="3" style="background:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genenames.org/data/gene-symbol-report/#!/hgnc_id/4499">FFAR3</a></span>, FFA3R, GPR41, GPR42, free fatty acid receptor 3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">External IDs</th><td colspan="3" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/603821">603821</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mouse_Genome_Informatics" title="Mouse Genome Informatics">MGI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informatics.jax.org/marker/MGI:2685324">2685324</a>; <a href="/wiki/HomoloGene" title="HomoloGene">HomoloGene</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=homologene&dopt=HomoloGene&list_uids=82482">82482</a>; <a href="/wiki/GeneCards" title="GeneCards">GeneCards</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=FFAR3">FFAR3</a>; <a href="/wiki/Orthologous_MAtrix" title="Orthologous MAtrix">OMA</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omabrowser.org/oma/vps/ENSG00000185897">FFAR3 - orthologs</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Gene location (<a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a>)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 19 (human)"><img alt="Chromosome 19 (human)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg/300px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg/450px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg/600px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_19.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="189" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chr.</a></th><td colspan="3" width="85%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome 19 (human)">Chromosome 19 (human)</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><div align="center"><div style="position: relative; width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 19 (human)"><img alt="Chromosome 19 (human)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg/300px-Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg/450px-Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg/600px-Human_chromosome_19_ideogram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="216" /></a></span><div style="position: absolute; left: 172.02781257094px; top: 2px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for FFAR3"><img alt="Genomic location for FFAR3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/14px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/21px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/28px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="142" /></a></span></div><div style="position: absolute; left: 178px; top: 19px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_rectangle_2x18.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for FFAR3"><img alt="Genomic location for FFAR3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Red_rectangle_2x18.png" decoding="async" width="2" height="18" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2" data-file-height="18" /></a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" rowspan="2" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Band</a></th><td rowspan="2" width="35%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">19q13.12</span></td><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Start</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">35,358,460 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">End</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">35,360,489 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Gene location (<a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a>)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 7 (mouse)"><img alt="Chromosome 7 (mouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/260px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/390px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/520px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chr.</a></th><td colspan="3" width="85%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">Chromosome 7 (mouse)<sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><div align="center"><div style="position: relative; width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 7 (mouse)"><img alt="Chromosome 7 (mouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/300px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/450px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg/600px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_7.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="231" /></a></span><div style="position: absolute; left: 56.392184780289px; top: 2px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for FFAR3"><img alt="Genomic location for FFAR3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/14px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/21px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/28px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="142" /></a></span></div><div style="position: absolute; left: 62.4px; top: 19px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_rectangle_2x18.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for FFAR3"><img alt="Genomic location for FFAR3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Red_rectangle_2x18.png" decoding="async" width="2" height="18" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2" data-file-height="18" /></a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" rowspan="2" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Band</a></th><td rowspan="2" width="35%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">7|7 B1</span></td><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Start</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">30,553,755 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">End</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">30,555,603 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">RNA expression</a> pattern</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/">Bgee</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th><b><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a></b></th><th><b><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a> (ortholog)</b></th></tr><tr><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSG00000185897">Top expressed in</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px"><li style="line-height: 137%;">testicle</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">blood</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">islet of Langerhans</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">granulocyte</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">appendix</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">apex of heart</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">subcutaneous adipose tissue</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">monocyte</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">muscle layer of sigmoid colon</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">lactiferous gland</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSMUSG00000019429">Top expressed in</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px"><li style="line-height: 137%;">islet of Langerhans</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">embryo</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">blastocyst</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">nerve trunk</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">proximal tubule</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">autonomic nervous system</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">right kidney</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">sympathetic nervous system</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">sympathetic ganglion</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">duodenum</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSG00000185897">More reference expression data</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biogps.org/">BioGPS</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee">n/a</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene ontology</a></th></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Molecular function</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0004930">G protein-coupled receptor activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/">signal transducer activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0008289">lipid binding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Cellular component</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0016021">integral component of membrane</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0016020">membrane</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005886">plasma membrane</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005887">integral component of plasma membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Biological process</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002385">mucosal immune response</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0014061">regulation of norepinephrine secretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007193">adenylate cyclase-inhibiting G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045776">negative regulation of blood pressure</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002376">immune system process</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002720">positive regulation of cytokine production involved in immune response</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0046885">regulation of hormone biosynthetic process</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0071398">cellular response to fatty acid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002879">positive regulation of acute inflammatory response to non-antigenic stimulus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032722">positive regulation of chemokine production</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0006954">inflammatory response</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0090276">regulation of peptide hormone secretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007165">signal transduction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007186">G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0046626">regulation of insulin receptor signaling pathway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center">Sources:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/">Amigo</a> / <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/">QuickGO</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Orthologs" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthologs">Orthologs</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Species</th><td><b>Human</b></td><td><b>Mouse</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Entrez" title="Entrez">Entrez</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=gene&cmd=retrieve&dopt=default&list_uids=2865&rn=1">2865</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=gene&cmd=retrieve&dopt=default&list_uids=233080&rn=1">233080</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/geneview?gene=ENSG00000185897;db=core">ENSG00000185897</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Mus_musculus/geneview?gene=ENSMUSG00000019429;db=core">ENSMUSG00000019429</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/O14843">O14843</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/Q3UFD7">Q3UFD7</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (mRNA)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NM_005304">NM_005304</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NM_001033316">NM_001033316</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (protein)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NP_005295">NP_005295</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NP_001028488">NP_001028488</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Location (UCSC)</th><td><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?org=Human&db=hg38&position=chr19:35358460-35360489">Chr 19: 35.36 – 35.36 Mb</a></span></td><td><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?org=Mouse&db=mm0&position=chr7:30553755-30555603">Chr 7: 30.55 – 30.56 Mb</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PubMed</a> search</th><td><span class="plainlinks"><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td><td><span class="plainlinks"><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18026426" class="extiw" title="d:Q18026426">View/Edit Human</a></td><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18298187" class="extiw" title="d:Q18298187">View/Edit Mouse</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Free fatty acid receptor 3</b> (<b>FFAR3</b>, also termed <b>GPR41</b>) <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> is a <a href="/wiki/G_protein_coupled_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="G protein coupled receptor">G protein coupled receptor</a> (i.e., GPR or GPCR) that in humans is encoded by the <i>FFAR3</i> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> (i.e., <i>GPR41</i> gene).