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id="toc-1890s_to_1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1890s_to_1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>1890s to 1940s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1890s_to_1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1940s_to_1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1940s_to_1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>1940s to 1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1940s_to_1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s_to_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s_to_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>1990s to the 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s_to_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_studying_palynomorphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_studying_palynomorphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methods of studying palynomorphs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_studying_palynomorphs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods of studying palynomorphs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_studying_palynomorphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemical_preparation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_preparation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Chemical preparation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_preparation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Palynology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologie" title="Palinologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Palinologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%B9" title="علم الطلع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الطلع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF" title="প্যালিনোলজি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্যালিনোলজি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палинология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Палинология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologija" title="Palinologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Palinologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologia" title="Palinologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Palinologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologie" title="Palynologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Palynologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadansoddi_paill" title="Dadansoddi paill – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dadansoddi paill" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologi" title="Palynologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Palynologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologie" title="Palynologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Palynologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%BCnoloogia" title="Palünoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Palünoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Παλυνολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλυνολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinolog%C3%ADa" title="Palinología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Palinología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polenoscienco" title="Polenoscienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Polenoscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologia" title="Palinologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Palinologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="گرده‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گرده‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologie" title="Palynologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Palynologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pailineola%C3%ADocht" title="Pailineolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pailineolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinolox%C3%ADa" title="Palinoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Palinoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EB%B6%84%ED%95%99" title="화분학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화분학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Պալինոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պալինոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologija" title="Palinologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Palinologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologi" title="Palinologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Palinologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologia" title="Palinologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Palinologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פלינולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלינולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палинология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Палинология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podnegieth" title="Podnegieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Podnegieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologia" title="Palynologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Palynologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палинологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Палинологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%83u-h%C5%ABng-h%C5%8Fk" title="Bău-hūng-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Bău-hūng-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologie" title="Palynologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Palynologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89%E5%AD%A6" title="花粉学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="花粉学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenanalyse" title="Pollenanalyse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pollenanalyse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologia" title="Palinologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Palinologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologia" title="Palinologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Palinologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinologie" title="Palinologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Palinologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палинология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Палинология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Palynology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynol%C3%B3gia" title="Palynológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Palynológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палинологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палинологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologia" title="Palynologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Palynologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynologi" title="Palynologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Palynologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palinolohiya" title="Palinolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Palinolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மகரந்தத்தூளியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகரந்தத்தூளியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palynologie-exemple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palynologie-exemple.jpg/260px-Palynologie-exemple.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palynologie-exemple.jpg/390px-Palynologie-exemple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palynologie-exemple.jpg/520px-Palynologie-exemple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">Pine</a> <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> under the microscope</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trilete_spores.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/220px-Trilete_spores.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/330px-Trilete_spores.