CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Edom - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"7c4b38da-382c-44cb-bbdc-f3f9d7c307ac","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Edom","wgTitle":"Edom","wgCurRevisionId":1256830984,"wgRevisionId":1256830984,"wgArticleId":21492813,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the WikiHiero extension","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024","CS1 maint: year","CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he)","Pages with numeric Bible version references","CS1 interwiki-linked names","CS1: long volume value","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Edomite-language text","Articles containing Hebrew-language text","Articles containing Akkadian-language text", "All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from April 2024","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Edom","States and territories established in the 13th century BC","States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC","Torah places","Semitic-speaking peoples","Groups who converted to Judaism","Aqaba","Former kingdoms","Transjordan (region)","Canaanite people"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Edom","wgRelevantArticleId":21492813,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q208475","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled": false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.wikihiero":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin", "mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikihiero%2CwikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/1200px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1432"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/800px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="954"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/640px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="764"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Edom - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Edom rootpage-Edom skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Edom" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Edom" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Edom" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Edom" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Name </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Edom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idumaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idumaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Idumaea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idumaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebrew_Bible" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew_Bible"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Hebrew Bible </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew_Bible-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Idumaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Idumaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Classical Idumaea </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Idumaea-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classical Idumaea subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Idumaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Persian period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Hellenistic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herodian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herodian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Herodian dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herodian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Borders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Edom</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" > 54 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="مملكة إدوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة إدوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0dumeya" title="İdumeya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İdumeya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE" title="ইদোম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইদোম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Ідумея – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ідумея" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Идумея – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Идумея" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%B3m" title="Edóm – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Edóm" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BC" title="Εδώμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εδώμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomo" title="Edomo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Edomo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="پادشاهی ادوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی ادوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89dom" title="Édom – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Édom" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom_(rexi%C3%B3n)" title="Edom (rexión) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Edom (rexión)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%8F%94" title="에돔 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에돔" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomsko_Kraljevstvo" title="Edomsko Kraljevstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Edomsko Kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomiti" title="Edomiti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Edomiti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D_(%D7%A2%D7%9D)" title="אדום (עם) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדום (עם)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomu" title="Edomu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Edomu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idumaea" title="Idumaea – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Idumaea" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomas" title="Edomas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Edomas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Идумеја – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Идумеја" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%B4ma" title="Edôma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Edôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="مملكة ادوم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مملكة ادوم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%89%E3%83%A0" title="エドム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エドム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%B2m" title="Edòm – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Edòm" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idumea" title="Idumea – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Idumea" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Идумея – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Идумея" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edomi" title="Edomi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Edomi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AF%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ئەدۆمیەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەدۆمیەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Едом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Едом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Ідумея – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ідумея" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="ادوم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ادوم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="ئەدوم – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەدوم" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom" title="Edom – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Edom" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אדום – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אדום" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%9D%B1" title="以東 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="以東" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q208475#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Edom" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Edom" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Edom">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Edom">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Edom" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Edom" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&oldid=1256830984" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Edom&id=1256830984&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEdom">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEdom">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Edom&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Edom" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q208475" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient kingdom in the southern Levant</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Edomite" redirects here. For the language, see <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite language</a>. For the pottery, see <a href="/wiki/Edomite_pottery" title="Edomite pottery">Edomite pottery</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Edom_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Edom (disambiguation)">Edom (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Edom</div><div class="ib-country-names">𐤀𐤃𐤌</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">c. 13th century BC–c. 553 BC<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A theoretical map of the region around 830 BC (Edom shown in yellow)"><img alt="A theoretical map of the region around 830 BC (Edom shown in yellow)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/250px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/375px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg/500px-Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="859" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">A theoretical map of the region around 830 BC (Edom shown in yellow)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data">Monarchy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bozrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozrah">Bozrah</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Edomites</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">c. 13th century BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Conquered by the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">c. 553 BC<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Jordan" title="Category:History of Jordan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">History of Jordan</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Khazneh,_Petra,_Jordan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/95px-Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/143px-Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg/190px-Al-Khazneh%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3072" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Prehistory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Ghazal_(archaeological_site)" title="Ayn Ghazal (archaeological site)">'Ain Ghazal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulians</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Ancient history</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Edom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Classical period</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmoneans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salihids" title="Salihids">Salihids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Christian Ghassanids</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Islamic era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Bilad al-Sham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jund al-Urdunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oultrejordain" title="Oultrejordain">Oultrejordain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Emirate and mandate</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">OETA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(Transjordan)" title="Interregnum (Transjordan)">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Establishment of the Emirate of Transjordan">Establishment of the Emirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Jordan_memorandum" title="Trans-Jordan memorandum">Trans-Jordan memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Emirate of Transjordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kura_rebellion" title="Kura rebellion">Kura rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adwan_Rebellion" title="Adwan Rebellion">Adwan Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhwan_raids_on_Transjordan" title="Ikhwan raids on Transjordan">Ikhwan raids</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Post-independence</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hashemite_Kingdom_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan">Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">1967 War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Jordan_peace_treaty" title="Israel–Jordan peace treaty">Israel–Jordan peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Jordanian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2011–12 Jordanian protests">2011–12 protests</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/16px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/24px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Jordan" title="Portal:Jordan">Jordan portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Jordan" title="Template:History of Jordan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Jordan" title="Template talk:History of Jordan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Jordan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Jordan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Edom (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈiːdəm/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a>: 𐤀𐤃𐤌 ʾDM; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:אדום">אֱדוֹם</a> ʾĔḏōm, lit.: "red"; <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language"> Akkadian</a>: 𒌑𒁺𒈪 Údumi, 𒌑𒁺𒈬 Údumu;<a href="#cite_note-Parpola-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian</a>: jdwmꜥ)<a href="#cite_note-Gauthier-5">[5]</a> was an ancient kingdom that stretched across areas in the south of present-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Edom and the Edomites appear in several written sources relating to the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and to the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">Levant</a>, including the list of the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> from c. 1215 BC as well as in the chronicle of a campaign by <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> (r. 1186–1155 BC), and the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NegevE-7">[7]</a> Archaeological investigation has shown that the nation flourished between the 13th and the 8th centuries BC and was destroyed after a period of decline in the 6th century BC by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Babylonians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NegevE-7">[7]</a> After the fall of the kingdom of Edom, the Edomites were pushed westward towards southern<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"> Judah</a> by nomadic tribes coming from the east; among them were the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>, who first appeared in the historical annals of the 4th century BC and had already established their own kingdom in what used to be Edom by the first half of the 2nd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-NegevE-7">[7]</a> More recent excavations show that the process of Edomite settlement in the southern parts of Judah and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev</a> down to <a href="/wiki/Timna_Valley" title="Timna Valley">Timna</a> had started already before the destruction of the kingdom by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> in 587/86 BC, both by peaceful penetration and by military means and taking advantage of the already-weakened state of Judah.<a href="#cite_note-Advance-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gunneweg-9">[9]</a> Once pushed out of their territory, the Edomites settled during the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian period</a> in an area comprising the southern hills of <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> down to the area north of <a href="/wiki/Beersheba" title="Beersheba">Be'er Sheva</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NegevI-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The people appear under a Greek form of their old name, as Idumeans or Idumaeans, and their new territory was called Idumea or Idumaea (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Ἰδουμαία, Idoumaía; <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: Idūmaea), a term that was used in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> periods, also mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CathEnc-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-EBEdom-13">[13]</a> During the 2nd century BC, the Edomites were forcibly converted to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmoneans</a> and were incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish population</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReligionIdumea-14">[14]</a> Other scholars believe that the assimilation was voluntary.<a href="#cite_note-:22-15">[15]</a> Edom and Idumea are two related but distinct terms; they relate to a historically-contiguous population but to two separate, if adjacent, territories which the Edomites/Idumeans occupied in different periods of their history. The Edomites first established a kingdom ("Edom") in the southern area of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and later migrated into the southern parts of the Kingdom of Judah ("Idumea", modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hebron" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Hebron">Mount Hebron</a>)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Edom#This_leaves_out_the_Shephelah:_see_Maresha/Beth_Guvrin,_major_Idumean_centre,_home_to_Antipater_the_Idumean." title="Talk:Edom">discuss</a>] when Judah was first weakened and then destroyed by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-SBY-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> word Edom means "red", and the Hebrew Bible relates it to the name of its founder <a href="/wiki/Esau" title="Esau">Esau</a>, the elder son of the Hebrew patriarch <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>, because he was born "red all over".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> As a young adult, he sold his birthright to his brother <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a> for a portion of "red pottage".<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> describes the Edomites as descendants of Esau.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_the_Negev" title="Ancient history of the Negev">Ancient history of the Negev</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">History of Jordan</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edom">Edom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Edom">edit</a>]</div> <table style="font-size: 88%; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid blue; margin: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center; clear: left; float: left; margin-left: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0.75em; background-color: var(--background-color-base); color:var( --color-base ); text-align: center"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17 [i]" alt="i" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_A2.png?be01e" height="38" title="A2" alt="A2" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D46.png?1dee4" height="12" title="D46 [d]" alt="d" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z7.png?fc6fb" height="17" title="Z7 [W]" alt="W" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G20.png?e92e4" height="38" title="G20" alt="G20" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_T14.png?183d0" height="38" title="T14 [qmA]" alt="qmA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="16" title="N25 [xAst]" alt="xAst" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background: palegoldenrod; color:black; border-bottom: 1px solid crimson; padding: 0.5em">jdwmꜥ Edom<a href="#cite_note-Gauthier-5">[5]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Era</a>: <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (1550–1069 BC) </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> The Edomites may have been connected with the <a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shutu" title="Shutu">Shutu</a>, nomadic raiders mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> sources. Indeed, a letter from an Egyptian scribe at a border fortress in the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Tumilat" title="Wadi Tumilat">Wadi Tumilat</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> reports movement of nomadic "shasu-tribes of Edom" to watering holes in Egyptian territory.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 11th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowell202147-22">[22]</a> Settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC, and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. The last unambiguous reference to Edom is an <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> inscription of 667 BC. Edom ceased to exist as a state when it was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> in the 6th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETebes2022651-23">[23]</a> Edom is mentioned in Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> inscriptions in the form 𒌑𒁺𒈪 Údumi and 𒌑𒁺𒈬 Údumu;<a href="#cite_note-Parpola-4">[4]</a> three of its kings are known from the same source: <a href="/wiki/Kaus-malaka" title="Kaus-malaka">Kaus-malaka</a> at the time of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-pileser_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiglath-pileser III">Tiglath-pileser III</a> (c. 745 BC), <a href="/wiki/Aya-ramu" title="Aya-ramu">Aya-ramu</a> at the time of <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (c. 705 BC), and <a href="/wiki/Kaus-gabri" title="Kaus-gabri">Kaus-gabri</a> at the time of <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> (c. 680 BC). According to the Egyptian inscriptions, the "Aduma" at times extended their possessions to the borders of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The existence of the Kingdom of Edom was asserted by archaeologists led by Ezra Ben-Yosef and Tom Levy, by using a methodology called the <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a> model in 2019. Archaeologists mainly took copper samples from <a href="/wiki/Timna_Valley" title="Timna Valley">Timna Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Feynan" title="Wadi Feynan">Faynan</a> in Jordan’s <a href="/wiki/Arabah" title="Arabah">Arava valley</a> dated to 1300-800 BC. According to the results of the analysis, the researchers thought that Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenk I</a> of Egypt (the Biblical "<a href="/wiki/Shishak" title="Shishak">Shishak</a>"), who attacked <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in the 10th century BC, encouraged the trade and production of copper instead of destroying the region. Tel Aviv University professor Ben Yosef stated "Our new findings contradict the view of many archaeologists that the Arava was populated by a loose alliance of tribes, and they’re consistent with the biblical story that there was an Edomite kingdom here."<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idumaea">Idumaea</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Idumaea">edit</a>]</div> After the conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, Edomites settled in the region of <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>. They prospered in this new country, called by the Greeks and Romans "Idumaea" or "Idumea", for more than four centuries.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, writing around the time of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, held that the Idumaeans, whom he identified as of <a href="/wiki/Nabat%C3%A6ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatæans">Nabataean</a> origin, constituted the majority of the population of western <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>, where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> a view not necessarily shared by modern scholarly works.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hebrew_Bible">Hebrew Bible</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hebrew Bible">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edom.