<sup id="cite_ref-entrez_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-entrez-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GPRs reside on cell surfaces, bind specific signaling molecules, and thereby are activated to trigger certain functional responses in their parent cells. FFAR3 is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor" title="Free fatty acid receptor">free fatty acid receptor</a> group of GPRs that includes <a href="/wiki/FFAR1" class="mw-redirect" title="FFAR1">FFAR1</a> (i.e., GPR40), <a href="/wiki/FFAR2" class="mw-redirect" title="FFAR2">FFAR2</a> (i.e., GPR43), and <a href="/wiki/FFAR4" class="mw-redirect" title="FFAR4">FFAR4</a> (i.e., GPR120).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9344866_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9344866-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these FFARs are activated by <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a>. FFAR3 and FFAR2 are activated by certain <a href="/wiki/Short-chain_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-chain fatty acids">short-chain fatty acids</a> (SC-FAs), i.e., fatty acids consisting of 2 to 6 <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid36309079_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36309079-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas FFFAR1 and FFAR4 are activated by certain fatty acids that are 6 to more than 21 carbon atoms long.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12496284_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12496284-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid29330456_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29330456-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid33578942_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33578942-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid_receptor_2" title="Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2">Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2</a> is also activated by a SC-FA that activate FFAR3, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butyric acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28087125_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28087125-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human <i>FFAR3</i> gene is located next to the <i>FFAR2</i> gene at <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a> 13.12 on the long (i.e., "q") arm of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19" title="Chromosome 19">chromosome 19</a> (location abbreviated as 19q13.12). The human FFAR3 and FFAR2 proteins consist of 346 and 330 amino acids, respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32521775_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32521775-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and share about a 40% <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sequence_homology#Identity,_similarity,_and_conservation_homology" title="Sequence homology">sequence homology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33897464_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33897464-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two FFARs have been found to form a <a href="/wiki/Protein_complex#Homomultimeric_and_heteromultimeric_proteins" title="Protein complex">heteromer complex</a> (i.e., FFAR3 and FFAR2 bind to each other and are activated together by a SC-FA) in human <a href="/wiki/Monocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocytes">monocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Immortalized_cell_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortalized cell line">immortalized embryonic kidney cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/HEK_293_cells" title="HEK 293 cells">HEK 293 cells</a>. When stimulated by a SC-FA, the cells expressing both FFAR3 and FFAR2 may form this heterodimer and thereby activate <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">cell signaling</a> pathways and mount responses that differ from those of cells expressing only one of these FFARs.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28883043_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28883043-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formation of GPR43-GPR41 heterodimers has not been evaluated in most studies and may explain otherwise conflicting results on the roles of FFAR3 and FFAR2 in cell function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33578942_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33578942-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid32238208_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32238208-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, SC-FAs can alter the function of cells independently of FFAR3 and FFAR2 by altering the activity of cellular <a href="/wiki/Histone_deacetylases" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone deacetylases">histone deacetylases</a> which regulate the <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">transcription</a> of various genes or by altering metabolic pathways which alter cell functions.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33897470_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33897470-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid36543697_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36543697-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given these alternate ways for SC-FAs to activate cells as wells at the ability of SC-FAs to activate FFAR2 or, in the case of butyric acid, hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2, the studies reported here focus on those showing that the examined action(s) of an SC-FA is absent or reduced in cells, tissues, or animals that have no or reduced FFAR3 activity due respectively to <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">knockout</a> (i.e., removal or inactivation) or <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockdown" title="Gene knockdown">knockdown</a> (i.e., reduction) of the FFAR3 protein gene, i.e., the <i>Ffar3</i> gene in animals or <i>FFAR3</i> gene in humans. </p><p>Certain bacteria in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferment">ferment</a> fecal fiber into SC-FAs and <a href="/wiki/Excrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Excrete">excrete</a> them as waste products. The excreted SC-FAs enter the gastrointestinal walls, diffuse into the <a href="/wiki/Portal_venous_system" title="Portal venous system">portal venous system</a>, and ultimately flow into the <a href="/wiki/Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a>. During this passage, they can activate the FFAR3 on cells in the intestinal wall as well as throughout the body.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This activation may: suppress the appetite for food and thereby reduce overeating and the development of obesity;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34084149_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34084149-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid37470232_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37470232-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inhibit the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>'s accumulation of fatty acids and thereby the development of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_liver_disease" title="Fatty liver disease">fatty liver diseases</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31719611_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31719611-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> decrease <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> and thereby the development of <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> and hypertension-related cardiac diseases;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23401498_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23401498-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> modulate <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> secretion and thereby the development and/or symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33495605_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33495605-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduce <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> levels and thereby lower total body <a href="/wiki/Energy_expenditure" title="Energy expenditure">energy expenditures</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and suppress or delay the development of allergic asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37014871_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37014871-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The specific types of bacteria in the intestines can be modified to increase the number which make SC-FAs by using foods that stimulate the growth of these bacteria (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Prebiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Prebiotics">prebiotics</a>), preparations of SC-FA-producing bacteria (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Probiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Probiotics">probiotics</a>), or both methods (see <a href="/wiki/Synbiotics" title="Synbiotics">synbiotics</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29037268_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29037268-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals with disorders that are associated with low levels of the SC-FA-producing intestinal bacteria may show improvements in their conditions when treated with prebiotics, probiotics, or synbiotics while individuals with disorders associated with high levels of SC-FAs may show improvements in their conditions when treated with methods, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a>, that reduce the intestinal levels of these bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid31487233_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31487233-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (For information on these treatments see <a href="/wiki/Probiotic#Regulation" title="Probiotic">Disorders treated by probiotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(nutrition)#Regulation" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">Disorders treated by prebiotics</a>). In addition, drugs are being tested for their ability to act more usefully, potently, and effectively than SC-FAs in stimulating or inhibiting FFAR3 and thereby for treating the disoders that are inhibited or stimulated, respectively, by SC-FAs.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36173072_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36173072-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="FFAR3-activating_and_inhibiting_agents">FFAR3-activating and inhibiting agents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: FFAR3-activating and inhibiting agents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The SC-FAs that activate FFAR3 include <a href="/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">proprionic</a>, butyric, <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29510573_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29510573-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Valeric_acid" title="Valeric acid">valeric</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caproic_acid" title="Caproic acid">caproic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31487233_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31487233-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37596634_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37596634-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Confusingly, butyric acid also activates hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37596634_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37596634-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-hydroxybutyric acid">β-hydroxybutyric acid</a> has been reported to stimulate or inhibit FFAR3.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24305827_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24305827-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) FFAR2 is activated by many of these same SC-FAs but differs from FFAR3 in its relative <a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)#Receptor/ligand_binding_affinity" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">binding affinities</a> for them. In humans, the binding affinity ranking of FFAR3 is: propionic = butyric = valeric > acetic > formic acids (acetic<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29510573_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29510573-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and formic<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37596634_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37596634-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> acids have very low binding affinities for, and therefore must be at extremely high levels to activate, FFAR3); FFAR2's relative binding affinity ranking for these SC-FAs is: acetic = propionic > butyric > valeric = formic acids.