Roman Empire - World History Encyclopedia

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pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/15518.png" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/" data-pin-description="The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. Building upon the foundation laid by the Roman Republic, the empire became the largest and most powerful political and military entity in the world up to its time and expanded steadily..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 22 March 2018 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/zh/1-100/" class="translation_link zh " rel="alternate">Chinese</a>, <a href="/trans/nl/1-100/het-romeinse-rijk/" class="translation_link nl " rel="alternate">Dutch</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-100/empire-romain/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/el/1-100/u/" class="translation_link el " rel="alternate">Greek</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-100/impero-romano/" class="translation_link it " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/pt/1-100/imperio-romano/" class="translation_link pt " rel="alternate">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/trans/ru/1-100/" class="translation_link ru " rel="alternate">Russian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-100/el-imperio-romano/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-100/roma-imparatorlugu/" class="translation_link tr " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <div class="spotify-wrapper"> <iframe data-src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/episode/7FybpSHobIypTjkLe8JSW7?theme=0&play=1" width="100%" height="80" frameBorder="0" allowfullscreen="" allow="autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; fullscreen; picture-in-picture" loading="lazy" class="spotify-player"></iframe> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $('iframe.spotify-player').attr('src',$('iframe.spotify-player').attr('data-src')); }); </script> <style> .spotify-wrapper { height: 80px; margin: 1em 0em; overflow: hidden; background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; } iframe.spotify-player { height: 80px; border-radius: 5px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=ambiorix+Crisis_of_the_Third_Century+empire+Germanicus+Pax_Romana+Roman_Egypt+Roman_Empire+Roman_Republic+Rome+Tiridates_I_of_Armenia+Western_Roman_Empire" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/15518/the-provinces-of-the-roman-empire-under-augustus/" title="The Provinces of the Roman Empire under Augustus"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15518.png.webp?v=1738564805-1724743182 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15518.png.webp?v=1738564805-1724743182 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15518.png?v=1738564805-1724743182 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15518.png?v=1738564805-1724743182 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15518.png?v=1738564805-1724743182" width="300" height="169" alt="The Provinces of the Roman Empire under Augustus (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" title="The Provinces of the Roman Empire under Augustus (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Provinces of the Roman Empire under Augustus</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15518/the-provinces-of-the-roman-empire-under-augustus/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15518/the-provinces-of-the-roman-empire-under-augustus/","caption":"A map illustrating the expansion of the Roman Republic during the wars and conquests of Julius Caesar until his assassination and the transformation into an empire under the reign of Caesar Augustus (also known as Octavian). By 14 CE, the Roman world encircled the entire Mediterranean and spanned from the North Sea to the Red Sea. It also depicts the administrative division of ancient Rome into various segments, some ruled directly by the Roman emperor and some by the Roman Senate, while others existed in relative autonomy as client states.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/15518.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher passionate about the human stories behind past events. He believes every image should tell a story and spark interaction, while each map leads on a journey, blending imagination with education.","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-08-27T07:19:42+0000","datePublished":"2022-03-24T08:24:34+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"The Provinces of the Roman Empire under Augustus","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15518/the-provinces-of-the-roman-empire-under-augustus/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15518/the-provinces-of-the-roman-empire-under-augustus/","width":4959} </script> <p>The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/empire/">Empire</a>, at its height (c. 117), was the most extensive political and social structure in western <a href="/civilization/">civilization</a>. Building upon the foundation laid by the <a href="/Roman_Republic/">Roman Republic</a>, the empire became the largest and most powerful political and military entity in the world up to its time and expanded steadily until its fall, in the west, in 476.</p> <p>By 285, the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and so was divided by Emperor <a href="/Diocletian/">Diocletian</a> (r. 284-305) into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The empire began when <a href="/augustus/">Augustus</a> <a href="/disambiguation/caesar/">Caesar</a> (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a>, <a href="/Romulus_and_Remus/">Romulus</a> Augustulus (r. 475-476), was deposed by the Germanic King <a href="/Odoacer/">Odoacer</a> (r. 476-493). In the east, it continued as the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> until the <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> of <a href="/disambiguation/Constantine/">Constantine</a> XI (r. 1449-1453) and the fall of <a href="/Constantinople/">Constantinople</a> to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>The Early Dynasties</h3> <p>Following the <a href="/Battle_of_Actium/">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BCE, Gaius <a href="/augustus/">Octavian</a> Thurinus, <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a>'s nephew and heir, became the first emperor of Rome and took the name Augustus Caesar. Although <a href="/disambiguation/Julius/">Julius</a> Caesar is often regarded as the first emperor of Rome, this is incorrect; he never held the title `Emperor' but, rather, `Dictator', a title the Senate could not help but grant him, as Caesar held supreme military and political power at the time. In contrast, the Senate willingly granted Augustus the title of emperor, lavishing praise and power on him because he had destroyed Rome's enemies and brought much-needed stability.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <div class="big_quote">Augustus: "I found Rome a <a href="/city/">city</a> of clay but left it a city of marble."</div> <p>Augustus ruled the empire from 27 BCE until 14 CE when he died. In that time, as he said himself, he "found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble." Augustus reformed the laws of the city and, by extension, the empire's, secured Rome's borders, initiated vast building projects (carried out largely by his faithful general <a href="/Marcus_Agrippa/">Agrippa</a> (l. 63-12 BCE), who built the first <a href="/Pantheon/">Pantheon</a>), and secured the empire a lasting name as one of the greatest, if not the greatest, political and cultural powers in history. The <a href="/Pax_Romana/">Pax Romana</a> (Roman Peace), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he initiated, was a time of peace and prosperity hitherto unknown and would last over 200 years.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p>Following Augustus' death, power passed to his heir, <a href="/Tiberius/">Tiberius</a> (r. 14-37), who continued many of the emperor's policies but lacked the strength of character and vision which so defined Augustus. This trend would continue, more or less steadily, with the emperors who followed: <a href="/Caligula/">Caligula</a> (r. 37-41), <a href="/claudius/">Claudius</a> (r. 41-54), and <a href="/Nero/">Nero</a> (r. 54-68). These first five rulers of the empire are referred to as the <a href="/collection/111/julio-claudian-dynasty/">Julio-Claudian Dynasty</a> for the two family names they descended from (either by birth or through adoption), Julius and Claudius.