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Edom.PNG/170px-Edom.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Edom.PNG/255px-Edom.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Edom.PNG 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Map showing kingdom of Edom (in red) at its largest extent, c. 600 BC. Areas in dark red show the approximate boundary of classical-age Idumaea.</figcaption></figure> The Edomites' original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Kadesh_(biblical)" title="Kadesh (biblical)">Kadesh Barnea</a>. It reached as far south as <a href="/wiki/Eilat" title="Eilat">Eilat</a>, which was the seaport of Edom.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> On the north of Edom was the territory of <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The boundary between Moab and Edom was the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Zered" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadi Zered">brook of Zered</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The ancient capital of Edom was <a href="/wiki/Bozrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozrah">Bozrah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a>, Esau's descendants settled in the land after they had displaced the <a href="/wiki/Horites" title="Horites">Horites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> It was also called the land of Seir; <a href="/wiki/Mount_Seir" title="Mount Seir">Mount Seir</a> appears to have been strongly identified with them and may have been a cultic site. According to biblical narrative, at the time of <a href="/wiki/Amaziah_of_Judah" title="Amaziah of Judah">Amaziah</a> (838 BC), <a href="/wiki/Sela_(Edom)" title="Sela (Edom)">Selah</a> was its principal stronghold,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Eilat and <a href="/wiki/Ezion-geber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ezion-geber">Ezion-geber</a> its seaports.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bazra.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bazra.JPG/220px-Bazra.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bazra.JPG/330px-Bazra.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bazra.JPG/440px-Bazra.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Busaira,_Jordan" title="Busaira, Jordan">Busaira</a> (Bozra) archaeological site in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, what used to be the capital of Edom</figcaption></figure> Genesis 36:31-43 lists the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Edom#Implied_non-hereditary_kings" title="List of rulers of Edom">kings of Edom</a> "before any Israelite king reigned": <blockquote>These are the kings who ruled in the land of Edom before a king ruled the children of Israel. And <a href="/wiki/Bela_ben_Beor" title="Bela ben Beor">Bela ben Beor</a> ruled in Edom, and the name of his city was <a href="/wiki/Dinhabah" title="Dinhabah">Dinhabah</a>. And <a href="/wiki/Bela_ben_Beor" title="Bela ben Beor">Bela</a> died, and <a href="/wiki/Jobab_ben_Zerah" title="Jobab ben Zerah">Jobab ben Zerah</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bozrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozrah">Bozrah</a> ruled in his place. And <a href="/wiki/Jobab" class="mw-redirect" title="Jobab">Jobab</a> died, and <a href="/wiki/Husham_(Edomite_king)" title="Husham (Edomite king)">Husham</a> of the land of <a href="/wiki/Temani" class="mw-redirect" title="Temani">Temani</a> ruled in his place. And <a href="/wiki/Husham" class="mw-redirect" title="Husham">Husham</a> died, and <a href="/wiki/Hadad_ben_Bedad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadad ben Bedad">Hadad ben Bedad</a>, who struck <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a>, ruled in his place, and the name of his city was <a href="/wiki/Avith" title="Avith">Avith</a>. And Hadad died, and <a href="/wiki/Samlah_of_Masrekah" title="Samlah of Masrekah">Samlah of Masrekah</a> ruled in his place. And <a href="/wiki/Samlah" class="mw-redirect" title="Samlah">Samlah</a> died, and <a href="/wiki/Saul_(Edomite_king)" title="Saul (Edomite king)">Saul of Rehoboth on the river</a> ruled in his place. And <a href="/wiki/Saul_(Edomite_king)" title="Saul (Edomite king)">Saul</a> died, and <a href="/wiki/Baal-hanan_ben_Achbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal-hanan ben Achbor">Baal-hanan ben Achbor</a> ruled in his place. And Baal-hanan ben Achbor died, and <a href="/wiki/Hadar_(Edomite_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadar (Edomite king)">Hadar</a> ruled in his place, and the name of his city was <a href="/wiki/Pau_(Edom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pau (Edom)">Pau</a>, and his wife's name was Mehetabel bat Matred bat Mezahab. And these are the names of the <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Esau" title="Esau">Esau</a> by their families, by their places, by their names: clan <a href="/wiki/Timnah" title="Timnah">Timnah</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Alvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvah">Alvah</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Jetheth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jetheth">Jetheth</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Aholibamah" title="Aholibamah">Aholibamah</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Elah_(Edom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elah (Edom)">Elah</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Pinon_(Edom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinon (Edom)">Pinon</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Kenaz" title="Kenaz">Kenaz</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Teman_(Edom)" title="Teman (Edom)">Teman</a>, clan <a href="/wiki/Mibzar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mibzar">Mibzar</a>, clan Magdiel, clan <a href="/wiki/Iram_(Edom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iram (Edom)">Iram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></blockquote> The Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan is <a href="/wiki/Aluf" title="Aluf">aluf</a>, used solely to describe the dukes of Edom and <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>. However beginning in the books of the later prophets the word is used to describe Judean generals, for example, in the prophecies of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zechariah" title="Book of Zechariah">Zachariah</a> twice (9:7, 12:5–6) it had evolved to describe Jewish captains, the word also is used multiple times as a general term for teacher or guide for example in Psalm 55:13.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Aluph as it is used to denote teach or guide from the Edomite word for duke is used 69 times in the Tanakh. If the account may be taken at face value, the kingship of Edom was, at least in early times, not <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_kingship" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary kingship">hereditary</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> perhaps <a href="/wiki/Elective_kingship" class="mw-redirect" title="Elective kingship">elective</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JEnc-44">[44]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Book_of_Chronicles" class="mw-redirect" title="First Book of Chronicles">first book of Chronicles</a> mentions both a king and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chieftains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite</a> people twice appealed to their common ancestry and asked the king of Edom for passage through his land, along the "King's Highway", on their way to <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, but the king refused permission.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Accordingly, they detoured around the country because of his show of force<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> or because God ordered them to do so rather than wage war (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%202:4–6&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 2:4–6</a>). The king of Edom did not attack the Israelites, though he prepared to resist aggression. Nothing further is recorded of the Edomites in the Tanakh until their defeat by King <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> of Israel in the late 11th century BC (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:1%20Samuel%2014:47">1 Samuel 14:47</a>). Forty years later King <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and his general <a href="/wiki/Joab" title="Joab">Joab</a> defeated the Edomites in the "<a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Salt" title="Valley of Salt">Valley of Salt</a>" (probably near the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Samuel%208:13–14&version=nrsv">2 Samuel 8:13–14</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Kings%209:15–16&version=nrsv">1 Kings 9:15–16</a>). An Edomite prince named <a href="/wiki/Hadad_the_Edomite" title="Hadad the Edomite">Hadad</a> escaped and fled to Egypt, and after David's death he returned and tried to start a rebellion but failed and went to Syria (<a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aramea</a>).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> From that time Edom remained a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> of Israel. David placed over the Edomites Israelite governors or prefects,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> and this form of government seems to have continued under <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>. When Israel divided into two kingdoms Edom became a dependency of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>. In the time of <a href="/wiki/Jehoshaphat" title="Jehoshaphat">Jehoshaphat</a> (c. 870 – 849 BC) the Tanakh mentions a king of Edom<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> who was probably an Israelite deputy appointed by the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Judah" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Judah">King of Judah</a>. It also states that the inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunction with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Chronicles%2020:10–23&version=nrsv">2 Chronicles 20:10–23</a>). Edom revolted against <a href="/wiki/Jehoram_of_Judah" title="Jehoram of Judah">Jehoram</a> and elected a king of its own (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%208:20–22&version=nrsv">2 Kings 8:20–22</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Chronicles%2021:8&version=nrsv">2 Chronicles 21:8</a>). <a href="/wiki/Amaziah_of_Judah" title="Amaziah of Judah">Amaziah</a> attacked and defeated the Edomites, seizing Selah, but the Israelites never subdued Edom completely (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%2014:7&version=nrsv">2 Kings 14:7</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Chronicles%2025:11–12&version=nrsv">2 Chronicles 25:11–12</a>). In the time of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> the Edomites may have helped <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">plunder Jerusalem</a> and slaughter the Judaeans in 587 or 586 BCE (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%20137:7&version=nrsv">Psalms 137:7</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Obadiah%201:11–14&version=nrsv">Obadiah 1:11–14</a>). Some believe that it is for this reason the prophets denounced Edom (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%2034:5–8&version=nrsv">Isaiah 34:5–8</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Jeremiah%2049:7–22&version=nrsv">Jeremiah 49:7–22</a>; <a href="/wiki/Obadiah" title="Obadiah">Obadiah</a> passim). Evidence also suggests that at that time Edom may have engaged in a treaty betrayal of Judah.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The people of Edom would be dealt with during the Messiah's rulership, according to the prophets.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Despite this, many Edomites peacefully migrated to southern Judea, which continued even during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-53">[53]</a>Regarding the territory of Edom, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">book of Jeremiah</a> states that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Although the Idumaeans controlled the lands to the east and south of the Dead Sea, their peoples were held in contempt by the Israelites. Hence the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Book of Psalms</a> says "Moab is my washpot: over Edom will I cast out my shoe".