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37596634_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37596634-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AR420626 (also termed 1-MCPC<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32521775_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32521775-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or its chemical name, [(S)-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-3,3-dimethyl-N-(5-phenylthiazol-2-yl)butamide (CFMB)/AR420626]<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29494208_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29494208-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) has been reported to be a selective activator of FFAR3<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33014144_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33014144-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has also been reported to activate FFAR2<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29494208_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29494208-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to inhibit the activation of FFAR3.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its actions require further characterizations.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AR399519 and CF3-MQC have been reported to inhibit the activation of mouse FFAR3; the actions of these agents also require further characterizations.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32521775_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32521775-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tissues_and_cells_expressing_FFAR3">Tissues and cells expressing FFAR3</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Tissues and cells expressing FFAR3"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have reported that humans express FFAR3 in their: <b>a)</b> <a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">enteroendocrine</a> <a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell#L_cells" title="Enteroendocrine cell">L cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell#L_cells" title="Enteroendocrine cell">K cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Intestines" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestines">intestines</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33578942_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33578942-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>b)</b> <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a> of blood vessels in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontal cortex">frontal cortex</a> of the brain,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29562936_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29562936-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pancreatic β-cells,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37620991_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37620991-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Adipose" class="mw-redirect" title="Adipose">adipose</a>. i.e., fat, tissue (but not in mouse adipose tissue);<sup id="cite_ref-pmid35203397_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid35203397-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>c)</b> the vascular endothelium of the <a href="/wiki/Myometrium" title="Myometrium">myometrium</a>, the epithelium of the <a href="/wiki/Amnion" title="Amnion">amnion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chorion" title="Chorion">chorion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a>, and certain <a href="/wiki/Immune_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune cells">immune cells</a> in these tissues of pregnant women;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22186417_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22186417-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>d)</b> the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> of the brain;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid35408893_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid35408893-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>e)</b> <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_ganglia" title="Sympathetic ganglia">sympathetic ganglia</a>, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomic ganglia">autonomic ganglia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32521775_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32521775-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21518883_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21518883-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>f)</b> certain types of immune cells, i.e., blood <a href="/wiki/Monocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocytes">monocytes</a> (but not mouse monocytes), <a href="/wiki/Basophils" class="mw-redirect" title="Basophils">basophils</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36543697_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36543697-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19938193_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19938193-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid36468834_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36468834-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendritic cells">dendritic cells</a> derived from human monocytes isolated from <a href="/wiki/Whole_blood" title="Whole blood">whole blood</a>, and the tissues containing these blood cells, i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lymph_nodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymph nodes">lymph nodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12711604_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12711604-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <b>g)</b> <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus#alveolar_macrophages" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveolar macrophages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a> in various other tissues;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36543697_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36543697-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <b>h)</b> certain <a href="/wiki/Immortalised_cell_line" title="Immortalised cell line">immortalised cell lines</a>, i.e., MCF-7 breast cancer,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16887331_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16887331-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HCT116 colorectal cancer,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32461783_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32461783-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HEK293 embryonic kidney,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28883043_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28883043-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid36468834_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36468834-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/U937_(cell_line)" title="U937 (cell line)">U937</a> <a href="/wiki/Leukemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukemic">leukemic</a> <a href="/wiki/Promonocyte" title="Promonocyte">promonocyte</a>, <a href="/wiki/THP-1_cell_line" title="THP-1 cell line">THP-1</a> leukemic monocyte, EoL-1 leukemic <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil" title="Eosinophil">eosinophil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurkat_cells" title="Jurkat cells">Jurcat</a> leukemic <a href="/wiki/T_lymphocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="T lymphocyte">T lymphocyte</a>, MOLT-4 T <a href="/wiki/Lymphoblast" title="Lymphoblast">lymphoblast</a> leukemic, and <a href="/wiki/HL60" title="HL60">HL60</a> <a href="/wiki/Acute_myeloid_leukemia" title="Acute myeloid leukemia">acute myeloid leukemia</a> cells (but only when the HL60 cells are pre-treated with <a href="/wiki/Phorbol_12-myristate_13-acetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate">phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate</a> to promote their <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36468834_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36468834-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As noted, the expression of FFAR3 in the cells and tissues of animals are not always the same as those in humans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_satiety_and_obesity">Regulation of satiety and obesity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Regulation of satiety and obesity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">L cells</a> are enteroendocrine cells, i.e., specialized cells that secrete <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> directly into the circulation. L cells reside in the <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Ileum#Structure" title="Ileum">terminal ileum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">colon</a>. They are stimulated to <a href="/wiki/Secrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Secrete">secrete</a> <a href="/wiki/PYY" class="mw-redirect" title="PYY">PYY</a> (also termed peptide YY) and <a href="/wiki/GLP-1" class="mw-redirect" title="GLP-1">GLP-1</a> (also termed glucagon-like peptide-1) by the SC-FAs that accumulate inside the intestines after feeding. L cells express FFAR3 and/or FFAR2.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29510573_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29510573-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Ffar3</i> and <i>Ffar2</i> gene knock out mice show reduced secretions of GLP-1 and PYY.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid35105664_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid35105664-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have shown that <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice fed a high fat diet have significant increases in their food intake and body weights compared to <a href="/wiki/Wild-type" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild-type">wild-type</a> (i.e., genetically unaltered) mice.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other studies in animals suggest that the activation of FFAR3 and FFAR2 on L cells by SC-FAs triggers the release of PYY and GLP-1 both of which, among various other activities, inhibit gastric emptying and thereby suppress appetite and the development of obesity.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid37470232_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37470232-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further studies are needed to determine if FFAR3 plays a similar role in human satiety and obesity.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It should be noted, however, that <a href="/wiki/Semaglutide" title="Semaglutide">Semaglutide</a>, also called Wegovy, is a peptide with a modified GLP-1-like structure. It strongly stimulates <a href="/wiki/GLP-1_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="GLP-1 receptor">GLP-1 receptors</a> and thereby suppresses appetite and promotes weight loss in obese individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36889753_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36889753-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a> released by adipose tissue that triggers <a href="/wiki/Satiety" title="Satiety">satiety</a> and thereby tends to reduce or stop further food intake and the development of obesity. It also plays a role in female reproductive function, <a href="/wiki/Lipolysis" title="Lipolysis">lipolysis</a> (e.g., the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Triglycerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Triglycerides">triglycerides</a> into their component free fatty acids and <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>), the growth of fetuses, inflammation, and <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">angiogenesis</a> (i.e., the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing blood vessels).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34084149_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34084149-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While studies have suggested that the SC-FA-induced activation of FFAR3 leads to the secretion of leptin from the white adipose tissue of intact animals and the fat tissue isolated from human tissues, other studies have suggested that FFAR2 rather than FFAR3 is responsible for the SC-FA-induced release of leptin form fat tissue. A systematic review of the published studies on this issue concluded that SC-FA-induced activation of FFAR3 is likely responsible for the SC-FA-induced release of leptin from cultured fat tissue taken from animals. However, the data were insufficient to support a role for FFAR3 in the release of leptin from cultured human fat tissues or the fat tissue of intact animals. The role of FFAR3 stimulation of leptin release in apatite suppression and obesity needs further study.