</p> <p>Although Caligula has become notorious for his depravity and apparent insanity, his early rule was commendable as was that of his successor, Claudius, who expanded Rome's power and territory in <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>; less so was that of Nero. Caligula and Claudius were both assassinated in office (Caligula by his <a href="/Praetorian_Guard/">Praetorian Guard</a> and Claudius, apparently, by his wife). Nero's suicide ended the Julio-Claudian Dynasty and initiated the period of social unrest known as The Year of the Four Emperors.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FtB0wxDKmbc?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire"></iframe></div></div> <p>These four rulers were <a href="/Galba/">Galba</a>, <a href="/Otho/">Otho</a>, <a href="/Vitellius/">Vitellius</a>, and <a href="/Vespasian/">Vespasian</a>. Following Nero's suicide in 68 , Galba assumed rule (69) and almost instantly proved unfit for the responsibility. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. Otho succeeded him swiftly on the very day of his death, and ancient records indicate he was expected to make a good emperor. General Vitellius, however, sought power for himself and so initiated the brief civil <a href="/war/">war</a> which ended in Otho's suicide and Vitellius' ascent to the throne.</p> <p>Vitellius proved no more fit to rule than Galba had been, as he almost instantly engaged in luxurious entertainments and feasts at the expense of his duties. The legions declared for General Vespasian as emperor and marched on Rome. Vitellius was murdered by Vespasian's men, and Vespasian (r. 69-79) took power exactly one year from the day Galba had first ascended to the throne.</p> <p>Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty which was characterized by massive building projects, economic prosperity, and expansion of the empire. Vespasian's reign was prosperous as evidenced by his building projects which included initial construction of the Flavian <a href="/amphitheatre/">Amphitheatre</a> (the famous Coliseum of Rome) which his son <a href="/disambiguation/Titus/">Titus</a> (r. 79-81) would complete. Titus' early reign saw the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the <a href="/city/">cities</a> of <a href="/pompeii/">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/Herculaneum/">Herculaneum</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="1154"> <a href="/image/1154/roman-emperor-domitian-louvre/" title="Roman Emperor Domitian, Louvre" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1154.jpg.webp?v=1735166225 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1154.jpg.webp?v=1735166225 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1154.jpg?v=1735166225 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1154.jpg?v=1735166225 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1154.jpg?v=1735166225" alt="Roman Emperor Domitian, Louvre" class="in_text_image" width="375" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Roman Emperor Domitian, Louvre</div><div class="figauthor">Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Musée de Louvre) (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1154/roman-emperor-domitian-louvre/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1154/roman-emperor-domitian-louvre/","caption":"A 1st century CE marble bust of Roman Emperor Domitian, r. 81-96 CE. (Mus\u00e9e de Louvre, Paris).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/1154.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Mus\u00e9e de Louvre) - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Mus\u00e9e de Louvre)"},"creditText":"Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Mus\u00e9e de Louvre) / Flickr","dateModified":"2025-02-16T11:36:18+0000","datePublished":"2013-04-25T07:18:58+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Roman Emperor Domitian, Louvre","height":"1600","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.flickr.com/photos/mharrsch/2955090582/in/photostream/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1154/roman-emperor-domitian-louvre/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1154/roman-emperor-domitian-louvre/","width":"1200"} </script> </p> <p>Ancient sources are universal in their praise for his handling of this disaster as well as the great fire of Rome in 80. Titus died of a fever in 81 and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/domitian/">Domitian</a> (r. 81-96). Domitian expanded and secured the boundaries of Rome, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire, continued the building projects initiated by his brother, and improved the <a href="/disambiguation/economy/">economy</a> of the empire. Even so, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the <a href="/Roman_Senate/">Roman Senate</a>, and he was assassinated in 96.</p> <h3>The Five Good Emperors</h3> <p>Domitian's successor was his advisor <a href="/Nerva/">Nerva</a> who founded the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty which ruled Rome 96-192. This period is marked by increased prosperity owing to the rulers known as The Five Good Emperors of Rome. Between 96 and 180, five exceptional men ruled in sequence and brought the Roman Empire to its height:</p> <ul> <li>Nerva (r. 96-98)</li> <li><a href="/trajan/">Trajan</a> (r. 98-117)</li> <li><a href="/hadrian/">Hadrian</a> (r. 117-138)</li> <li><a href="/Antoninus_Pius/">Antoninus Pius</a> (r. 138-161)</li> <li><a href="/Marcus_Aurelius/">Marcus Aurelius</a> (r. 161-180)</li> </ul> <p>Under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew stronger, more stable, and expanded in size and scope. <a href="/Lucius_Verus/">Lucius Verus</a> and <a href="/commodus/">Commodus</a> are the last two of the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death in 169 and seems to have been fairly ineffective. Commodus (r. 180-192), Aurelius' son and successor, was one of the most disgraceful emperors Rome ever saw and is universally depicted as indulging himself and his whims at the expense of the empire. He was strangled by his wrestling partner in his bath in 192, ending the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty and raising the prefect <a href="/Pertinax/">Pertinax</a> (who most likely engineered Commodus' assassination) to power.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="301"> <a href="/image/301/pompeii-and-mt-vesuvius/" title="Pompeii and Mt. Vesuvius" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/301.jpg.webp?v=1735193651-1695642227 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/301.jpg.webp?v=1735193651-1695642227 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/301.jpg.webp?v=1735193651-1695642227 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/301.jpg.webp?v=1735193651-1695642227 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/301.jpg?v=1735193651-1695642227 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/301.jpg?v=1735193651-1695642227 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/301.jpg?v=1735193651-1695642227 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/301.jpg?v=1735193651-1695642227 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/301.jpg?v=1735193651-1695642227" alt="Pompeii and Mt. Vesuvius" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="362" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Pompeii and Mt. Vesuvius</div><div class="figauthor">mchen007 (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/301/pompeii-and-mt-vesuvius/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/301/pompeii-and-mt-vesuvius/","caption":"The excavated ruins of Pompeii in the foregreound with the volcano Mt. Vesuvius in the background.\r\n\r\nAlong with Herculaneum, its sister city, Pompeii was destroyed and completely buried during a long catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius spanning two days in 79 AD. The eruption buried Pompeii under 4 to 6 meters of ash and pumice, and it was lost for over 1,500 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1599. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/301.jpg","copyrightNotice":"mchen007 - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"mchen007"},"creditText":"mchen007 / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2023-09-25T11:43:47+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Pompeii and Mt. Vesuvius","height":"481","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/301/pompeii-and-mt-vesuvius/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/301/pompeii-and-mt-vesuvius/","width":"997"} </script> </p> <h3>The Severan Dynasty</h3> <p>Pertinax governed for only three months before he was assassinated. He was followed, in rapid succession, by four others in the period known as The Year of the Five Emperors, which culminated in the rise of Septimus Severus to power. Severus (r. 193-211), founded the Severan Dynasty, defeated the Parthians, and expanded the empire. His campaigns in <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> and Britain were extensive and costly and would contribute to Rome's later financial difficulties. He was succeeded by his sons <a href="/Caracalla/">Caracalla</a> and Geta, until Caracalla had his brother murdered.