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> the congregation could not receive descendants of a marriage between an Israelite and an Edomite until the fourth generation. This law was a subject of controversy between <a href="/wiki/Shimon_ben_Yohai" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimon ben Yohai">Shimon ben Yohai</a>, who said it applied only to male descendants, and other <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a>, who said female descendants were also excluded<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> for four generations. From these, some early conversion laws in <a href="/wiki/Halacha" class="mw-redirect" title="Halacha">halacha</a> were derived. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Idumaea">Classical Idumaea</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical Idumaea">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_period">Persian period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Persian period">edit</a>]</div> Compared to the neighboring Moabites and Ammonites, the name "Edom" completely disappeared from the area east of <a href="/wiki/Arabah" title="Arabah">Arabah</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a> controlled the territory, followed by the Nabateans, thus ensuring the end of Iron Age Edom.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-53">[53]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ostraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostraca">ostraca</a> from sites in Idumaea, i.e. southern Judah after the fall of the kingdom to the Babylonians, dating mainly to the 4th century BCE, a diverse population of Arabs, Edomites as well as <a href="/wiki/Judeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeans">Judeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> inhabited the area during the late <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Palestine_region#Persian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Palestine region">Persian period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KlSt07-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> identifies Idumeans with the Nabateans who were expelled to southern Judea after committing sedition. However, there is evidence for cultural continuity between the Iron Age Edom and Idumea, based on settlement patterns and religious practices[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>].<a href="#cite_note-Levin-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, both Jews and Idumeans spoke Aramaic and used it for literary and legal documents.<a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[59]</a> An Idumean marriage contract from Maresha, dating from 176 BCE, closely resembles the <a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">ketubbot</a> used by Jews.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[59]</a> However, despite these cultural similarities, some Jews maintained a distinct boundary between themselves and the Idumeans. This is evident in <a href="/wiki/Ben_Sira" title="Ben Sira">Ben Sira</a> 50:25–26, which expresses disdain for three "nations," including "the inhabitants of Se'ir", referring to the Edomites/Idumeans.<a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[59]</a> During the revolt of the <a href="/wiki/Maccabees" title="Maccabees">Maccabees</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> kingdom (early 2nd century BC), <a href="/wiki/II_Maccabees" class="mw-redirect" title="II Maccabees">II Maccabees</a> refers to a Seleucid general named <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(general)" title="Gorgias (general)">Gorgias</a> as "Governor of Idumaea"; whether he was a Greek or a Hellenized Idumean is unknown. Some scholars maintain that the reference to Idumaea in that passage is an error altogether.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, the Judeans under <a href="/wiki/Judas_Maccabeus" title="Judas Maccabeus">Judas Maccabeus</a> first defeated the Idumaeans in the two Idumaean border towns of <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maresha" title="Maresha">Marisa</a> and plundered them around 163 BC.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> About 50 years later, Judeans under <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus I</a> again attacked Marisa and the nearby <a href="/wiki/Adoraim" title="Adoraim">Adoraim</a>: according to Josephus<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Grammaticus" title="Ammonius Grammaticus">Ammonius Grammaticus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Hyrcanus conquered the cities of Marisa and Adoraim, forcibly converted all Idumaeans to Judaism and incorporated them into the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish nation</a>:<a href="#cite_note-SW-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-JEnc-44">[44]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Hyrcanus also captured the Idumean cities of <a href="/wiki/Adoraim" title="Adoraim">Adora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maresha" title="Maresha">Marisa</a> and after subduing all the Idumeans, permitted them to remain in their country as long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing to observe the laws of the Jews. And so, out of attachment to the land of their fathers, they submitted to <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> and to make their manner of life conform in all other respects to that of the Jews. And from that time onward they have continued to be Jews.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></blockquote> However, since the late 1980s, scholars have increasingly questioned the traditional account of Idumaea's conquest and forced conversion by the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmoneans</a>. Several reasons have been proposed for this skepticism.<a href="#cite_note-84">[nb 1]</a> As a result, historians have toned down the Hasmonean history of Idumaea as recounted by Josephus in several ways: (a) Traditional account: Some historians still maintain that the events happened largely as Josephus describes.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> (b) Moderated Conquest: This view was first moderated by the assumption that only Maresha and Adoraim, located on Idumaea's northern border, were actually conquered, while other Idumeans voluntarily aligned themselves with the Judeans. The reports of forced conversions, in this view, are either anti-Hasmonean propaganda<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> or, conversely, Hasmonean propaganda,<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> which Josephus (mistakenly) incorporated into his historical work. (c) Fictional Conquest: Atkinson takes this further by considering the entire account of the conquest to be fictional.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> He also believes that "many Idumeans [...] never fully embraced Judaism."<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> (d) No Annexation: However, while Atkinson still maintains that archaeology suggests "the region south of Judea [including Maresha] was annexed without any significant conflict,"<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> Berlin and Kosmin now argue that even the annexation of Idumea and the Idumeans into the Judean state is fictional, noting that, as corroborated by archaeology, after most Idumaeans left Idumaea, Judeans did not settle in this abandoned area.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> In line with this interpretation, it is now often assumed that Idumaea was not annexed by the Hasmoneans at all. Instead, the remaining Idumeans may have entered into an alliance with the Judeans, within which the Idumaean religion could continue to be practiced.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> This reinterpretation leaves the prior depopulation of Idumaea<a href="#cite_note-Freud-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atkinson-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sandhaus-71">[71]</a> as an open question, comparable to the simultaneous depopulation of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philistia" title="Philistia">Philistia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herodian_dynasty">Herodian dynasty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Herodian dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Antipater_the_Idumaean" title="Antipater the Idumaean">Antipater the Idumaean</a>, the progenitor of the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a> along with Judean progenitors that ruled <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> after the Roman conquest, was of Idumean origin.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a>, the Idumaea province was ruled for him by a series of governors, among whom were his brother Joseph ben Antipater and his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Costobarus" title="Costobarus">Costobarus</a>. Overall, Herodian influence on Judea, Jerusalem and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Temple</a> was significant. However, this was obsfucated by later variants of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> .<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> For example, a minority of contemporary Jews argued Herod could not be Jewish because of his genealogical origins. These beliefs were promoted by works such as <a href="/wiki/Jubilees" class="mw-redirect" title="Jubilees">Jubilees</a> and <a href="/wiki/4QMMT" title="4QMMT">4QMMT</a>, which were of <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasideans" title="Hasideans">Hasidean</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducee</a> origin.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> These Jews did not openly express their views because Herod violently suppressed critics. <a href="#cite_note-MTh-101">[100]</a> Evie Gassner believed the sages disparaged Herod because he supported the Sadducees, who opposed the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> By 66 CE, during the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealot</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Giora" title="Simon bar Giora">Simon bar Giora</a> attacked the Jewish converts of Upper Idumaea and brought near complete destruction to the surrounding villages and countryside in that region.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> It was part of his wider plan to attack Jerusalem and seize authority for himself.<a href="#cite_note-Josephus_War_IV-104">[103]</a> According to Josephus, during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(AD_70)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)">siege of Jerusalem</a> in 70 CE by <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, 20,000 Idumaeans, under the leadership of John, Simon, Phinehas, and Jacob, joined the Zealots as they <a href="/wiki/Zealot_Temple_siege" title="Zealot Temple siege">besieged the Temple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> Idumean zealotry arguably reflected their attempts to 'prove' their Jewishness.<a href="#cite_note-MTh-101">[100]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a>, the Idumaean people disappear from written history, though the geographical region of "Idumea" is still referred to at the time of <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JEnc-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Borders">Borders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Borders">edit</a>]</div> Josephus, when referring to Upper Idumaea, speaks of towns and villages immediately to the south and south-west of Jerusalem,<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a> (Antiq. 12.8.6,Wars 4.9.7), <a href="/wiki/Halhul" title="Halhul">Halhul</a>, in Greek called Alurus (Wars 4.9.6), <a href="/wiki/Beth-zur" title="Beth-zur">Bethsura</a> (Antiq. 12.9.4), <a href="/wiki/Bayt_Jibrin" title="Bayt Jibrin">Begabris</a> (Wars 4.8.1.),<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dura,_Hebron" title="Dura, Hebron">Dura</a> (Adorayim) (Antiq. 13.9.1, Wars 1.2.5), <a href="/wiki/Caphethra" class="mw-redirect" title="Caphethra">Caphethra</a> (Wars 4.9.9), <a href="/wiki/Bethletephon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethletephon">Bethletephon</a> (Wars 4.8.1), <a href="/wiki/Tuqu%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuqu'">Tekoa</a> (Wars 4.9.5), and <a href="/wiki/Maresha" title="Maresha">Marissa</a> (Antiq. 