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31669116_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31669116-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_liver_fatty_acid_storage_and_fatty_liver_disease">Regulation of liver fatty acid storage and fatty liver disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Regulation of liver fatty acid storage and fatty liver disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a high-fat diet-induced obesity model of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_liver_disease" title="Fatty liver disease">fatty liver disease</a> (i.e., excessive buildup of fat in the liver), mice fed a diet that increased intestinal levels of SC-FAs showed reductions in their livers' synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglyceride</a> levels, and weights. These reductions did not occur in <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice but did occur in <i>Ffar2</i> gene knocked-out mice. These results indicate that the SC-FA-induced activation of FFAR3 suppresses the liver's accumulation of fatty acids that underlies the development of fatty liver disease in this mouse model.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31719611_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31719611-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other studies have found that <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice showed less weight gain than wild-type mice under standard laboratory conditions but this difference was lost in mice reared under germ-free conditions (i.e., which causes the mice to have lower intestinal and tissue levels of SC-FAs).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33897464_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33897464-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings indicated that the activation of FFAR3 but not FFAR2 by SC-FAs protects against developing fatty liver disease in mice;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33897464_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33897464-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid37596634_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37596634-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they also support studies to determine if FFAR3 has these actions in humans and if FFAR3 activators can be used to treat or prevent human fatty liver diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease">non-alcoholic fatty liver disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27259147_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27259147-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_insulin_secretion_and_diabetes">Regulation of insulin secretion and diabetes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Regulation of insulin secretion and diabetes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, which accounts for 90% of all diabetes cases, have decreases in the proliferation, maturation, and activity of their <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islet" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancreatic islet">pancreatic islet</a> <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>-secreting <a href="/wiki/Beta-cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-cells">beta-cells</a> as well as the potency of insulin's actions. These decreases result in reduced insulin secretion, <a href="/wiki/Hyperglycemia" title="Hyperglycemia">hyperglycemia</a>, and the many other afflictions associated with this disorder. Studies in the past have reported that the activation of FFAR3 reduced the insulin secreted by <b>1)</b> human and mouse beta cells <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a>, <b>2)</b> cultured human and murine beta cell-containing <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">pancreatic islets</a>, and <b>3)</b> cultured beta cell lines.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32521775_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32521775-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid33495605_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33495605-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies showed that acetic acid-induced inhibition of insulin secretion by mouse pancreatic islets did not occur in islets that had both of their <i>Ffar3</i> and <i>Ffar2</i> genes knocked out but had no effect on insulin secretion in islets that had only one of the two genes knocked out.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33495605_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33495605-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to this, however, a recent study of <a href="/wiki/Streptozotocin" title="Streptozotocin">streptozotocin</a>-induced and high-fat diet-induced murine models of diabetes found that the FFAR3-activating drug, AR420626, increased blood plasma insulin levels and stimulated skeletal muscle to take up glucose and thereby improved <a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">glucose tolerance test</a> results.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37309717_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37309717-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other recent studies have reported that activated FFAR3 may reduce, increase, or have little effect on insulin secretion depending on <b>1)</b> the levels of ambient glucose and FFAR3 activators studied, <b>2)</b> human or animal species studied, <b>3)</b> age of the animals studied, and <b>4)</b> variations in the proportions of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha cells">alpha</a>, beta, and <a href="/wiki/Delta_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta cells">delta cells</a> in the pancreatic islets of humans. The role of FFAR3 in human as well as animal models of insulin secretion and diabetes requires further studies.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37620991_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37620991-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_blood_pressure_and_hypertension-induced_cardiovascular_disorders">Regulation of blood pressure and hypertension-induced cardiovascular disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regulation of blood pressure and hypertension-induced cardiovascular disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An early study showed that the <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Bolus" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenous injection</a> of propionic acid into mice induced a brief (<5 min) <a href="/wiki/Hypotensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotensive">hypotensive</a> response as defined by drops in their <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">mean arterial pressures</a>. This response was reduced in mice that had one of their two <i>Ffar3</i> genes knocked out and absent in mice that had both <i>Ffar3</i> genes knocked out.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23401498_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23401498-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28315048_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28315048-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A subsequent study reported that <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice developed abnormally high <a href="/wiki/Diastolic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Diastolic pressure">diastolic blood pressuress</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">pulse pressures</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Systole" title="Systole">systolic</a> minus diastolic blood pressures) as well as increased amounts of cardiac <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elastin" title="Elastin">elastin</a> <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> and increased cardiac stiffness as evidenced by a reduce rate of heart muscle relaxation measured by <a href="/wiki/Pressure%E2%80%93volume_loop_analysis_in_cardiology#Isovolumic_relaxation_constant_(Τau)" title="Pressure–volume loop analysis in cardiology">pressure-volume loop analysis tau levels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32093510_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32093510-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid34452845_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34452845-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taken together, these studies suggest that in mice SC-FA-activated FFAR3 functions to reduce blood pressure as well as some of the consequences of hypertension such as cardiac fibroses and poor <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_contractility" title="Myocardial contractility">myocardial contractility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33414131_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33414131-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies in humans have found that individuals undergoing hemodialysis using dialysis solutions that contain acetic acid often develop hypotension; the role of FFAR3 in this response, if any, was not investigated.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23401498_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23401498-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28315048_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28315048-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And, a study of 69 individuals (55.1% women, mean age 59.8 years) found that arterial stiffness was associated with lower levels of FFAR3 and FFAR2 in circulating blood <a href="/wiki/Immune_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune cells">immune cells</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory T cells">regulatory T cells</a> which are known to be protective in murine models of hypertension<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32733062_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32733062-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34452845_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34452845-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall. the mouse studies suggest that FFAR3 contributes to suppressing hypertension and its subsequent effects on the heart in mice<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32093510_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32093510-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that that SC-FA-activated FFAR3 and/or FFAR2 may have vasodilatory actions and thereby suppress the development of hypertension and hypertension-induced arterial stiffness in humans. Further studies in humans are needed to investigate the latter possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32093510_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32093510-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid32733062_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32733062-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_the_sympathetic_nervous_system_and_its_control_of_heart_rate_and_energy_expenditure">Regulation of the sympathetic nervous system and its control of heart rate and energy expenditure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Regulation of the sympathetic nervous system and its control of heart rate and energy expenditure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have shown that compared to <a href="/wiki/Wild_type" title="Wild type">wild type</a> mice, <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice have: <b>a)</b> significantly smaller-sized <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> ganglia as judged by measurements of this systems' largest ganglia, the <a href="/wiki/Superior_cervical_ganglion" title="Superior cervical ganglion">superior cervical ganglion</a>; <b>b)</b> significantly slower <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rates</a>; and <b>c)</b> significantly lower norepinephrine levels in their blood plasma. (Norepinephrine is a <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> that is released by sympathetic nervous system <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> and among other actions increases heart rate and total body <a href="/wiki/Energy_expenditure" title="Energy expenditure">energy expenditure</a>.) Furthermore, the treatment of wild type mice with propionic acid increased their heart rates but did not do so in <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mice.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21518883_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21518883-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, the offspring of <i>Ffar3</i>-gene knockout mice had slower heart rates (as well as lower body temperatures) than the offspring of wild type mice.