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="5173"> <a href="/image/5173/roman-beach-attack/" title="Roman Beach Attack" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5173.jpg.webp?v=1732257132 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5173.jpg.webp?v=1732257132 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5173.jpg.webp?v=1732257132 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5173.jpg.webp?v=1732257132 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5173.jpg?v=1732257132 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5173.jpg?v=1732257132 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5173.jpg?v=1732257132 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5173.jpg?v=1732257132 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5173.jpg?v=1732257132" alt="Roman Beach Attack" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="313" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Roman Beach Attack</div><div class="figauthor">The Creative Assembly (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5173/roman-beach-attack/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5173/roman-beach-attack/","caption":"An artist's impression of what a Roman beach attack may have looked like during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BCE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5173.jpg","copyrightNotice":"The Creative Assembly - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"The Creative Assembly"},"creditText":"The Creative Assembly / Creative Assembly","dateModified":"2025-02-16T11:36:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-05-25T11:56:39+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Roman Beach Attack","height":1600,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5173/roman-beach-attack/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5173/roman-beach-attack/","width":3840} </script> </p> <p>Caracalla ruled until 217, when he was assassinated by his bodyguard. It was under Caracalla's reign that <a href="/article/859/roman-citizenship/">Roman citizenship</a> was expanded to include all free men within the empire. This <a href="/disambiguation/law/">law</a> was said to have been enacted as a means of raising tax revenue, simply because, after its passage, there were more people the central government could tax. The Severan Dynasty continued, largely under the guidance and manipulation of Julia Maesa (referred to as "empress"), until the assassination of <a href="/Alexander_Severus/">Alexander Severus</a> (r. 222-235) in 235 which plunged the empire into the chaos known as The <a href="/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century/">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (lasting from 235-284).</p> <h3>Two Empires: East & West</h3> <p>This period, also known as The Imperial Crisis, was characterized by constant civil war, as various military leaders fought for control of the empire. The crisis has been further noted by historians for widespread social unrest, economic instability (fostered, in part, by the devaluation of Roman currency by the Severans), and, finally, the dissolution of the empire which broke into three separate regions. The empire was reunited by <a href="/Aurelian/">Aurelian</a> (270-275) whose policies were further developed and improved upon by Diocletian who established the Tetrarchy (the rule of four) to maintain order throughout the empire.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <div class="big_quote">The Imperial Crisis was characterized by constant civil war, as various military leaders fought for control of the empire.</div> <p>Even so, the empire was still so vast that Diocletian divided it in half in c. 285 to facilitate more efficient administration by elevating one of his officers, Maximian (r. 286-305) to the position of co-emperor. In so doing, he created the <a href="/Western_Roman_Empire/">Western Roman Empire</a> and the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (also known as the <a href="/disambiguation/Byzantine/">Byzantine</a> Empire). Since a leading cause of the Imperial Crisis was a lack of clarity in succession, Diocletian decreed that successors must be chosen and approved from the outset of an individual's reign. Two of these successors were the generals Maxentius and Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily retired from rule in 305, and the tetrarchy dissolved as rival regions of the empire vied with each other for dominance. Following Diocletian's death in 311, Maxentius and Constantine plunged the empire again into civil war.</p> <h3>Constantine & <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a></h3> <p>In 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of the Milvian Bridge and became sole emperor of both the Western and Eastern Empires (ruling from 306-337 but holding supreme power 324-307). Believing that <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus Christ</a> was responsible for his victory, Constantine initiated a series of laws such as the Edict of Milan (313) which mandated religious tolerance throughout the empire and, specifically, tolerance for the faith which came to known as Christianity.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="3632"> <a href="/image/3632/the-colossus-of-constantine/" title="The Colossus of Constantine" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3632.jpg.webp?v=1727290445 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3632.jpg.webp?v=1727290445 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3632.jpg?v=1727290445 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3632.jpg?v=1727290445 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3632.jpg?v=1727290445" alt="The Colossus of Constantine" class="in_text_image" width="333" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Colossus of Constantine</div><div class="figauthor">Dana Murray (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3632/the-colossus-of-constantine/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3632/the-colossus-of-constantine/","caption":"Once located in the west apse of the Basilica of Maxentius, fragments of the Colossus of Constantine are now located in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini on the Capitoline Hill, Rome. Marble, 312 CE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/3632.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Dana Murray - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/murrayd7/#person","name":"Dana Murray","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/murrayd7/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-murrayd7.jpg","description":"PhD student with interest in the art, architecture, and religion of ancient Greece and the Near East."},"creditText":"Dana Murray / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-02-16T11:36:18+0000","datePublished":"2015-02-10T20:17:27+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Colossus of Constantine","height":558,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3632/the-colossus-of-constantine/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3632/the-colossus-of-constantine/","width":371} </script> </p> <p>In the same way that earlier Roman emperors had claimed a special relationship with a deity to augment their authority and standing (Caracalla with <a href="/Serapis/">Serapis</a>, for example, or Diocletian with <a href="/jupiter/">Jupiter</a>), Constantine chose the figure of <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus</a> Christ. At the First Council of Nicea (325), he presided over the gathering to codify the faith and decide on important issues such as the <a href="/article/1996/the-divinity-of-jesus/">divinity of Jesus</a> and which manuscripts would be collected to form the book known today as The <a href="/bible/">Bible</a>. He stabilized the empire, revalued the currency, and reformed the military, as well as founding the city he called New Rome on the site of the former city of <a href="/Byzantium/">Byzantium</a> (modern-day Istanbul) which came to be known as Constantinople.