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/440px-Trilete_spores.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption> A late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangium</a> bearing <a href="/wiki/Trilete_spore" class="mw-redirect" title="Trilete spore">trilete spores</a>. Such spores provide the earliest evidence of life on land.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray1985_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Green</b>: A spore tetrad. <b>Blue</b>: A spore bearing a trilete mark – the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35 μm across.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Palynology</b> is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of mega-organisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>, and even some metasedimentary rocks. <b>Palynomorphs</b> are the microscopic, acid-resistant organic remains and debris produced by a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a> that have existed since the late <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NeuendorfOthers2005a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeuendorfOthers2005a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsOther2020a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil <a href="#Palynomorphs">palynomorphs</a> (paleopalynology), including <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbicule" title="Orbicule">orbicules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinocysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinocysts">dinocysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acritarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Acritarchs">acritarchs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chitinozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinozoa">chitinozoans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scolecodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Scolecodonts">scolecodonts</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_matter" title="Particulate organic matter">particulate organic matter</a> (POM) and <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a> rocks and <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>. Palynology does not include <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraminiferans" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferans">foraminiferans</a> or other organisms with <a href="/wiki/Siliceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliceous">siliceous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> <a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">tests</a>. The name of the science and organisms is derived from the Greek <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">παλύνω</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">palynō</i></span>, "strew, sprinkle" and <i><a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logy</a></i>) or of "particles that are strewn".<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsOther2020a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnellerOther2020a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palynology is an interdisciplinary science that stands at the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> or geological science) and <a href="/wiki/Biological_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological science">biological science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>), particularly <a href="/wiki/Plant_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant science">plant science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>). <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a>, a branch of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">paleobotany</a>, involves <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> palynomorphs from the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> for their usefulness in the <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">relative dating</a> and correlation of sedimentary <a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">strata</a>. Palynology is also used to date and understand the evolution of many kinds of plants and animals. In <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a>, fossil palynomorphs are studied for their usefulness in understanding ancient Earth history in terms of reconstructing <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoenvironments</a> and paleoclimates.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsOther2020a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnellerOther2020a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palynology is quite useful in disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeology</a>, in honey production, and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsOther2020a-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnellerOther2020a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In archaeology, palynology is widely used to reconstruct ancient paleoenvironments and environmental shifts that significantly influenced past human societies and reconstruct the diet of prehistoric and historic humans. <a href="/wiki/Melissopalynology" title="Melissopalynology">Melissopalynology</a>, the study of pollen and other palynomorphs in <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, identifies the sources of pollen in terms of geographical location(s) and <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> of plants. This not only provides important information on the <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> of honey bees, it also an important tool in discovering and policing the criminal adultriation and mislabeling of honey and its products. <a href="/wiki/Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Forensic palynology</a> uses palynomorphs as evidence in criminal and civil law to prove or disprove a physical link between objects, people, and places.<sup id="cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnellerOther2020a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LaurenceOther2014a_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaurenceOther2014a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palynomorphs">Palynomorphs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Palynomorphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic remains, including <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossils</a>, and microscopic fragments of mega-organisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and range in size between 5 and 500 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a>. They are extracted from soils, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollen_core" title="Pollen core">sediment cores</a>, and other materials by a combination of physical (ultrasonic treatment and <a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">wet sieving</a>) and chemical (acid digestion) procedures to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of organic material such as <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudochitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudochitin">pseudochitin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">sporopollenin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traverse2007a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palynomorphs form a <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> record of importance in determining the type of <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric life">prehistoric life</a> that existed at the time the sedimentary <a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">strata</a> was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Paleogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleogeography">climatic conditions</a> of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of palynomorphs per gram in organic marine deposits, even when such deposits are generally not <a href="/wiki/Fossiliferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossiliferous">fossiliferous</a>. Palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic</a> or recrystallized rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traverse2007a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typical palynomorphs include <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate_cysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellate cysts">dinoflagellate cysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acritarch" title="Acritarch">acritarchs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, plant tissue, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scolecodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Scolecodonts">scolecodonts</a> (scleroprotein teeth, jaws, and associated features of <a href="/wiki/Polychaeta" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychaeta">polychaete</a> <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelid</a> worms), <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> organs (such as <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> mouthparts), and <a href="/wiki/Chitinozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinozoa">chitinozoans</a>. Palynomorph microscopic structures that are abundant in most sediments are resistant to routine pollen extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traverse2007a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palynofacies">Palynofacies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Palynofacies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>palynofacies</b> is the complete assemblage of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> and <a href="#Palynomorphs">palynomorphs</a> in a fossil deposit. The term was introduced by the French <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Combaz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="André Combaz (page does not exist)">André Combaz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63441366" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q63441366">wikidata</a>]</span> in 1964. Palynofacies studies are often linked to investigations of the organic <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemistry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>. The study of the palynofacies of a <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_depositional_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary depositional environment">sedimentary depositional environment</a> can be used to learn about the depositional palaeoenvironments of sedimentary rocks in exploration geology, often in conjunction with palynological analysis and <a href="/wiki/Vitrinite" title="Vitrinite">vitrinite</a> reflectance.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palynofacies can be used in two ways: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a> palynofacies considers all the acid insoluble <a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_matter" title="Particulate organic matter">particulate organic matter</a> (POM), including <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> and <a href="#Palynomorphs">palynomorphs</a> in sediments and palynological preparations of sedimentary rocks. The sieved or unsieved preparations may be examined using <a href="/wiki/Strew_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Strew mount">strew mounts</a> on microscope slides that may be examined using a transmitted light biological microscope or <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> (UV) fluorescence microscope. The abundance, composition and preservation of the various components, together with the thermal alteration of the organic matter is considered.</li> <li>Palynomorph palynofacies considers the abundance, composition and diversity of palynomorphs in a sieved palynological preparation of sediments or palynological preparation of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>. The ratio of <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acritarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Acritarchs">acritarchs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellate</a> cysts), together with <a href="/wiki/Chitinozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinozoa">chitinozoans</a>, to terrestrial palynomorphs (<a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a>) can be used to derive a terrestrial input index in marine sediments.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollen_core_sampling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pollen_core_sampling.jpg/170px-Pollen_core_sampling.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pollen_core_sampling.jpg/255px-Pollen_core_sampling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pollen_core_sampling.jpg/340px-Pollen_core_sampling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pollen_core" title="Pollen core">Pollen core</a> sampling, Fort Bragg, North Carolina</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest reported observations of pollen under a microscope are likely to have been in the 1640s by the English <a href="/wiki/Botanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanist">botanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_Grew" title="Nehemiah Grew">Nehemiah Grew</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who described pollen and the stamen, and concluded that pollen is required for sexual reproduction in flowering plants. </p><p>By the late 1870s, as optical microscopes improved and the principles of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> were worked out, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kidston" title="Robert Kidston">Robert Kidston</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=P._Reinsch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="P. Reinsch (page does not exist)">P. Reinsch</a> were able to examine the presence of fossil spores in the Devonian and Carboniferous coal seams and make comparisons between the living spores and the ancient fossil spores.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early investigators include <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">radiolarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate_cysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellate cysts">dinoflagellate cysts</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" title="Gideon Mantell">Gideon Mantell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Desmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Desmid">desmids</a>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Hopley_White&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Hopley White (page does not exist)">Henry Hopley White</a> (dinoflagellate cysts). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1890s_to_1940s">1890s to 1940s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1890s to 1940s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quantitative analysis of pollen began with <a href="/wiki/Lennart_von_Post" title="Lennart von Post">Lennart von Post</a>'s published work.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his <a href="/wiki/Kristiania" class="mw-redirect" title="Kristiania">Kristiania</a> lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience.<sup id="cite_ref-FIPol_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FIPol-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the early investigations were published in the Nordic languages (<a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian languages">Scandinavian languages</a>), the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries.<sup id="cite_ref-InMem_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InMem-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The isolation ended with the German publication of <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Erdtman" title="Gunnar Erdtman">Gunnar Erdtman</a>'s 1921 thesis. The methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> vegetation and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> research.