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33578942_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33578942-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings indicate that FFAR3 regulates heart rates and energy expenditure in mice. Studies are needed to determine if it does so in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36057320_19-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36057320-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21518883_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21518883-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_allergic_asthma_reactions">Regulation of allergic asthma reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Regulation of allergic asthma reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asthma may be atopic (i.e., symptoms triggered by <a href="/wiki/Allergens" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergens">allergens</a>) or non-atopic (i.e., symptoms triggered by non-allergenic factors such as cold air). The studies reported here relate to allergen-induced asthma. Mice fed a diet that lowers their SC-FAs levels and then given intranasal injections of dust mite extract developed <a href="/wiki/Dust_mite_allergy" title="Dust mite allergy">dust mite allergy</a> <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> reactions to the injections. Their <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a> airways had increased numbers of <a href="/wiki/Eosinophils" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophils">eosinophils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goblet_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Goblet cells">goblet cells</a> as well as excessive levels of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>; their lung tissue levels of <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-4" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-4">interleukin-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-5" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-5">interleukin-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-13" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-13">interleukin-13</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-17A" title="Interleukin-17A">interleukin-17A</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serum_(blood)" title="Serum (blood)">serum</a> <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_E" title="Immunoglobulin E">immunoglobulin E</a> levels were elevated; and their <a href="/wiki/Airway_resistance" title="Airway resistance">airway resistance</a> response to a <a href="/wiki/Bronchial_challenge_test" title="Bronchial challenge test">bronchial challenge test</a> was high. In contrast, mice fed a diet that increased their SC-FAs levels developed less of these responses to the extract. Furthermore, mice on the SC-FA lowering diet that were given propionic acid also had far less of these responses to the mite extract. And, <i>Ffar3</i> (but not <i>Ffar2</i>) gene knockout mice on the low SF-FA diet did not show rises in their lung airway eosinophil levels in response to the mite extract (this was the only parameter of asthma reported in the knockout studies). These finding implicate propionic acid and FFAR3 in the suppression of asthma allergic reactions to mite extract in mice.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24390308_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24390308-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second study investigated the effects that an <a href="/wiki/Inulin" title="Inulin">inulin</a>-rich diet (which raises bodily SC-FA levels) feed to rats had on their offsprings' development of asthma. Pregnant rats were feed a normal or inulin-rich diet for 1 week. Their offspring were injected with ovalbumin on days 21 and 29 after birth, 7 days later challenged with aerosolized ovalbumin, and on the next day examined for their responses to the aerosol. Compared to the offspring of mothers on a normal diet, the offspring of mothers on the inulin diet had lower levels of lung inflammatory cells, less <a href="/wiki/Histological" class="mw-redirect" title="Histological">histological</a> evidence of allergic lung disease, lower lung tissue levels of immunoglobulin E, interleukin-4, and interleukin-17, and significantly elevated lung levels of FFAR3 (Lung FFAR2 levels were not significantly elevated). These results indicate that a diet promoting the production of SC-FAs in pregnant rats suppresses the development of asthmatic disease in their offspring; this suppression may involve FFAR3.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37014871_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37014871-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar study, newborn mice were feed breast milk from mothers who had drunk pure water or water containing a SC-FA. After 3 weeks, the newborns were weaned off the mothers' milk, feed plain water, and 3 weeks thereafter sensitized to and challenged by injection of mite extract into their <a href="/wiki/Tracheas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheas">tracheas</a>. Mothers who drank pure water or water laced with acetic or butyric acid and sensitized to the mite extract had asthma signs after challenge with the extract whereas mothers who drank propionic acid-laced water had far less of these signs. Furthermore, <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout mothers who drank propionic acid-laced water and then sensitized to the mite extract had asthma signs similar to these in wild type mothers challenged with the extract. The study also found that the offspring of mothers who drank propionic acid-laced water had fewer eosinophils and <a href="/wiki/T_helper_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T helper cells">T helper cells</a> in their airways than the offsprings of mothers who drank pure water, acetic acid-laced water, or butyric acid-laced water. Propionic acid-laced water did not suppress the development of asthma in <i>Ffar3</i> gene knockout offsprings. These results indicate that ingestion of propionic acid, but not acetic or butyric acid, suppresses the development of allergic asthma in adult as well as newborn rats and does so by a FFAR3-dependent mechanism. The studies also indicate that the milk of pregnant rats who consumed propionic acid-laced but not those who drank pure water reduced the susceptibility of newborn rats to developing allergic asthma by a mechanism dependent on FFAR3 in the mothers as well as the offsprings. These findings support further studies to determine if propionic acid or other FFAR3 activators would be useful for preventing and/or treating asthma in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36543697_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36543697-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid37131293_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37131293-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study of humans living on European farms or in non-farm rural areas reported that the fecal levels of butyric but not acetic acid in 12 month old children who had not develop asthma by the time they entered the first year of school were significantly higher than these levels in children who did develop asthma by the school entry age.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33139948_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33139948-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study conducted in Canada reported that the levels of fecal acetic acid (but not butyric or propionic acid) were lower in 3 month old human infants who were predicted to have asthma by school age (based on a Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States prediction <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>) compared to infants predicted not to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26424567_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26424567-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, a study conducted in Japan found that the fecal levels of propionic but not acetic or butyric acid trended lower in 1 month old human infants that developed asthma by age 5 than in infants that did not develop asthma. The fecal levels of propionic as well acetic and butyric acid obtained from 1 week-, 1 year, and 5-year-old infants did not show this trend.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37131293_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37131293-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The different SC-FA implicated in suppressing asthma in these three studies may reflect dietary or other differences between the populations of the three countries. In all events, the studies allow that, based on rodent studies, FFAR3 may mediate these SG-FA actions and, based on human studies, SC-FAs may act to suppress, or at least delay) the onset of, asthma in children Further studies are needed to determine if FFAR3 is involved in the apparent actions of the cited SC-FAs in the development of asthma in children.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid37131293_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid37131293-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor" title="Free fatty acid receptor">Free fatty acid receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probiotic#Regulation" title="Probiotic">Disorders treated by probiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(nutrition)#Regulation" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">Disorders treated by prebiotics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output 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title="Cell surface receptor">Cell surface receptor</a>: <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Class_A:_Rhodopsin-like" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rhodopsin-like_receptors" title="Rhodopsin-like receptors">Class A</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rhodopsin" title="Rhodopsin">Rhodopsin</a>-like</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">Neurotransmitter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor" title="Adrenergic receptor">Adrenergic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-1_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor">α1</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alpha-1A_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-1A adrenergic receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-1B_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-1B adrenergic receptor">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-1D_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-1D adrenergic receptor">D</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor">α2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alpha-2A_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2B_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2C_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor">C</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-1_adrenergic_receptor" title="Beta-1 adrenergic receptor">β1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Beta-2 adrenergic receptor">β2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-3_adrenergic_receptor" title="Beta-3 adrenergic receptor">β3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Purinergic_receptor" title="Purinergic receptor">Purinergic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_receptor" title="Adenosine receptor">Adenosine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A1_receptor" title="Adenosine A1 receptor">A1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A2A_receptor" title="Adenosine A2A receptor">A2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A2B_receptor" title="Adenosine A2B receptor">A2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_A3_receptor" title="Adenosine A3 receptor">A3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2Y_receptor" title="P2Y receptor">P2Y</a> (<a href="/wiki/P2RY1" title="P2RY1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY2" title="P2RY2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY4" title="P2RY4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR6" title="LPAR6">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY6" title="P2RY6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY8" title="P2RY8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR23" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR23">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY10" title="P2RY10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY11" title="P2RY11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2Y12" title="P2Y12">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY13" title="P2RY13">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P2RY14" title="P2RY14">14</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/5-HT_receptor" title="5-HT receptor">Serotonin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>(all but <a href="/wiki/5-HT3_receptor" title="5-HT3 receptor">5-HT3</a>)</i> <a href="/wiki/5-HT1_receptor" title="5-HT1 receptor">5-HT1</a> (<a href="/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor" title="5-HT1A receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1B_receptor" title="5-HT1B receptor">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1D_receptor" title="5-HT1D receptor">D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1E_receptor" title="5-HT1E receptor">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1F_receptor" title="5-HT1F receptor">F</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT2_receptor" title="5-HT2 receptor">5-HT2</a> (<a href="/wiki/5-HT2A_receptor" title="5-HT2A receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT2B_receptor" title="5-HT2B receptor">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT2C_receptor" title="5-HT2C receptor">C</a>)</li> <li><i>5-HT</i> (<a href="/wiki/5-HT4_receptor" title="5-HT4 receptor">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT5A_receptor" title="5-HT5A receptor">5A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT6_receptor" title="5-HT6 receptor">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT7_receptor" title="5-HT7 