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p>He is known as <a href="/Constantine_I/">Constantine the Great</a> owing to later Christian writers who saw him as a mighty champion of their faith but, as has been noted by many historians, the honorific could as easily be attributed to his religious, cultural, and political reforms, as well as his skill in battle and his large-scale building projects. After his death, his sons inherited the empire and, fairly quickly, embarked on a series of conflicts with each other which threatened to undo all that Constantine had accomplished.</p> <p>His three sons, Constantine II, <a href="/Constantius_II/">Constantius II</a>, and Constans divided the Roman Empire between them but soon fell to fighting over which of them deserved more. In these conflicts, Constantine II and Constans were killed. Constantius II died later after naming his cousin Julian his successor and heir. Emperor Julian ruled for only two years (361-363) and, in that time, tried to return Rome to her former glory through a series of reforms aimed at increasing efficiency in government.</p> <p>As a Neo-Platonic philosopher, Julian rejected Christianity and blamed the faith, and Constantine's advocacy for it, for the decline of the empire. While officially proclaiming a policy of religious tolerance, Julian systematically removed Christians from influential government positions, banned the teaching and spread of the <a href="/religion/">religion</a>, and barred Christians from military service. His death, while on campaign against the Persians, ended the dynasty Constantine had begun. He was the last pagan emperor of Rome and came to be known as `Julian the Apostate' for his opposition to Christianity.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="7704"> <a href="/image/7704/byzantine-empire-c-460-ce/" title="Byzantine Empire c. 460 CE" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/7704.png.webp?v=1706415428 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/7704.png.webp?v=1706415428 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/7704.png?v=1706415428 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/7704.png?v=1706415428 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/7704.png?v=1706415428" alt="Byzantine Empire c. 460 CE" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="286" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Byzantine Empire c. 460 CE</div><div class="figauthor">Tataryn77 (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/7704/byzantine-empire-c-460-ce/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/7704/byzantine-empire-c-460-ce/","caption":"A map indicating the Byzantine Empire (aka Eastern Roman Empire) c. 460 CE during the reign of Leo I (457-474 CE)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/7704.png","copyrightNotice":"Tataryn77 - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Tataryn77"},"creditText":"Tataryn77 / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-02-16T11:36:18+0000","datePublished":"2017-11-28T15:56:23+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Byzantine Empire c. 460 CE","height":396,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_460_AD.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/7704/byzantine-empire-c-460-ce/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/7704/byzantine-empire-c-460-ce/","width":694} </script> </p> <p>After the brief rule of Jovian, who re-established Christianity as the dominant faith of the empire and repealed Julian's various edicts, the responsibility of emperor fell to Theodosius I. Theodosius I (r. 379-395) took Constantine's and Jovian's religious reforms to their natural ends, outlawed pagan worship throughout the empire, closed the schools and universities, and converted pagan temples into Christian churches after proclaiming Christianity Rome's state religion in 380.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-6"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_8' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <div class="big_quote">The unity of social duties & religious belief which paganism provided was severed by the institution of Christianity.</div> <p>It was during this time that <a href="/plato/">Plato</a>'s famous Academy was closed by Theodosius' decree. Many of his reforms were unpopular with both the Roman aristocracy and the common people who held to the traditional values of pagan practice. The unity of social duties and religious belief which paganism provided was severed by the institution of a religion which removed the gods from the earth and human society and proclaimed only one <a href="/God/">God</a> who ruled from the heavens.</p> <p>This new god, unlike the gods of old, had no special interest in Rome - he was the god of all people - and this distanced the religion of Rome from the state of Rome. Previously, Roman religious belief was state-sponsored and the rituals and festivals went to enhancing the status of the government. Theodosius I devoted so much effort to promoting Christianity that he seems to have neglected other duties as emperor and would be the last to rule both Eastern and Western Empires.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="17289"> <a href="/image/17289/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire-c-480-ce/" title="The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 480 CE" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17289.png.webp?v=1738437127-1683018147 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17289.png.webp?v=1738437127-1683018147 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/17289.png.webp?v=1738437127-1683018147 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/17289.png.webp?v=1738437127-1683018147 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17289.png?v=1738437127-1683018147 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17289.png?v=1738437127-1683018147 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/17289.png?v=1738437127-1683018147 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/17289.png?v=1738437127-1683018147 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/17289.png?v=1738437127-1683018147" alt="The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 480 CE" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 480 CE</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17289/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire-c-480-ce/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17289/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire-c-480-ce/","caption":"A map illustrating the gradual process of disintegration known as the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. During the Migration Period (a period of accelerated movement of peoples across Europe between the 5th and 9th centuries, also known as the Barbarian Invasions), the territories of the Western Roman Empire in Europe, including Italy, and north-western Africa, fell to various indigenous or invading peoples. In 395 CE, after the death of Theodosius the Great (the last emperor who ruled over a unified realm), the Roman Empire was officially divided. Although it is assumed as a historical convention (and a poetic symmetry) that the Western Roman Empire ended in September 476 CE with the abdication of Romulus Augustus (or in 480 with the murder of, not so romantically named, Julius Nepos) for close to 20 more years, the structures of Roman governance continued to function, Latin remained the administrative language, Roman armies, and Roman law were still standing and newly minted coins featured Roman emperors.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/17289.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher passionate about the human stories behind past events. He believes every image should tell a story and spark interaction, while each map leads on a journey, blending imagination with education.","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2023-05-02T09:02:27+0000","datePublished":"2023-04-18T06:25:26+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 480 CE","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17289/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire-c-480-ce/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17289/the-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire-c-480-ce/","width":4959} </script> </p> <h3>The Fall of the Roman Empire</h3> <p>From 376-382, Rome fought a series of battles against invading <a href="/Goths/">Goths</a> known today as the Gothic Wars. At the <a href="/Battle_of_Adrianople/">Battle of Adrianople</a>, 9 August 378, the Roman Emperor Valens (r. 364-378) was defeated, and historians <a href="/disambiguation/Mark/">mark</a> this event as pivotal in the decline of the Western Roman Empire. Various theories have been suggested as to the cause of the empire's fall but, even today, there is no universal agreement on what those specific factors were. <a href="/Edward_Gibbon/">Edward Gibbon</a> has famously argued in his <em>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</em> that Christianity played a pivotal role, in that the new religion undermined the social mores of the empire which paganism provided.