<sup id="cite_ref-FIPol_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FIPol-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Earlier pollen researchers include Früh (1885),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who enumerated many common tree pollen types, and a considerable number of <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herb</a> pollen grains. There is a study of pollen samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom (1888);<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinus">pine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Picea" class="mw-redirect" title="Picea">spruce</a> pollen was found in such profusion that he considered them to be serviceable as "<a href="/wiki/Index_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossils">index fossils</a>". <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_F._L._Sarauw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg F. L. Sarauw (page does not exist)">Georg F. L. Sarauw</a> studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age (<a href="/wiki/Cromerian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cromerian">Cromerian</a>) from the harbour of <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lagerheim (in Witte 1905) and C. A.Weber (in H. A. Weber 1918) appear to be among the first to undertake 'percentage frequency' calculations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1940s_to_1989">1940s to 1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1940s to 1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>palynology</i> was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Antevs" title="Ernst Antevs">Ernst Antevs</a>, in the pages of the <i><a href="/wiki/Pollen_Analysis_Circular" title="Pollen Analysis Circular">Pollen Analysis Circular</a></i> (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, produced by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sears" title="Paul Sears">Paul Sears</a> in North America). Hyde and Williams chose <i>palynology</i> on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> words <i>paluno</i> meaning 'to sprinkle' and <i>pale</i> meaning 'dust' (and thus similar to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>pollen</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The archive-based background to the adoption of the term <i>palynology</i> and to alternative names (e.g. <i>paepalology</i>, <i>pollenology</i>) has been exhaustively explored.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued there that the word gained general acceptance once used by the influential Swedish palynologist <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Erdtman" title="Gunnar Erdtman">Gunnar Erdtman</a>. </p><p>Pollen analysis in North America stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Draper" title="Phyllis Draper">Phyllis Draper</a>, an MS student under Sears at the University of Oklahoma. During her time as a student, she developed the first pollen diagram from a sample that depicted the percentage of several species at different depths at Curtis Bog. This was the introduction of pollen analysis in North America;<sup id="cite_ref-Draper1928a_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Draper1928a-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pollen diagrams today still often remain in the same format with depth on the y-axis and abundances of species on the x-axis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s_to_the_21st_century">1990s to the 21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1990s to the 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this period due to advances in optics and computers. Much of the science was revised by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Iversen" title="Johannes Iversen">Johannes Iversen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knut_F%C3%A6gri" title="Knut Fægri">Knut Fægri</a> in their textbook on the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_studying_palynomorphs">Methods of studying palynomorphs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methods of studying palynomorphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_preparation">Chemical preparation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chemical preparation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical digestion follows a number of steps.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially the only chemical treatment used by researchers was treatment with <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a> (KOH) to remove <a href="/wiki/Humic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Humic acid">humic</a> substances; defloculation was accomplished through surface treatment or ultra-sonic treatment, although sonification may cause the pollen exine to rupture.<sup id="cite_ref-InMem_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InMem-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1924, the use of <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a> (HF) to digest <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> was introduced by Assarson and Granlund, greatly reducing the amount of time required to scan slides for palynomorphs.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palynological studies using peats presented a particular challenge because of the presence of well-preserved organic material, including fine rootlets, moss leaflets and organic litter. This was the last major challenge in the chemical preparation of materials for palynological study. <a href="/wiki/Acetolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetolysis">Acetolysis</a> was developed by Gunnar Erdtman and his brother to remove these fine cellulose materials by dissolving them.<sup id="cite_ref-BirksOthers2018a_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BirksOthers2018a-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In acetolysis the specimen is treated with <a href="/wiki/Acetic_anhydride" title="Acetic anhydride">acetic anhydride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, dissolving <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulistic</a> materials and thus providing better visibility for palynomorphs.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some steps of the chemical treatments require special care for safety reasons, in particular the use of HF which diffuses very fast through the skin and, causes severe chemical burns, and can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another treatment includes kerosene flotation for <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitinous</a> materials. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once samples have been prepared chemically, they are mounted on <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> slides using silicon oil, glycerol or glycerol-jelly and examined using light <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> or mounted on a stub for <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscopy</a>. </p><p>Researchers will often study either modern samples from a number of unique sites within a given area, or samples from a single site with a record through time, such as samples obtained from <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> or lake sediments. More recent studies have used the modern analog technique in which paleo-samples are compared to modern samples for which the parent vegetation is known.