receptor">7</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">Acetylcholine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M1" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1">M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M2" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2">M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M3" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3">M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M4" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4">M4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor_M5" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M5">M5</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor" title="Dopamine receptor">Dopamine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D1" title="Dopamine receptor D1">D1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">D2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D3" title="Dopamine receptor D3">D3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D4" title="Dopamine receptor D4">D4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D5" title="Dopamine receptor D5">D5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GHB_receptor" title="GHB receptor">GHB receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_receptor" title="Histamine receptor">Histamine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H1_receptor" title="Histamine H1 receptor">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H2_receptor" title="Histamine H2 receptor">H2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H3_receptor" title="Histamine H3 receptor">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine_H4_receptor" title="Histamine H4 receptor">H4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor" title="Melatonin receptor">Melatonin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor_1A" title="Melatonin receptor 1A">1A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor_1B" title="Melatonin receptor 1B">1B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_receptor_1C" title="Melatonin receptor 1C">1C</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_amine-associated_receptor" title="Trace amine-associated receptor">TAAR</a> (<a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAAR2" title="TAAR2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAAR5" title="TAAR5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAAR6" title="TAAR6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAAR8" title="TAAR8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAAR9" title="TAAR9">9</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Metabolites and<br />signaling molecules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid_receptor" title="Eicosanoid receptor">Eicosanoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>CysLT</i> (<a href="/wiki/Cysteinyl_leukotriene_receptor_1" title="Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cysteinyl_leukotriene_receptor_2" title="Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4" title="Leukotriene B4">LTB4</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4_receptor" title="Leukotriene B4 receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4_receptor_2" title="Leukotriene B4 receptor 2">2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formyl_peptide_receptor_2" title="Formyl peptide receptor 2"> FPRL1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxoeicosanoid_receptor_1" title="Oxoeicosanoid receptor 1">OXE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_receptor" title="Prostaglandin receptor">Prostaglandin</a> <ul><li><i>DP</i> (<a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_D2_receptor" title="Prostaglandin D2 receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR44" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR44">2</a>), <i>EP</i> (<a href="/wiki/EP1_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="EP1 receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_E2_receptor" title="Prostaglandin E2 receptor">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_E_receptor_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostaglandin E receptor 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EP4_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="EP4 receptor">4</a>), <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_F_receptor" title="Prostaglandin F receptor">FP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostacyclin_receptor" title="Prostacyclin receptor">Prostacyclin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thromboxane_receptor" title="Thromboxane receptor">Thromboxane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_bile_acid_receptor" title="G protein-coupled bile acid receptor">Bile acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabinoid receptor type 1">CB1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor_type_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabinoid receptor type 2">CB2</a>, <i>GPR</i> (<a href="/wiki/GPR18" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR55" title="GPR55">55</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR119" title="GPR119">119</a>))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR183" title="GPR183">EBI2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPER" title="GPER">Estrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor" title="Free fatty acid receptor">Free fatty acid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor_1" title="Free fatty acid receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor_2" title="Free fatty acid receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR42" title="GPR42">4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid_receptor" title="Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor">Hydroxycarboxylic acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid_receptor_1" title="Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid_receptor_2" title="Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid_receptor_3" title="Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 3">3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysophosphatidic_acid" title="Lysophosphatidic acid">Lysophosphatidic acid</a> (<a href="/wiki/LPAR1" title="LPAR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR2" title="LPAR2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR3" title="LPAR3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR4" title="LPAR4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR5" title="LPAR5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR6" title="LPAR6">6</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysophospholipid_receptor" title="Lysophospholipid receptor">Lysophospholipid</a> (<a href="/wiki/S1PR1" title="S1PR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR1" title="LPAR1">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR3" title="S1PR3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR2" title="LPAR2">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR2" title="S1PR2">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR4" title="S1PR4">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR3" title="LPAR3">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR5" title="S1PR5">8</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OXGR1" title="OXGR1">Oxoglutarate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platelet-activating_factor_receptor" title="Platelet-activating factor receptor">PAF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingosine-1-phosphate" title="Sphingosine-1-phosphate">Sphingosine-1-phosphate</a> (<a href="/wiki/S1PR1" title="S1PR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR2" title="S1PR2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR3" title="S1PR3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR4" title="S1PR4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S1PR5" title="S1PR5">5</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUCNR1" title="SUCNR1">Succinate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Peptide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/GPCR_neuropeptide_receptor" title="GPCR neuropeptide receptor">Neuropeptide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_B/W_receptor" title="Neuropeptide B/W receptor">B/W</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neuropeptides_B/W_receptor_1" title="Neuropeptides B/W receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptides_B/W_receptor_2" title="Neuropeptides B/W receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_FF_receptor" title="Neuropeptide FF receptor">FF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_FF_receptor_1" title="Neuropeptide FF receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_FF_receptor_2" title="Neuropeptide FF receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_S_receptor" title="Neuropeptide S receptor">S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y_receptor" title="Neuropeptide Y receptor">Y</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y_receptor_Y1" title="Neuropeptide Y receptor Y1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y_receptor_Y2" title="Neuropeptide Y receptor Y2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide_receptor_1" title="Pancreatic polypeptide receptor 1">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y_receptor_Y5" title="Neuropeptide Y receptor Y5">5</a>)</li> <li><i>Neuromedin</i> (<a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_B_receptor" title="Neuromedin B receptor">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U_receptor" title="Neuromedin U receptor">U</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U_receptor_1" title="Neuromedin U receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U_receptor_2" title="Neuromedin U receptor 2">2</a>))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotensin_receptor" title="Neurotensin receptor">Neurotensin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neurotensin_receptor_1" title="Neurotensin receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotensin_receptor_2" title="Neurotensin receptor 2">2</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphylatoxin_receptors" title="Anaphylatoxin receptors">Anaphylatoxin</a> (<a href="/wiki/C3a_receptor" title="C3a receptor">C3a</a></li> <li>C5a (<a href="/wiki/C5a_receptor" title="C5a receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C5AR2" title="C5AR2">2</a>))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin receptor">Angiotensin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_type_1" title="Angiotensin II receptor type 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_type_2" title="Angiotensin II receptor type 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apelin_receptor" title="Apelin receptor">Apelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin_receptor" title="Bombesin receptor">Bombesin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin-like_receptor_3" title="Bombesin-like receptor 3">BRS3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrin-releasing_peptide_receptor" title="Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor">GRPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_B_receptor" title="Neuromedin B receptor">NMBR</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor" title="Bradykinin receptor">Bradykinin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor_B1" title="Bradykinin receptor B1">B1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor_B2" title="Bradykinin receptor B2">B2</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemokine_receptor" title="Chemokine receptor">Chemokine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin_receptor" title="Cholecystokinin receptor">Cholecystokinin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin_A_receptor" title="Cholecystokinin A receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin_B_receptor" title="Cholecystokinin B receptor">B</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endothelin_receptor" title="Endothelin receptor">Endothelin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endothelin_A_receptor" title="Endothelin A receptor">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endothelin_B_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelin B receptor">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formyl_peptide_receptor" title="Formyl peptide receptor">Formyl peptide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Formyl_peptide_receptor_1" title="Formyl peptide receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formyl_peptide_receptor_2" title="Formyl peptide receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formyl_peptide_receptor_3" title="Formyl peptide receptor 3">3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone_receptor" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor">FSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galanin_receptor" title="Galanin receptor">Galanin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galanin_receptor_1" title="Galanin receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galanin_receptor_2" title="Galanin receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galanin_receptor_3" title="Galanin receptor 