</p> <p>The theory that Christianity was a root cause in the empire's fall was debated long before Gibbon, however, as the theologian <a href="/Orosius/">Orosius</a> (l. c. 5th century) argued Christianity's innocence in Rome's decline as early as 418. Orosius claimed it was primarily paganism itself and pagan practices which brought about the fall of Rome. Other contributing factors to Rome's fall include:</p> <ul> <li>Political instability due to size of empire</li> <li>The self-interest of the two halves of the empire</li> <li>Invasion of barbarian tribes</li> <li>Government corruption</li> <li>Mercenary armies</li> <li>Over-reliance on slave labor</li> <li>Massive unemployment and inflation</li> </ul> <p>The ungovernable vastness of the empire, even divided in two, made it difficult to manage. The Eastern Empire flourished while the Western Empire struggled and neither gave much thought to helping the other. Eastern and Western Rome saw each other more as competitors than teammates and worked primarily in their own self-interest. The growing strength of the Germanic tribes and their constant incursions into Rome could have been dealt with more effectively if not for government corruption, especially among provincial governors, and fair treatment of the Goths by the Romans overall.</p> <p>The <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman military</a>, manned largely with barbarian mercenaries who had no ethnic ties to Rome, could no longer safeguard the borders as efficiently as they once had nor could the government as easily collect taxes in the provinces. Further, the debasement of the currency, begun under the Severan Dynasty, had steadily encouraged inflation while widespread slave labor deprived lower-class citizens of jobs and increased unemployment levels. The arrival of the <a href="/visigoth/">Visigoths</a> in the empire in the third century, fleeing from the invading <a href="/Huns/">Huns</a>, and their subsequent rebellions has also been cited as a contributing factor in the decline.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-7"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_9' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4131"> <a href="/image/4131/invasions-of-the-roman-empire/" title="Invasions of the Roman Empire" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4131.png.webp?v=1733934545 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4131.png.webp?v=1733934545 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4131.png?v=1733934545 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4131.png?v=1733934545 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4131.png?v=1733934545" alt="Invasions of the Roman Empire" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="349" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Invasions of the Roman Empire</div><div class="figauthor">MapMaster (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4131/invasions-of-the-roman-empire/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4131/invasions-of-the-roman-empire/","caption":"A map illustrating the various invasions suffered by the Western Roman Empire between 100 and 500 CE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4131.png","copyrightNotice":"MapMaster - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"MapMaster"},"creditText":"MapMaster / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-02-16T11:36:18+0000","datePublished":"2015-10-16T15:01:50+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Invasions of the Roman Empire","height":1362,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4131/invasions-of-the-roman-empire/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4131/invasions-of-the-roman-empire/","width":1954} </script> </p> <p>The Western Roman Empire officially ended 4 September 476, when Emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (though some historians date the end as 480 with the death of Julius Nepos). The Eastern Roman Empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire until 1453, and though known early on as simply "the Roman Empire", it did not much resemble that entity at all. The Western Roman Empire would become re-invented later as The <a href="/Holy_Roman_Empire/">Holy Roman Empire</a> (962-1806), but that construct, also, was far removed from the Roman Empire of antiquity and was an "empire" in name only.</p> <h3>Legacy of the Roman Empire</h3> <p>The inventions and innovations which were generated by the Roman Empire profoundly altered the lives of the ancient people and continue to be used in cultures around the world today. Advancements in the construction of roads and buildings, indoor plumbing, <a href="/aqueduct/">aqueducts</a>, and even fast-drying cement were either invented or improved upon by the Romans.</p> <p>The calendar used in the West derives from the one created by Julius Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in the romance languages) and months of the year also come from Rome. Even the practice of returning some purchase one finds one does not want comes from Rome whose laws made it legal for a consumer to bring back some defective or unwanted merchandise to the seller.</p> <p>Apartment complexes (known as <em>insula</em>), public toilets, locks and keys, newspapers, even socks all were developed by the Romans as were shoes, a postal system (modeled after the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying glass, and the concept of satire in <a href="/literature/">literature</a>. During the time of the empire, significant developments were also advanced in the fields of <a href="/disambiguation/medicine/">medicine</a>, law, religion, government, and <a href="/warfare/">warfare</a>.</p> <p>The Romans were adept at borrowing from, and improving upon, those inventions or concepts they found among the indigenous populace of the regions they conquered. It is therefore difficult to say what is an "original" Roman invention and what is an innovation on a pre-existing concept, technique, or tool. It can safely be said, however, that the Roman Empire left an enduring legacy which continues to affect the way in which people live in the present day.</p> <p><div class="in_text_collection content_item" data-ciid="9-184"><a class="collection_thumbs" href="/collection/184/ancient-rome-in-8-infographics/"><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17482.png?v=1737108966-1685687113" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17368.png?v=1738720444-1683614411" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17572.png?v=1735925765-1688370844" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17855.png?v=1735925768-1695039532" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17738.png?v=1735925771-1692599032" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/><img src="/img/c/p/100x100/17389.png?v=1735925774-1683873383" width="100" height="100" style="object-fit:cover;"/></a><div class="collection_info"> <div class="ci_header type__9"><div class="ci_type_name">Image Gallery</div></div> <h4><a href="/collection/184/ancient-rome-in-8-infographics/">Ancient Rome in 8 Infographics</a></h4> <div class="collection_text">The culture of ancient Rome intricately blended laws, military values, and cultural innovations to lay the groundwork for a civilization that endured...</div> </div></div><link rel="stylesheet" href="/template/css/exclude/in_text_collection.css"></p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=ambiorix+Crisis_of_the_Third_Century+empire+Germanicus+Pax_Romana+Roman_Egypt+Roman_Empire+Roman_Republic+Rome+Tiridates_I_of_Armenia+Western_Roman_Empire" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div class="map_section"> <h3>Map</h3> <div class="map_wrapper"> <div class="map_container il"> <iframe data-src="/template/files/map_animation.php?il_id=414,415,416,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,429" id="map_iframe" width="100%" height="415" frameborder="0"></iframe> </div> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__e2397829e91dacf0c3c473108acb4029"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195123328/" rel="sponsored">Adkins, L. & Adkins, R. A. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome.</i> Oxford University Press, 1998.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5b0227b69a9c6f901ebe5f369f1806ef"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0671115006/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>Caesar and Christ.</i> Simon & Schuster, 1980.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__786ecd7a40443ff6e2d95769f0d47bcc"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002XHNO8S/" rel="sponsored">Gibbon, E. <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.</i> Penguin, 2000.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__9e6d5e74400c0fcbf85bcf103eb683a6"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192454/" rel="sponsored">Grant, M. <i>Readings in the Classical Historians.</i> Scribner, 1993.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__ae0a74c58afbfdcefba19cee05e7b146"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0297813919/" rel="sponsored">Grant, M. <i>The Climax of Rome.</i> Weidenfeld, London, 1993.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7913fc04b098b8a0b0d0be77e85b6113"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1585107956/" rel="sponsored">Harvey, B. K. <i>Daily Life in Ancient Rome.</i> Focus, 2016.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__cccefa1083aed17913f733befb9b7ee9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B001JL5UWW/" rel="sponsored">Herwig, W. <i>History of the Goths.</i> University of California Press, 1988.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__02e32a474f6a652d03ec25f59b0d1137"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0192803913/" rel="sponsored">Kelly, C. <i>The Roman Empire.</i> Oxford University Press, 2006.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__c1c7737d3b4a39402036ca89d21bf5d9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/078671168X/" rel="sponsored">Lewis, J. E. <i>The Mammoth Book of Eyewitness Ancient Rome.</i> Running Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__fd8fbd2b401ce7497992f19801b2cfde"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0415527163/" rel="sponsored">Mellor, R. <i>The Historians of Ancient Rome.</i> Routledge, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__13ee6ff54610e12b80dc4ce24a10b555"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0140443622/" rel="sponsored">Polybius. <i>The Rise of the Roman Empire.</i> Penguin Classics, 1980.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__437eb25c82ef0f9990615021cf41c5ef"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0521469961/" rel="sponsored">Tacitus. <i>Annals of Tacitus.</i> Cambridge University Press, 2001.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__d4d6e28aa73898e6d565c17bc0ed44a1"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="http://www.roman-empire.net/" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="The Roman Empire">The Roman Empire</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 1 Dec 2016.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__d66dd655231510c904eaca7c6f24a1e1"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0140448098/" rel="sponsored">Titus Livy. <i>Livy's Histories.</i> Penguin Classics, 2002.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. 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class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Ambiorix</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Ambiorix (c. 54/53 BCE) was the co-ruler of the Eburone tribe of... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Germanicus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11869" data-score="1315735" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4121.jpg.webp?v=1703556066 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4121.jpg.webp?v=1703556066 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4121.jpg?v=1703556066 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4121.jpg?v=1703556066 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4121.jpg?v=1703556066" width="360" height="202" alt="Germanicus" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Germanicus</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Germanicus (15 BCE - 19 CE) was a commander in the Roman Empire... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Tiridates_I_of_Armenia/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-16832" data-score="1269433" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7380.jpg.webp?v=1646059503 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7380.jpg.webp?v=1646059503 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7380.jpg?v=1646059503 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7380.jpg?v=1646059503 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7380.jpg?v=1646059503" width="360" height="202" alt="Tiridates I of Armenia" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Tiridates I of Armenia</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Tiridates I (Trdat I) ruled as the king of Armenia from 63 to either... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Pax_Romana/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-14221" data-score="848253" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/486.jpg.webp?v=1738564810 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/486.jpg.webp?v=1738564810 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/486.jpg?v=1738564810 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/486.jpg?v=1738564810 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/486.jpg?v=1738564810" width="360" height="202" alt="Pax Romana" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Pax Romana</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) was a period of relative peace and... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Arsacid_Dynasty_of_Armenia/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-16826" data-score="745993" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/8191.jpg.webp?v=1685827986 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/8191.jpg.webp?v=1685827986 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/8191.jpg?v=1685827986 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/8191.jpg?v=1685827986 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/8191.jpg?v=1685827986" width="360" height="202" alt="Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Arsacid (Arshakuni) dynasty of Armenia ruled that kingdom from... </div> </div> </a> <a 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Web. 16 Feb 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 22 March 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. 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End of the Carthaginian presence on the Iberian Peninsula. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2049" title=""> <div class="date">191 BCE</div> <a href="/delphi/">Delphi</a> comes under <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> control. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3765" title=""> <div class="date">c. 191 BCE</div> The <a href="/Achaean_League/">Achaean League</a> signs a treaty of alliance with <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3957" title=""> <div class="date">188 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> gives <a href="/samos/">Samos</a> its independence. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1700" title=""> <div class="date">166 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> gives dominion over the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a> to <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1734" title=""> <div class="date">c. 150 BCE</div> Macedonia becomes a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4809" title=""> <div class="date">150 BCE</div> The Lusitani are betrayed and slaughtered by the Romans. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2344" title=""> <div class="date">148 BCE</div> <a href="/corcyra/">Corcyra</a> is made part of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of Macedonia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3986" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> <a href="/Thessalonica/">Thessalonica</a> is made the captial of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_460" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> End of the <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> is destroyed and its lands become the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4085" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> <a href="/Utica/">Utica</a> is made the capital of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2739" title=""> <div class="date">133 BCE</div> <a href="/lydia/">Lydia</a> and its captial <a href="/sardis/">Sardis</a> comes under <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> rule. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3958" title=""> <div class="date">129 BCE</div> <a href="/samos/">Samos</a> becomes part of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of Asia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_957" title=""> <div class="date">96 BCE</div> Cyrenaica becomes a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2694" title=""> <div class="date">74 BCE</div> The <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/cyrene/">Cyrene</a> comes under <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> control. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_354" title=""> <div class="date">64 BCE</div> <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a> becomes a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> colony. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1199" title=""> <div class="date">64 BCE</div> <a href="/Byblos/">Byblos</a> conquered by the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> general <a href="/pompey/">Pompey the Great</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6489" title=""> <div class="date">63 BCE</div> <a href="/Jerash/">Jerash</a> in <a href="/Jordan/">Jordan</a> becomes part of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of <a href="/syria/">Syria</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1519" title=""> <div class="date">48 BCE</div> <a href="/Butrint/">Butrint</a> formally becomes a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> colony. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2102" title=""> <div class="date">44 BCE</div> <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> founds the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> colony of <a href="/corinth/">Corinth</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2073" title=""> <div class="date">41 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> takes control over <a href="/Naxos/">Naxos</a> in the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4281" title=""> <div class="date">37 BCE - 4 BCE</div> Reign of <a href="/Herod_the_Great/">Herod the Great</a> over Judea. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2345" title=""> <div class="date">31 BCE</div> <a href="/augustus/">Octavian</a> uses <a href="/corcyra/">Corcyra</a> as a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> naval base. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_393" title=""> <div class="date">30 BCE</div> <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> becomes province of the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1944" title=""> <div class="date">30 BCE - 476 CE</div> <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> remains a province of the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3995" title=""> <div class="date">27 BCE</div> <a href="/Philippi/">Philippi</a> gains the honorary title of Colonia Iulia Augusta Philippensis. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3543" title=""> <div class="date">c. 27 BCE</div> <a href="/augustus/">Augustus</a> makes <a href="/Gortyn/">Gortyn</a> the capital of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of <a href="/crete/">Crete</a> & <a href="/cyrene/">Cyrene</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_394" title=""> <div class="date">27 BCE - 19 BCE</div> Cantabrian Wars: <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of the Iberian Penninsula. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_637" title=""> <div class="date">25 BCE</div> <a href="/galatia/">Galatia</a> is peacefully absorbed into the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_395" title=""> <div class="date">14 BCE - 96 CE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> launches an extensive cultural patronage and construction programme in <a href="/disambiguation/iberia/">Iberia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_398" title=""> <div class="date">1 CE - 100 CE</div> <a href="/Mithraic_Mysteries/">Mithraism</a> spreads in the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3662" title=""> <div class="date">6 CE</div> <a href="/Publius_Quinctilius_Varus/">Publius Quinctilius Varus</a> is made governor of Germania. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_399" title=""> <div class="date">9 CE</div> The Rhine River is established as the boundary between the Latin and German speaking worlds, following the defeat of the <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman army</a>, under the command of Varus, at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of the Teutoburg Forest. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_278" title=""> <div class="date">43 CE</div> Romans invade <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> under Aulus Plautius. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_401" title=""> <div class="date">43 CE</div> <a href="/claudius/">Claudius</a> commences the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_279" title=""> <div class="date">43 CE - 47 CE</div> Romans <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> South <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> and claim the territory as part of <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2084" title=""> <div class="date">44 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Caesarea/">Caesarea</a> made capital of imperial province. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_280" title=""> <div class="date">47 CE - 50 CE</div> Londinium (London) founded, roads constructed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_281" title=""> <div class="date">51 CE</div> <a href="/britain/">Briton</a> rebel leader Caratacus defeated, rebellion crushed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_5698" title=""> <div class="date">54 CE - 60 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> general Corbulo successfully campaigns in <a href="/armenia/">Armenia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_403" title=""> <div class="date">68 CE - 69 CE</div> Year of the Four Emperors: Civil <a href="/war/">war</a> in <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_283" title=""> <div class="date">75 CE - 77 CE</div> Romans defeat the last of the Northern tribes; <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> complete. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1830" title=""> <div class="date">76 CE - 138 CE</div> Life of Emperor <a href="/hadrian/">Hadrian</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_405" title=""> <div class="date">85 CE - 86 CE</div> Dacians invade Moesia and defeat the Romans. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_580" title=""> <div class="date">86 CE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> general Cornelius Fuscus invades <a href="/dacia/">Dacia</a>. He is ambushed and his army is annihilated. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_581" title=""> <div class="date">88 CE</div> Resolved to avenge Fuscus' defeat, <a href="/domitian/">Domitian</a> sends another army to <a href="/dacia/">Dacia</a> under Tettius Iulianus. This general is victorious on the mountainous pass of Tapae, in the south-west of modern Romania. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_406" title=""> <div class="date">101 CE - 106 CE</div> <a href="/trajan/">Trajan</a> conquers <a href="/dacia/">Dacia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6490" title=""> <div class="date">106 CE</div> <a href="/Jerash/">Jerash</a> in <a href="/Jordan/">Jordan</a> becomes part of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province of <a href="/Arabia/">Arabia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_408" title=""> <div class="date">115 CE - 117 CE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> occupies <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1021" title=""> <div class="date">116 CE</div> Invasion and annexation of the <a href="/Fertile_Crescent/">Fertile Crescent</a> region by <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> under <a href="/trajan/">Trajan</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1164" title=""> <div class="date">11 Aug 117 CE - 10 Jul 138 CE</div> Reign of <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/hadrian/">Hadrian</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_544" title=""> <div class="date">121 CE - 125 CE</div> First trip of <a href="/hadrian/">Hadrian</a> around the <a href="/empire/">Empire</a>: <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a>, Germania, Noricum, <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>, Cappadocia, <a href="/galatia/">Galatia</a>, Bithynia, Asia, <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>, Moesia, <a href="/dacia/">Dacia</a>, and Pannonia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_870" title=""> <div class="date">26 Apr 121 CE - 17 Mar 180 CE</div> Life of <a href="/Marcus_Aurelius/">Marcus Aurelius</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1832" title=""> <div class="date">142 CE</div> The <a href="/Antonine_Wall/">Antonine Wall</a> built under <a href="/Antoninus_Pius/">Antoninus Pius</a>, north of <a href="/Hadrians_Wall/">Hadrian's Wall</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_410" title=""> <div class="date">165 CE - 167 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/plague/">Plague</a> epidemic in the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_411" title=""> <div class="date">167 CE</div> Marcomanni sack <a href="/aquileia/">Aquileia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_412" title=""> <div class="date">167 CE - 180 CE</div> Marcomannic Wars. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_874" title=""> <div class="date">168 CE</div> Germanic tribes cross the Danube into the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_413" title=""> <div class="date">192 CE</div> Emperor <a href="/commodus/">Commodus</a> is murdered, civil <a href="/war/">war</a> ensues (until 197 CE). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_565" title=""> <div class="date">195 CE</div> First Parthian <a href="/war/">war</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_564" title=""> <div class="date">197 CE - 198 CE</div> Second Parthian <a href="/war/">war</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1130" title=""> <div class="date">198 CE - 209 CE</div> Reign of <a href="/Caracalla/">Caracalla</a> with his father <a href="/Septimius_Severus/">Septimius Severus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_414" title=""> <div class="date">200 CE</div> Completion of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> road system. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3476" title=""> <div class="date">c. 204 CE - 270 CE</div> Life of <a href="/Plotinus/">Plotinus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1131" title=""> <div class="date">209 CE - Dec 211 CE</div> Reign of <a href="/Caracalla/">Caracalla</a> with his father <a href="/Septimius_Severus/">Septimius Severus</a> and his brother Geta (Feb - Dec 211 only with Geta). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2574" title=""> <div class="date">212 CE</div> <a href="/Caracalla/">Caracalla</a>'s edict grants <a href="/article/859/roman-citizenship/">Roman citizenship</a> to all free inhabitants of the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1655" title=""> <div class="date">212 CE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> withdraws from region of <a href="/disambiguation/Scotland/">Scotland</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_415" title=""> <div class="date">212 CE</div> <a href="/article/859/roman-citizenship/">Roman citizenship</a> granted to all inhabitants of the <a href="/empire/">empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2557" title=""> <div class="date">232 CE</div> Emperor <a href="/Maximinus_Thrax/">Maximinus Thrax</a> commands a legion in <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2558" title=""> <div class="date">234 CE</div> Emperor <a href="/Maximinus_Thrax/">Maximinus Thrax</a> is governor of <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6900" title=""> <div class="date">238 CE</div> Year of the Six Emperors in the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6385" title=""> <div class="date">242 CE</div> Osroene, with its capital at <a href="/edessa/">Edessa</a>, is made into a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3987" title=""> <div class="date">250 CE</div> <a href="/Thessalonica/">Thessalonica</a> is made a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> colony. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_420" title=""> <div class="date">260 CE</div> <a href="/Shapur_I/">Shapur I</a> captures the <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/valerian/">Valerian</a> at <a href="/edessa/">Edessa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4025" title=""> <div class="date">261 CE</div> <a href="/Dougga/">Thugga</a> is made a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> colonia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1046" title=""> <div class="date">262 CE - 266 CE</div> Odaenathus expels Persian garrisons and restores <a href="/syria/">Syria</a> and <a href="/armenia/">Armenia</a> to the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. Odaenathus invades <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>, and inflicts two defeats upon <a href="/Shapur_I/">Shapur I</a>, which ends with the sack of <a href="/ctesiphon/">Ctesiphon</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1088" title=""> <div class="date">Sep 270 CE - c. Sep 275 CE</div> Reign of <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/Aurelian/">Aurelian</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1089" title=""> <div class="date">271 CE</div> <a href="/Aurelian/">Aurelian</a> defends the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a> against Juthungi, Alamanni, and Marcomanni incursions. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1090" title=""> <div class="date">272 CE - 273 CE</div> <a href="/Aurelian/">Aurelian</a> successfully campaigns against Palmyra. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_422" title=""> <div class="date">285 CE</div> The <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman empire</a> is split into the Western and Eastern <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> empires. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_424" title=""> <div class="date">312 CE</div> <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/Constantine_I/">Constantine I</a> tolerates <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1895" title=""> <div class="date">337 CE</div> Ascension of <a href="/Constantius_II/">Constantius II</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2220" title=""> <div class="date">337 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">Death</a> of Emperor <a href="/Constantine_I/">Constantine I</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1896" title=""> <div class="date">361 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">Death</a> of <a href="/Constantius_II/">Constantius II</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_428" title=""> <div class="date">367 CE</div> <a href="/picts/">Picts</a>, Scots, <a href="/Saxons/">Saxons</a>, and <a href="/Franks/">Franks</a> attack the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_430" title=""> <div class="date">376 CE</div> The <a href="/visigoth/">Visigoths</a> are fleeing the <a href="/Huns/">Huns</a>, entering the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_432" title=""> <div class="date">391 CE</div> Emperor Theodosius I closes pagan temples. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1833" title=""> <div class="date">410 CE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> withdraws forces from <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2533" title=""> <div class="date">410 CE</div> The Romans withdraw from <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1390" title=""> <div class="date">426 CE</div> <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman Emperor</a> Theodosius II orders closure of <a href="/epidaurus/">Epidaurus</a> sanctuary. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6898" title=""> <div class="date">439 CE</div> <a href="/Vandals/">Vandals</a> take <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> from the <a href="/Western_Roman_Empire/">Western Roman Empire</a> and make it their new capital. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2086" title=""> <div class="date">523 CE</div> Emperor Justinian seizes <a href="/disambiguation/Caesarea/">Caesarea</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1629" title=""> <div class="date">565 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">Death</a> of <a href="/Justinian_I/">Justinian I</a> after 38 years ruling the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; 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