13.9.1, Wars 1.2.5), the latter being a principal city of Idumaea after the influx of Idumaeans into the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hebron" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Hebron">Mount Hebron</a> region, shortly after the demise of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">kingdom of Judah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Judean exile</a> in the 6th-century BC.<a href="#cite_note-SBY-16">[16]</a> Strabo describes western Judea as being populated by Idumeans, who commingled with Judeans and adopted their customs.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> Archaeological records gleaned from <a href="/wiki/Maresha" title="Maresha">Maresha</a>, though largely of Idumaean origin, attest to the region being under the influences of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic culture">Greek culture</a>, as well as that of Nabatean/Arab, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia#Society_and_culture" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyrene</a> and Jewish culture.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mark,_Gospel_of" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark, Gospel of">Gospel of Mark</a> states that the Idumeans joined Judeans, Jerusalemites, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidonians</a> and east Jordanians in meeting <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Rabbi Ishmael">Rabbi Ishmael</a>'s dwelling place in <a href="/wiki/Kfar_Aziz" title="Kfar Aziz">Kfar Aziz</a> as being "near to Edom."<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edomite_goddess,_Qitmit._Israel_Museum,_Jerusalem.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/220px-Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/330px-Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG/440px-Edomite_goddess%2C_Qitmit._Israel_Museum%2C_Jerusalem.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Edomite goddess figure in the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Museum" title="Israel Museum">Israel Museum</a></figcaption></figure> The nature of Edomite religion is largely unknown before their conversion to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. Epigraphical evidence suggests that the national god of Edom was <a href="/wiki/Qaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Qaus">Qaus</a> (קוס) (also known as 'Qaush', 'Kaush', 'Kaus', 'Kos' or 'Qaws'), since Qaus is invoked in the blessing formula in letters and appear in personal names found in ancient Edom.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> As close relatives of other <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Levantine Semites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, they seem to have worshiped such gods as <a href="/wiki/El_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="El (god)">El</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Uzza" title="Al-Uzza">'Uzza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReligionIdumea-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> In some Jewish tradition stemming from the Talmud, the descendants of Esau are the Romans (and to a larger extent, all Europeans).<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> Juan Manuel Tebes argues that Qaus is a similar god to <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>. Qaus seems to have descended from a cultural heritage common between Edomites and Jews, with the worship of both the Edomite Qaus and the God of the Israelites being described by Egyptians. Qaus's popularity during the Persian and Hellenistic periods appears, according to Tebes, to have forced the purportedly pro-Yahwist authors of the <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">Book of Chronicles</a> to portray several Edomite persons as 'pious <a href="/wiki/Levite" title="Levite">Levites</a>'. Clues about their Edomite heritage appear to be hidden in their theophoric names.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> Josephus states that Costobarus was descended from the priests of "the Koze, whom the Idumeans had formerly served as a god".<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> Victor Sasson describes an Edomite text that parallels the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a>, which provides insight on the language, literature, and religion of Edom.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Khirbat_en-Nahas" class="mw-redirect" title="Khirbat en-Nahas">Khirbat en-Nahas</a> is a large-scale copper-mining site excavated by archaeologist Thomas Levy in what is now southern Jordan. The scale of mining on the site is regarded as evidence of a strong, centralized 10th century BC Edomite kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Draper-120">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habiru" class="mw-redirect" title="Habiru">Habiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Edom" title="List of rulers of Edom">List of rulers of Edom</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> In detail: <ol><li>While <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> also reports that the Idumeans "joined the Judeans and shared in the same customs with them,"<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> he makes no mention of coercion, which was generally rare in antiquity.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The Idumeans most probably did already practice circumcision, like most Arab peoples, a fact that has been corroborated archaeologically through the discovery of circumcised stone phalli excavated at Maresha.<a href="#cite_note-Stern-67">[67]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Recent archaeological findings have revealed that <a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikvaot</a> (ritual baths), long considered evidence that the Idumeans indeed adopted Jewish customs after conversion, were actually used by the Idumeans even earlier than by the Judeans. This suggests that, rather than the Idumeans adopting Jewish laws, the influence may have flowed in the opposite direction. Additionally, other practices, such as the use of ritually purified vessels, specific burial customs, <a href="/wiki/Religious_restrictions_on_the_consumption_of_pork" title="Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork">pork avoidance</a>, and cultic <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Judaism" title="Aniconism in Judaism">aniconism</a> further support this idea.<a href="#cite_note-Stern-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levin-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Excavations indicate that nearly all Idumaean settlements were not conquered, nor did the Idumeans remain in their land "out of attachment for it," as Josephus claims. Instead, nearly all Idumaean sites were abandoned during the Hasmonean period, mostly without evidence of conflict.<a href="#cite_note-Freud-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atkinson-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sandhaus-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Achim-Lichtenberger/publication/325795663/figure/fig12/AS:638041827840007@1529132434292/figure-fig12.png">Altar of Qos in Mamre</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></td></tr></tbody></table>Both archaeological and historical evidence – namely, Josephus' report of an Idumaean named <a href="/wiki/Costobarus" title="Costobarus">Costobarus</a>, from a family of Qos priests, whom Herod appointed as governor of Idumaea and Philistia, but who purportedly rebelled against Herod by promoting the Qos faith, and the presence of a Herodian Qos sanctuary in Mamre – suggest that the Idumeans were not fully integrated into Judaism even after the Hasmonean era, but that the Idumeans who repopulated Idumaea after the Hasmonean period continued to practice the Idumean religion.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li>Furthermore, the parallel account of the conquest and forced conversion of the Itureans is now widely considered fictional,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> with even clearer archaeological evidence than in the case of Idumaea.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Similarly, in other regions, where Josephus reports a conquest without conversion, archaeology also fails to support Josephus's narrative.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li></ol> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLevin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/26914216">"The Formation of Idumean Identity"</a>. Aram. 27. London: 187–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aram&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Idumean+Identity&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=187-202&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F26914216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/edom">"Edom"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/scriptures/bofm/pronunciation?lang=eng">churchofjesuschrist.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide"</a> (retrieved 2012-02-25), <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English">IPA</a>-ified from «ē´dum» </li> <li id="cite_note-Parpola-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parpola_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parpola_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParpola1970" class="citation book cs1">Parpola, Simo (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp">Neo-Assyrian Toponyms</a>. Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker. pp. 364–365.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neo-Assyrian+Toponyms&rft.place=Kevaeler&rft.pages=364-365&rft.pub=Butzon+%26+Bercker&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Parpola&rft.aufirst=Simo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneoassyriantopon0000parp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gauthier-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gauthier_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gauthier_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauthier1925" class="citation book cs1">Gauthier, Henri (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1925_1/page/n69">Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques</a>. Vol. 1. p. 126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+des+Noms+G%C3%A9ographiques+Contenus+dans+les+Textes+Hi%C3%A9roglyphiques&rft.pages=126&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Gauthier&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FGauthier1925_1%2Fpage%2Fn69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWöhrle2019" class="citation web cs1">Wöhrle, Jakob (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bibelwissenschaft.de/stichwort/16831/">"Edom / Edomiter"</a>. WiBiLex. Retrieved 26 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WiBiLex&rft.atitle=Edom+%2F+Edomiter&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=W%C3%B6hrle&rft.aufirst=Jakob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbibelwissenschaft.de%2Fstichwort%2F16831%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NegevE-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NegevE_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NegevE_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NegevE_7-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegevGibson2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologicalen0000unse_a8q5/page/149/mode/1up">"Edom; Edomites"</a>. Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land (Revised and updated ed.). New York / London: Continuum. pp. 149–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edom%3B+Edomites&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Encyclopedia+of+the+Holy+Land&rft.place=New+York+%2F+London&rft.pages=149-150&rft.edition=Revised+and+updated&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Negev&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft.au=Gibson%2C+Shimon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchaeologicalen0000unse_a8q5%2Fpage%2F149%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Advance-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Advance_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Itzhaq_Beit-Arieh1996" class="citation journal cs1">Prof. Itzhaq Beit-Arieh (December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/public-affairs/news/eng/97spring/edom.html">"Edomites Advance into Judah"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Archaeology_Review" title="Biblical Archaeology Review">Biblical Archaeology Review</a>. Retrieved 8 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Edomites+Advance+into+Judah&rft.date=1996-12&rft.au=Prof.