3">3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor">Gonadotropin-releasing hormone</a> (<a href="/wiki/GNRHR" title="GNRHR">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNRHR2" title="GNRHR2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone_secretagogue_receptor" title="Growth hormone secretagogue receptor">Ghrelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KiSS1-derived_peptide_receptor" title="KiSS1-derived peptide receptor"> Kisspeptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone/choriogonadotropin_receptor" title="Luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor">Luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAS1_oncogene" title="MAS1 oncogene">MAS</a> (<a href="/wiki/MAS1" title="MAS1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAS1L" title="MAS1L">1L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRD" title="MRGPRD">D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRE" title="MRGPRE">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRF" title="MRGPRF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRG" title="MRGPRG">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRX1" title="MRGPRX1">X1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRX2" title="MRGPRX2">X2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRX3" title="MRGPRX3">X3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRGPRX4" title="MRGPRX4">X4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_receptor" title="Melanocortin receptor">Melanocortin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACTH_receptor" title="ACTH receptor">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_3_receptor" title="Melanocortin 3 receptor">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_4_receptor" title="Melanocortin 4 receptor">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_5_receptor" title="Melanocortin 5 receptor">5</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone_receptor" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor">MCHR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone_receptor_1" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone_receptor_2" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motilin_receptor" title="Motilin receptor">Motilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_receptor" title="Opioid receptor">Opioid</a> (<a href="/wiki/%CE%94-opioid_receptor" title="Δ-opioid receptor">Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">Kappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">Mu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin_receptor" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin</a> & <a href="/wiki/OGFr" title="OGFr">Zeta</a>, but not <a href="/wiki/Sigma_receptor" title="Sigma receptor">Sigma</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orexin_receptor" title="Orexin receptor">Orexin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypocretin_(orexin)_receptor_1" title="Hypocretin (orexin) receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocretin_(orexin)_receptor_2" title="Hypocretin (orexin) receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokineticin_receptor" title="Prokineticin receptor">Prokineticin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prokineticin_receptor_1" title="Prokineticin receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokineticin_receptor_2" title="Prokineticin receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin-releasing_peptide_receptor" title="Prolactin-releasing peptide receptor">Prolactin-releasing peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin_receptor" title="Relaxin receptor">Relaxin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Relaxin/insulin-like_family_peptide_receptor_1" title="Relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin/insulin-like_family_peptide_receptor_2" title="Relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin/insulin-like_family_peptide_receptor_3" title="Relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin/insulin-like_family_peptide_receptor_4" title="Relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 4">4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor" title="Somatostatin receptor">Somatostatin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor_1" title="Somatostatin receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor_2" title="Somatostatin receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor_3" title="Somatostatin receptor 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor_4" title="Somatostatin receptor 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor_5" title="Somatostatin receptor 5">5</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_receptor" title="Tachykinin receptor">Tachykinin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_receptor_1" title="Tachykinin receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_receptor_2" title="Tachykinin receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_receptor_3" title="Tachykinin receptor 3">3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin_receptor" title="Thyrotropin receptor">Thyrotropin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor">Thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urotensin-II_receptor" title="Urotensin-II receptor">Urotensin-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin_receptor" title="Vasopressin receptor">Vasopressin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1A" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 1A">1A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1B" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 1B">1B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 2">2</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste</a>, bitter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>TAS2R</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R1" title="TAS2R1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R3" title="TAS2R3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R4" title="TAS2R4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R5" title="TAS2R5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R7" title="TAS2R7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R8" title="TAS2R8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R9" title="TAS2R9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R10" title="TAS2R10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R13" title="TAS2R13">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R14" title="TAS2R14">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R16" title="TAS2R16">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R19" title="TAS2R19">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R20" title="TAS2R20">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R30" title="TAS2R30">30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R31" title="TAS2R31">31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R38" title="TAS2R38">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R39" title="TAS2R39">39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R40" title="TAS2R40">40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R41" title="TAS2R41">41</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R42" title="TAS2R42">42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R43" title="TAS2R43">43</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R45" title="TAS2R45">45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R46" title="TAS2R46">46</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R50" title="TAS2R50">50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS2R60" title="TAS2R60">60</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomeronasal_receptor" title="Vomeronasal receptor">Vomeronasal receptor</a> type 1</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Orphan_receptor" title="Orphan receptor">Orphan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>GPR</i> (<a href="/wiki/GPR1" title="GPR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR3" title="GPR3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR4" title="GPR4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR6" title="GPR6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR12" title="GPR12">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR15" title="GPR15">15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR17" title="GPR17">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR18" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR19" title="GPR19">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR20" title="GPR20">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR21" title="GPR21">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR22" title="GPR22">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR4" title="LPAR4">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR25" title="GPR25">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR26" title="GPR26">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR27" title="GPR27">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR31" title="GPR31">31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR32" title="GPR32">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR33" title="GPR33">33</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR34" title="GPR34">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR35" title="GPR35">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR37" title="GPR37">37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR39" title="GPR39">39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR42" title="GPR42">42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR44" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR44">44</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR45" title="GPR45">45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR50" title="GPR50">50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR52" title="GPR52">52</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR55" title="GPR55">55</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR61" title="GPR61">61</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR62" title="GPR62">62</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR63" title="GPR63">63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR65" title="GPR65">65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR68" title="GPR68">68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR75" title="GPR75">75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR78" title="GPR78">78</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR81" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR81">81</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR82" title="GPR82">82</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR83" title="GPR83">83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR84" title="GPR84">84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR85" title="GPR85">85</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR87" title="GPR87">87</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR88" title="GPR88">88</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPAR5" title="LPAR5">92</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR101" title="GPR101">101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroglutamylated_RFamide_peptide_receptor" title="Pyroglutamylated RFamide peptide receptor">103</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacin_receptor_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin receptor 1">109A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacin_receptor_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin receptor 2">109B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR119" title="GPR119">119</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR120" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR120">120</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR132" title="GPR132">132</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR135" title="GPR135">135</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR137B" title="GPR137B">137B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR139" title="GPR139">139</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR141" title="GPR141">141</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR142" title="GPR142">142</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR146" title="GPR146">146</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR148" title="GPR148">148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR149" title="GPR149">149</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR150" title="GPR150">150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR151" title="GPR151">151</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR152" title="GPR152">152</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR153" title="GPR153">153</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR160" title="GPR160">160</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR161" title="GPR161">161</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR162" title="GPR162">162</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR171" title="GPR171">171</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR173" title="GPR173">173</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR174" title="GPR174">174</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR176" title="GPR176">176</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR177" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR177">177</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR182" title="GPR182">182</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR183" title="GPR183">183</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align:left;"><i>Other</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GPR182" title="GPR182">Adrenomedullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">Opsin</a> (<a