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the slides are observed under a microscope, the researcher counts the number of grains of each pollen taxon. This record is next used to produce a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen diagram">pollen diagram</a>. These data can be used to detect <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> effects, such as logging,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traditional patterns of land use<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or long term changes in regional climate<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Palynology can be applied to problems in many scientific disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">pedology (soil study)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a>. Geologists use palynological studies in biostratigraphy to correlate <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> and determine the relative age of a given bed, horizon, formation or <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphical</a> sequence. Because the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Acritarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Acritarchs">acritarchs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chitinozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinozoa">chitinozoans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate_cysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellate cysts">dinoflagellate cysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> provides evidence of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphical correlation</a> through <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaeoenvironment" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoenvironment">palaeoenvironmental</a> reconstruction, one common and lucrative application of palynology is in <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">gas</a> exploration.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a>. Palynology can be used to reconstruct past <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> (land plants) and <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">marine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_phytoplankton" title="Freshwater phytoplankton">Freshwater phytoplankton</a> communities, and so infer past <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paleoenvironment" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoenvironment">palaeoenvironmental</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">palaeoclimatic</a> conditions in an area <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic timescale">thousands or millions of years</a> ago, a fundamental part of research into climate change.</li> <li>Organic <a href="/wiki/Palynofacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Palynofacies">palynofacies</a> studies, which examine the preservation of the particulate organic matter and <a href="#Palynomorphs">palynomorphs</a> provides information on the depositional environment of sediments and depositional palaeoenvironments of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary rocks</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_activity" title="Geothermal activity">Geothermal</a> alteration studies examine the <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">colour</a> of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">maturation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a> sequences, which provides estimates of maximum <a href="/wiki/Paleotemperatures" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleotemperatures">palaeotemperatures</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a> studies. Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the <a href="/wiki/Prasinophyte" title="Prasinophyte">prasinophytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Desmid">desmids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green algae</a>) can be used to study past lake levels and long term <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">Taxonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary studies</a>. Involving the use of pollen morphological characters as source of taxonomic data to delimit plant species under same family or genus. Pollen apertural status is frequently used for differential sorting or finding similarities between species of the same taxa. This is also called Palynotaxonomy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Forensic palynology</a>: the study of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and other palynomorphs for evidence at a crime scene.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> studies and <a href="/wiki/Pollen_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen counting">pollen counting</a>. Studies of the geographic distribution and seasonal production of pollen, can be used to forecast pollen conditions, helping sufferers of allergies such as <a href="/wiki/Hay_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay fever">hay fever</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissopalynology" title="Melissopalynology">Melissopalynology</a>: the study of pollen and spores found in honey.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">Archaeological</a> palynology examines human uses of plants in the past. This can help determine seasonality of site occupation, presence or absence of agricultural practices or products, and 'plant-related activity areas' within an archaeological context. <a href="/wiki/Bonfire_Shelter" title="Bonfire Shelter">Bonfire Shelter</a> is one such example of this application.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aperture_(botany)" title="Aperture (botany)">Aperture (botany)</a> – Areas on the walls of a pollen grain, where the wall is thinner and/or softer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a> – Tiny lifeforms floating and drifting in the air, carried by the wind</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gray1985-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gray1985_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGray,_J.ChalonerWestoll1985" class="citation journal cs1">Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. 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(1991), <i>Pollen Analysis</i> (Second Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-02176-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-02176-4">0-632-02176-4</a></li> <li>Traverse, A. (1988), <i>Paleopalynology</i>. Unwin Hyman. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-04-561001-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-04-561001-0">0-04-561001-0</a></li> <li>Roberts, N. (1998), <i>The Holocene an environmental history</i>, Blackwell Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18638-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18638-7">0-631-18638-7</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palynology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palynology.org/">The AASP - The Palynological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050324000056/http://geo.arizona.edu/palynology/ifps.html">International Federation of Palynological Societies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060519091602/http://www.ifpindia.org/Palaeoenvironments-in-South-India.html">Palynology Laboratory, French Institute of Pondicherry, India</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040818150213/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/palyn.html">The Palynology Unit, Kew Gardens, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paldat.org/">PalDat, palynological database hosted by the University of Vienna, Austria</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tms/">The Micropalaeontological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cimp.weebly.com/">Commission Internationale de Microflore du Paléozoique (CIMP), International Commission for Palaeozoic Palynology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000422160127/http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/academic/N-Q/palysc/index.html">Centre for Palynology, University of Sheffield, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linnean.org">Linnean Society Palynology Specialist Group (LSPSG)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scirpus.ca/cap/cap.shtml">Canadian Association of Palynologists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050527035527/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polident.html">Pollen and Spore Identification Literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palynologischekring.nl">Palynologische Kring, The Netherlands and Belgium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.equisetites.de/palbot/palynology/palynology.html#Palynofacies">Palynofacies</a>, an annotated link directory.</li> <li>Acosta <i>et al</i>., 2018. Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-Acosta">http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-Acosta</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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