+Itzhaq+Beit-Arieh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2Fpublic-affairs%2Fnews%2Feng%2F97spring%2Fedom.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunneweg-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Gunneweg_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_GunnewegTh._BeierU._DiehlD._Lambrecht1991" class="citation journal cs1">Jan Gunneweg; Th. Beier; U. Diehl; D. Lambrecht; H. Mommsen (August 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-pottery-edomite-negev-midianite-neutron-activation-analysis-j-gunneweg-1991ad.htm">"'Edomite', 'Negbite'and 'Midianite' pottery from the Negev desert and Jordan: instrumental neutron activation analysis results"</a>. Archaeometry. 33 (2). Oxford, UK: Oxford University: 239–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4754.1991.tb00701.x">10.1111/j.1475-4754.1991.tb00701.x</a>. Retrieved 8 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeometry&rft.atitle=%27Edomite%27%2C+%27Negbite%27and+%27Midianite%27+pottery+from+the+Negev+desert+and+Jordan%3A+instrumental+neutron+activation+analysis+results&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=239-253&rft.date=1991-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4754.1991.tb00701.x&rft.au=Jan+Gunneweg&rft.au=Th.+Beier&rft.au=U.+Diehl&rft.au=D.+Lambrecht&rft.au=H.+Mommsen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bible.ca%2Farcheology%2Fbible-archeology-pottery-edomite-negev-midianite-neutron-activation-analysis-j-gunneweg-1991ad.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NegevI-10"><a href="#cite_ref-NegevI_10-0">^</a> Negev & Gibson (ed.), 2001, Idumea, pp. 239–240 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Ben-Yosef (1979), p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-CathEnc-12"><a href="#cite_ref-CathEnc_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Léon_Souvay1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Charles Léon Souvay, ed. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07638a.htm">"Idumea"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 8 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Idumea&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F07638a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EBEdom-13"><a href="#cite_ref-EBEdom_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Edom">"Edom"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edom&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FEdom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReligionIdumea-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReligionIdumea_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReligionIdumea_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">"The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism"</a>. Religions. 11 (10): 487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">10.3390/rel11100487</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+Idumea+and+Its+Relationship+to+Early+Judaism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=487&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel11100487&rft.issn=2077-1444&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel11100487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-15"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">"The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism"</a>. Religions. 11 (10): 487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">10.3390/rel11100487</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+Idumea+and+Its+Relationship+to+Early+Judaism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=487&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel11100487&rft.issn=2077-1444&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel11100487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SBY-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SBY_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SBY_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLepinskin.d." class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lepinski, Nadav (n.d.). "Tell Maresha". In Ben-Yosef, Sefi (ed.). Israel Guide - Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) (in Hebrew). Vol. 9. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/745203905">745203905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tell+Maresha&rft.btitle=Israel+Guide+-+Judaea+%28A+useful+encyclopedia+for+the+knowledge+of+the+country%29&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Keter+Publishing+House%2C+in+affiliation+with+the+Israel+Ministry+of+Defence&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F745203905&rft.aulast=Lepinski&rft.aufirst=Nadav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: year">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEph'al1998" class="citation journal cs1">Eph'al, Israel (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926503">"Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Exploration_Journal" title="Israel Exploration Journal">Israel Exploration Journal</a>. 48 (1/2): 115. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926503">27926503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=Changes+in+Palestine+during+the+Persian+Period+in+Light+of+Epigraphic+Sources&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=115&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27926503%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Eph%27al&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27926503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#25:25" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Genesis">Genesis 25:25</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#25:29" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Genesis">Genesis 25:29–34</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+36:9&version=nkjv">Genesis 36:9</a>: This is the genealogy of Esau the father of the Edomites </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Redford, Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times, Princeton Univ. Press, 1992. p.228, 318. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowell202147-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowell202147_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrowell2021">Crowell 2021</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETebes2022651-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETebes2022651_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTebes2022">Tebes 2022</a>, p. 651. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Müller, Asien und Europa, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Culture/Israeli-researchers-identify-biblical-kingdom-of-Edom-602158">"Israeli researchers identify biblical kingdom of Edom - Israel News - Jerusalem Post"</a>. www.jpost.com. 19 September 2019. Retrieved 2019-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jpost.com&rft.atitle=Israeli+researchers+identify+biblical+kingdom+of+Edom+-+Israel+News+-+Jerusalem+Post&rft.date=2019-09-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FIsrael-News%2FCulture%2FIsraeli-researchers-identify-biblical-kingdom-of-Edom-602158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmanda_Borschel-Dan" class="citation web cs1">Amanda Borschel-Dan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/bible-era-nomadic-edomite-tribesmen-were-actually-hi-tech-copper-mavens/">"Bible-era nomadic Edomite tribesmen were actually hi-tech copper mavens"</a>. www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2019-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.timesofisrael.com&rft.atitle=Bible-era+nomadic+Edomite+tribesmen+were+actually+hi-tech+copper+mavens&rft.au=Amanda+Borschel-Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fbible-era-nomadic-edomite-tribesmen-were-actually-hi-tech-copper-mavens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevyNajjarTiroshYagel2019" class="citation journal cs1">Levy, Thomas E.; Najjar, Mohammad; Tirosh, Ofir; Yagel, Omri A.; Liss, Brady; Ben-Yosef, Erez (2019-09-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6750566">"Ancient technology and punctuated change: Detecting the emergence of the Edomite Kingdom in the Southern Levant"</a>. PLOS ONE. 14 (9): e0221967. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PLoSO..1421967B">2019PLoSO..1421967B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0221967">10.1371/journal.pone.0221967</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6750566">6750566</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31532811">31532811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Ancient+technology+and+punctuated+change%3A+Detecting+the+emergence+of+the+Edomite+Kingdom+in+the+Southern+Levant&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e0221967&rft.date=2019-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6750566%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PLoSO..1421967B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31532811&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0221967&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft.au=Najjar%2C+Mohammad&rft.au=Tirosh%2C+Ofir&rft.au=Yagel%2C+Omri+A.&rft.au=Liss%2C+Brady&rft.au=Ben-Yosef%2C+Erez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6750566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Ptolemy, "Geography," v. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, Geography Bk.16.2.34 </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea">"Herod | Biography & Facts"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Herod+%7C+Biography+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FHerod-king-of-Judaea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetso2013" class="citation book cs1">Retso, Jan (2013-07-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uq2_tK0L2g4C&q=edomites">The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136872891" title="Special:BookSources/9781136872891"><bdi>9781136872891</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+Antiquity%3A+Their+History+from+the+Assyrians+to+the+Umayyads&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-07-04&rft.isbn=9781136872891&rft.aulast=Retso&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duq2_tK0L2g4C%26q%3Dedomites&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChancey2002" class="citation book cs1">Chancey, Mark A. (2002-05-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YrrRaeP5po0C&pg=PA44">The Myth of a Gentile Galilee</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139434652" title="Special:BookSources/9781139434652"><bdi>9781139434652</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+a+Gentile+Galilee&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-05-23&rft.isbn=9781139434652&rft.aulast=Chancey&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYrrRaeP5po0C%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahidShahîd1984" class="citation book cs1">Shahid, Irfan; Shahîd, Irfan (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&q=Idumaeans">Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs</a>. Dumbarton Oaks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884021155" title="Special:BookSources/9780884021155"><bdi>9780884021155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabs%3A+A+Prolegomenon+to+the+Study+of+Byzantium+and+the+Arabs&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780884021155&rft.aulast=Shahid&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rft.au=Shah%C3%AEd%2C+Irfan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW4H97SA6pMAC%26q%3DIdumaeans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%201:2&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 1:2</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%202:1–8&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 2:1–8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Judges%2011:17–18&version=nrsv">Judges 11:17–18</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%203:8–9&version=nrsv">2 Kings 3:8–9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%202:13–18&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 2:13–18</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2036:33&version=nrsv">Genesis 36:33</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%2034:6&version=nrsv">Isaiah 34:6</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%2063:1&version=nrsv">Isaiah 63:1</a>, et al. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobi2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3_%D7%98%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99" class="extiw" title="he:יוסף טובי">Tobi, Yosef Yuval</a> [in Hebrew] (2019). "The Bible as History: Sa'adia Gaon, Yefet ben 'Eli, Samuel ben Ḥofni, and Maimonides on the Genealogy of Esau and the Kingdom of Edom (Genesis 36)". In Polliack, Meira; Brenner-Idan, Athalya (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/066702P-front.pdf">Jewish Biblical Exegesis from Islamic Lands</a> (PDF). Society of Biblical Literature (SBL Press). pp. 101–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvrs8z1w">10.2307/j.ctvrs8z1w</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243304416">243304416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Bible+as+History%3A+Sa%E2%80%98adia+Gaon%2C+Yefet+ben+%E2%80%98Eli%2C+Samuel+ben+%E1%B8%A4ofni%2C+and+Maimonides+on+the+Genealogy+of+Esau+and+the+Kingdom+of+Edom+%28Genesis+36%29&rft.btitle=Jewish+Biblical+Exegesis+from+Islamic+Lands&rft.pages=101-120&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature+%28SBL+Press%29&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvrs8z1w&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243304416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tobi&rft.aufirst=Yosef+Yuval&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbl-site.org%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Fpubs%2F066702P-front.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%2014:7&version=nrsv">2 Kings 14:7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Kings%209:26&version=nrsv">1 Kings 9:26</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2036:31–43&version=nrsv">Genesis 36:31–43</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?strongs=H441">אַלּוּף</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation web cs1">Gordon, Bruce R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060429152200/http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/Holyland.html#Edom">"Edom (Idumaea)"</a>. Regnal Chronologies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/Holyland.html#Edom">the original</a> on 2006-04-29. Retrieved 2006-08-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Regnal+Chronologies&rft.atitle=Edom+%28Idumaea%29&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Bruce+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fellone-loire.net%2Fobsidian%2FHolyland.html%23Edom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JEnc-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JEnc_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEnc_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEnc_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Gottheil,_Max_Seligsohn1901" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gottheil" title="Richard Gottheil">Richard Gottheil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Seligsohn" title="Max Seligsohn">Max Seligsohn</a> (1901-06-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070921164021/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view_page.jsp?artid=45&letter=E&pid=1">"Edom, Idumaea"</a>. The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. Funk and Wagnalls. pp. 40–41. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16014703">16014703</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view_page.jsp?artid=45&letter=E&pid=1">the original</a> on 2007-09-21. Retrieved 2005-07-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edom%2C+Idumaea&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=40-41&rft.pub=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901-06-19&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16014703&rft.au=Richard+Gottheil%2C+Max+Seligsohn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview_page.jsp%3Fartid%3D45%26letter%3DE%26pid%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Chronicles%201:43–54&version=nrsv">1 Chronicles 1:43–54</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Numbers#20:14" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Numbers">Numbers 20:14–20</a>, King James Version 1611 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Numbers%2020:21&version=nrsv">Numbers 20:21</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Samuel%209:14–22&version=nrsv">2 Samuel 9:14–22</a>; <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Antiquities">Jewish Antiquities</a> viii. 7, S 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Samuel%208:14&version=nrsv">2 Samuel 8:14</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%203:9–26&version=nrsv">2 Kings 3:9–26</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDykehouse2013" class="citation journal cs1">Dykehouse, Jason (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/handle/123456789/6726">"Biblical Evidence from Obadiah and Psalm 137 for an Edomite Treaty Betrayal of Judah in the Sixth Century B.C.E."</a> Antiguo Oriente. 11: 75–122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiguo+Oriente&rft.atitle=Biblical+Evidence+from+Obadiah+and+Psalm+137+for+an+Edomite+Treaty+Betrayal+of+Judah+in+the+Sixth+Century+B.C.E.&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=75-122&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Dykehouse&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorio.uca.edu.ar%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F6726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers%2024%3A14%2CNumbers%2024%3A17-18%2CIsaiah%2011%3A14%2CAmos%209%3A11-12&version=NASB">"Bible Gateway passage: Numbers 24:14, Numbers 24:17-18, Isaiah 11:14, Amos 9:11-12 - New American Standard Bible"</a>. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2021-11-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Numbers+24%3A14%2C+Numbers+24%3A17-18%2C+Isaiah+11%3A14%2C+Amos+9%3A11-12+-+New+American+Standard+Bible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DNumbers%252024%253A14%252CNumbers%252024%253A17-18%252CIsaiah%252011%253A14%252CAmos%25209%253A11-12%26version%3DNASB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levin-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_53-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_53-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">"The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism"</a>. Religions. 11 (10): 487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">10.3390/rel11100487</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+Idumea+and+Its+Relationship+to+Early+Judaism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=487&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel11100487&rft.issn=2077-1444&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel11100487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah%2049%3A17-18&version=NASB">"Bible Gateway passage: Jeremiah 49:17-18 - New American Standard Bible"</a>. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2021-06-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Jeremiah+49%3A17-18+-+New+American+Standard+Bible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DJeremiah%252049%253A17-18%26version%3DNASB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%2060:8&version=nrsv">Psalms 60:8</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%20108:9&version=nrsv">Psalms 108:9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2023:8–9&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 23:8–9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yevamot" title="Yevamot">Yevamot</a> 76b </li> <li id="cite_note-KlSt07-58"><a href="#cite_ref-KlSt07_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlonerStern2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amos_Kloner" title="Amos Kloner">Kloner, Amos</a>; Stern, Ian (2007). "Idumea in the Late Persian Period (Fourth Century B.C.E.)". In <a href="/wiki/Oded_Lipschits" title="Oded Lipschits">Lipschits, Oded</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gary_N._Knoppers" title="Gary N. Knoppers">Knoppers, Gary N.</a>; Albertz, Rainer (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Penn State University Press. pp. 139–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575065809" title="Special:BookSources/9781575065809"><bdi>9781575065809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Idumea+in+the+Late+Persian+Period+%28Fourth+Century+B.C.E.%29&rft.btitle=Judah+and+the+Judeans+in+the+Fourth+Century+B.C.E.&rft.pages=139-143&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781575065809&rft.aulast=Kloner&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft.au=Stern%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodblatt2006" class="citation cs2">Goodblatt, David, ed. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/theoretical-considerations-nationalism-and-ethnicity-in-antiquity/CB4441D91310FB3557F79891F6AE8564">"Theoretical Considerations: Nationalism and Ethnicity in Antiquity"</a>, Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–22, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067.002">10.1017/cbo9780511499067.002</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8"><bdi>978-0-521-86202-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 2024-06-14</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Considerations%3A+Nationalism+and+Ethnicity+in+Antiquity&rft.pages=21-22&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067.002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86202-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Felements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism%2Ftheoretical-considerations-nationalism-and-ethnicity-in-antiquity%2FCB4441D91310FB3557F79891F6AE8564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEshelKloner1996" class="citation journal cs1">Eshel, Esther; Kloner, Amos (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926413">"An Aramaic Ostracon of an Edomite Marriage Contract from Maresha, Dated 176 B.C.E."</a> Israel Exploration Journal. 46 (1/2): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-2059">0021-2059</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926413">27926413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=An+Aramaic+Ostracon+of+an+Edomite+Marriage+Contract+from+Maresha%2C+Dated+176+B.C.E.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27926413%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0021-2059&rft.aulast=Eshel&rft.aufirst=Esther&rft.au=Kloner%2C+Amos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27926413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Josephus, "Ant." xii. 8, § 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 9, § 1; xiv. 4, § 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Ammonius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greeklatinauthor0001unse/page/356/mode/1up">De Adfinium Vocabulorum Differentiae 243</a>, possibly quoting Ptolemy: "Jews and Idumaeans differ, as Ptolemy states [...]. The Idumaeans, on the other hand, were not originally Jews, but Phoenicians and Syrians; having been subjugated by the Jews and having been forced to undergo circumcision, so as to be counted among the Jewish nation and keep the same customs, they were called Jews." </li> <li id="cite_note-SW-64"><a href="#cite_ref-SW_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Weitzman, Steven (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">"Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology"</a>. The Harvard Theological Review. 92 (1): 37–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000017843">10.1017/S0017816000017843</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8160">0017-8160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">1510155</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162887617">162887617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Forced+Circumcision+and+the+Shifting+Role+of+Gentiles+in+Hasmonean+Ideology&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-59&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0017-8160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162887617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000017843&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Josephus, <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews" title="Antiquities of the Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a>, 13.257-58 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Strabo, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16B*.html">16.2.34</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stern-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stern_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_Stern2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ian Stern (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aias.org.uk/vol-30/">"Ethnic Identities and Circumcised Phalli at Hellenistic Maresha"</a>. Strata. 