href="/wiki/OPN3" title="OPN3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanopsin" title="Melanopsin">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPN5" title="OPN5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPN1LW" title="OPN1LW">1LW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPN1MW" title="OPN1MW">1MW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPN1SW" title="OPN1SW">1SW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_G_protein_coupled_receptor" title="Retinal G protein coupled receptor">RGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RRH" title="RRH">RRH</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protease-activated_receptor" title="Protease-activated receptor">Protease-activated</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coagulation_factor_II_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation factor II receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protease_activated_receptor_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Protease activated receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F2RL2" title="F2RL2">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F2RL3" title="F2RL3">4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Conserved_Receptor_Expressed_in_Brain" title="Super Conserved Receptor Expressed in Brain">SREB</a> (<a href="/wiki/GPR27" title="GPR27">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR85" title="GPR85">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR173" title="GPR173">3</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Class_B:_Secretin-like" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Secretin_receptor_family" title="Secretin receptor family">Class B</a>: <a href="/wiki/Secretin_receptor" title="Secretin receptor">Secretin</a>-like</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Adhesion_G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="Adhesion G protein-coupled receptor">Adhesion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>ADGRB</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain-specific_angiogenesis_inhibitor" title="Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor">Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain-specific_angiogenesis_inhibitor_1" title="Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-specific_angiogenesis_inhibitor_2" title="Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-specific_angiogenesis_inhibitor_3" title="Brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 3">3</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>ADGRC</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamingo_(protein)" title="Flamingo (protein)">Cadherin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CELSR1" title="CELSR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CELSR2" title="CELSR2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CELSR3" title="CELSR3">3</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>ADGRE</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EGF_module-containing_mucin-like_hormone_receptor" title="EGF module-containing mucin-like hormone receptor">EMR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EMR1" title="EMR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMR2" title="EMR2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMR3" title="EMR3">3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD97" title="CD97">CD97</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>ADGRG</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GPR56" title="GPR56">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR64" title="GPR64">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR97" title="GPR97">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR112" title="GPR112">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR114" title="GPR114">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR126" title="GPR126">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR128" title="GPR128">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>ADGRL</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Latrophilin receptor">Latrophilin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_1" title="Latrophilin 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_2" title="Latrophilin 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_3" title="Latrophilin 3">3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELTD1" class="mw-redirect" title="ELTD1">ELTD1</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Orphan_receptor" title="Orphan receptor">Orphan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>GPR</i> (<a href="/wiki/GPR56" title="GPR56">56</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR64" title="GPR64">64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR97" title="GPR97">97</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR98" title="GPR98">98</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR110" title="GPR110">110</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR111" title="GPR111">111</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR112" title="GPR112">112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR113" title="GPR113">113</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR114" title="GPR114">114</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR115" title="GPR115">115</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR116" title="GPR116">116</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR123" title="GPR123">123</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR124" title="GPR124">124</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR125" title="GPR125">125</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR126" title="GPR126">126</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR128" title="GPR128">128</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR133" title="GPR133">133</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR143" title="GPR143">143</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR144" title="GPR144">144</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR155" title="GPR155">155</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR157" title="GPR157">157</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;"><i>Other</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin_receptor" title="Calcitonin receptor">Calcitonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CALCRL" title="CALCRL">CALCRL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor">Corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor_1" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor_2" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon_receptor_family" title="Glucagon receptor family">Glucagon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Glucagon_receptor" title="Glucagon receptor">GR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_inhibitory_polypeptide_receptor" title="Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor">GIPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1_receptor" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor">GLP1R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-2_receptor" title="Glucagon-like peptide-2 receptor">GLP2R</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth-hormone-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Growth-hormone-releasing hormone receptor">Growth-hormone-releasing hormone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ADCYAP1R1" title="ADCYAP1R1">PACAPR1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_receptor" title="Orphan receptor">GPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methuselah-like_proteins" title="Methuselah-like proteins">Methuselah-like proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone_receptor" title="Parathyroid hormone receptor">Parathyroid hormone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone_1_receptor" title="Parathyroid hormone 1 receptor">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone_2_receptor" title="Parathyroid hormone 2 receptor">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretin_receptor" title="Secretin receptor">Secretin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide_receptor" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor">Vasoactive intestinal peptide</a> (<a href="/wiki/VIPR1" title="VIPR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VIPR2" title="VIPR2">2</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Class_C:_Metabotropic_glutamate_/_pheromone" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Class_C_GPCR" title="Class C GPCR">Class C</a>: <a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_receptor" title="Metabotropic receptor">Metabotropic</a> <a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">glutamate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromone</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste</a>, sweet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>TAS1R</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TAS1R1" title="TAS1R1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS1R2" title="TAS1R2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAS1R3" title="TAS1R3">3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomeronasal_receptor" title="Vomeronasal receptor">Vomeronasal receptor</a>, type 2</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;"><i>Other</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcium-sensing_receptor" title="Calcium-sensing receptor">Calcium-sensing receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor" title="GABA receptor">GABA<sub>B</sub></a> (<a href="/wiki/GABBR1" title="GABBR1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GABBR2" title="GABBR2">2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_receptor" title="Glutamate receptor">Glutamate receptor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Metabotropic glutamate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_1" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_2" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_3" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_4" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_5" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_6" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_7" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_8" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 8">8</a>))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPRC6A" title="GPRC6A">GPRC6A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_receptor" title="Orphan receptor">GPR</a> (<a href="/wiki/GPR156" title="GPR156">156</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR158" title="GPR158">158</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPR179" title="GPR179">179</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoic_acid-inducible_orphan_G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="Retinoic acid-inducible orphan G protein-coupled receptor">RAIG</a> (<a href="/wiki/GPRC5A" title="GPRC5A">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPRC5B" title="GPRC5B">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPRC5C" title="GPRC5C">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPRC5D" title="GPRC5D">4</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Class_F:_Frizzled_&amp;_Smoothened" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Class F: <a href="/wiki/Frizzled" title="Frizzled">Frizzled</a> & <a href="/wiki/Smoothened" title="Smoothened">Smoothened</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;">Frizzled</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frizzled" title="Frizzled">Frizzled</a> (<a href="/wiki/FZD1" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD2" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD3" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD4" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD5" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD6" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD7" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD8" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD9" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FZD10" class="mw-redirect" title="FZD10">10</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;text-align:left;">Smoothened</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoothened" title="Smoothened">Smoothened</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&oldid=1231677711">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_fatty_acid_receptor_3&oldid=1231677711</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genes_on_human_chromosome_19" title="Category:Genes on human chromosome 19">Genes on human 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