30: 63–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Strata&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Identities+and+Circumcised+Phalli+at+Hellenistic+Maresha&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=63-74&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Ian+Stern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faias.org.uk%2Fvol-30%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Stern, Ian (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/114450458">"The Evolution of an Edomite Idumean Identity. Hellenistic Period Maresha as a Case Study"</a>. In Hensel, Benedikt; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Edelman, Diana V. (eds.). About Edom and Idumea in the Persian Period. Recent Research and Approaches from Archaeology, Hebrew Bible Studies and Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Sheffield / Bristol: Equinox. pp. 12–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+an+Edomite+Idumean+Identity.+Hellenistic+Period+Maresha+as+a+Case+Study&rft.btitle=About+Edom+and+Idumea+in+the+Persian+Period.+Recent+Research+and+Approaches+from+Archaeology%2C+Hebrew+Bible+Studies+and+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.place=Sheffield+%2F+Bristol&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Equinox&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F114450458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> Paginazion according to linked Open Access version. </li> <li id="cite_note-Freud-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freud_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freud_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFItzhaq_Beit-Arieh,_Liora_Freud2015" class="citation book cs1">Itzhaq Beit-Arieh, Liora Freud (2015). Tel Malḥata. A Central City in the Biblical Negev. Volume I. Eisenbrauns. pp. 17 f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tel+Mal%E1%B8%A5ata.+A+Central+City+in+the+Biblical+Negev.+Volume+I&rft.pages=17+f&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Itzhaq+Beit-Arieh%2C+Liora+Freud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atkinson-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atkinson_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkinson_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SrfMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">A History of the Hasmonean State. Josephus and Beyond</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 68–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2"><bdi>978-0-567-66903-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hasmonean+State.+Josephus+and+Beyond&rft.place=London&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66903-2&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSrfMDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sandhaus-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sandhaus_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sandhaus_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDébora_Sandhaus2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Débora Sandhaus (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/108756866">"Settlements and Borders in the Shephelah from the Fourth to the First Centuries BCE"</a>. In Andrea M. Berlin, Paul J. Kosmin (ed.). The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom. Atlanta: SBL Press. p. 89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Settlements+and+Borders+in+the+Shephelah+from+the+Fourth+to+the+First+Centuries+BCE&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Maccabees.+Archaeology%2C+History%2C+and+the+Rise+of+the+Hasmonean+Kingdom&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.au=D%C3%A9bora+Sandhaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F108756866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Exceptions: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khirbet_er-Rasm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khirbet er-Rasm (page does not exist)">Khirbet er-Rasm</a>, possibly Maresha and <a href="/wiki/Lachish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachish">Lachish</a> (where, however, at least Josephus's chronology is incorrect according to Finkielsztejn); all at Idumaea's northern border. Probably not <a href="/wiki/Tel_Arad" title="Tel Arad">Arad</a> (in the south): Both Faust (followed by van Maaren), who suggests a Hasmonean conquest of Stratum IV, and Shatzman, who speculates that the unfinished construction project started in Stratum IV could have been a Hasmonean endeavor, fail to take into account Herzog's latest excavation report, which attributes the destruction of the 3rd century Stratum IV to an earthquake, as suggested by the damaged water systems here and in the surrounding area. Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkielsztejn1998" class="citation journal cs1">Finkielsztejn, Gerald (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/331038">"More Evidence on John Hyrcanus I's Conquests: Lead Weights and Rhodian Amphora Stamps"</a>. Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society. 16: 47–48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Anglo-Israel+Archaeological+Society&rft.atitle=More+Evidence+on+John+Hyrcanus+I%27s+Conquests%3A+Lead+Weights+and+Rhodian+Amphora+Stamps&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=47-48&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Finkielsztejn&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F331038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaustEhrlich2011" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Avraham; Ehrlich, Adi (2011). The Excavations of Khirbet er-Rasm, Israel. The changing faces of the countryside. Oxford: BAR Publishing. pp. 251–252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Excavations+of+Khirbet+er-Rasm%2C+Israel.+The+changing+faces+of+the+countryside&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=251-252&rft.pub=BAR+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft.au=Ehrlich%2C+Adi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Maaren2022" class="citation book cs1">van Maaren, John (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LpZuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115">The Boundaries of Jewishness in the Southern Levant, 200 BCE–132 CE. Power, Strategies, and Ethnic Configurations</a>. Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078745-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078745-0"><bdi>978-3-11-078745-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boundaries+of+Jewishness+in+the+Southern+Levant%2C+200+BCE%E2%80%93132+CE.+Power%2C+Strategies%2C+and+Ethnic+Configurations&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Boston&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-11-078745-0&rft.aulast=van+Maaren&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLpZuEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzman1991" class="citation book cs1">Shatzman, Israel (1991). The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod. From Hellenistic to Roman Frameworks. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr. pp. 55–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armies+of+the+Hasmonaeans+and+Herod.+From+Hellenistic+to+Roman+Frameworks&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=55-56&rft.pub=J.+C.+B.+Mohr&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Shatzman&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog2002" class="citation journal cs1">Herzog, Ze'ev (2002). "The Fortress Mound at Tel Arad: An Interim Report". Tel Aviv. 29 (1): 12–13, 76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Ftav.2002.2002.1.3">10.1179/tav.2002.2002.1.3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tel+Aviv&rft.atitle=The+Fortress+Mound+at+Tel+Arad%3A+An+Interim+Report&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-13%2C+76&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Ftav.2002.2002.1.3&rft.aulast=Herzog&rft.aufirst=Ze%27ev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchim_Lichtenberger2007" class="citation journal cs1">Achim Lichtenberger (2007). Linda-Marie Günther (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325795663">"Juden, Idumäer und "Heiden". Die herodianischen Bauten in Hebron und Mamre"</a>. Herodes und Rom. Franz Steiner Verlag: 78, fig. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Herodes+und+Rom&rft.atitle=Juden%2C+Idum%C3%A4er+und+%22Heiden%22.+Die+herodianischen+Bauten+in+Hebron+und+Mamre&rft.pages=78%2C+fig.+14&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Achim+Lichtenberger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F325795663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagen2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Magen, Y. (2003). "Mamre. A Cultic Site from the Reign of Herod". In Bottini, G. C.; Disegni, L.; Chrupcala, L. D. (eds.). One Land – Many Cultures. Archaeological Studies in Honour of St. Loffreda OFM. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press. pp. 245–257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mamre.+A+Cultic+Site+from+the+Reign+of+Herod&rft.btitle=One+Land+%E2%80%93+Many+Cultures.+Archaeological+Studies+in+Honour+of+St.+Loffreda+OFM&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pages=245-257&rft.pub=Franciscan+Printing+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Magen&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlastimil_Drbal2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Vlastimil Drbal (2017). "Pilgrimage and multi-religious worship. Palestinian Mamre in Late Antiquity". In Troels M. Kristensen, Wiebke Friese (ed.). Excavating Pilgrimage. Archaeological Approaches to Sacred Travel and Movement in the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 250 f., 255–257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pilgrimage+and+multi-religious+worship.+Palestinian+Mamre+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.btitle=Excavating+Pilgrimage.+Archaeological+Approaches+to+Sacred+Travel+and+Movement+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=250+f.%2C+255-257&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Vlastimil+Drbal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichał_Marciak2017" class="citation journal cs1">Michał Marciak (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ieam.ulaval.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Marciak-Idumea-and-the-Idumeans-in-Josephus-2017.pdf">"Idumea and the Idumeans in Josephus' Story of Hellenistic-Early Roman Palestine (Ant XII–XX)"</a> (PDF). Aevum. 91 (1): 185 f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aevum&rft.atitle=Idumea+and+the+Idumeans+in+Josephus%27+Story+of+Hellenistic-Early+Roman+Palestine+%28Ant+XII%E2%80%93XX%29&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=185+f&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Micha%C5%82+Marciak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieam.ulaval.ca%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F09%2FMarciak-Idumea-and-the-Idumeans-in-Josephus-2017.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell2020" class="citation journal cs1">Cornell, Collin (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:33687/">"The Costobar Affair: Comparing Idumaism and early Judaism"</a>. Journal of the Jesus Movement in Its Jewish Setting. 7: 97–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Jesus+Movement+in+Its+Jewish+Setting&rft.atitle=The+Costobar+Affair%3A+Comparing+Idumaism+and+early+Judaism&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=97-98&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Collin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhcommons.org%2Fdeposits%2Fitem%2Fhc%3A33687%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatharina_Heyden2020" class="citation journal cs1">Katharina Heyden (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/article/view/8557">"Construction, Performance, and Interpretation of a Shared Holy Place. The Case of Late Antique Mamre (Rāmat al-Khalīl)"</a>. Entangled Religions. 11 (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Entangled+Religions&rft.atitle=Construction%2C+Performance%2C+and+Interpretation+of+a+Shared+Holy+Place.+The+Case+of+Late+Antique+Mamre+%28R%C4%81mat+al-Khal%C4%ABl%29&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Katharina+Heyden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fer.ceres.rub.de%2Findex.php%2FER%2Farticle%2Fview%2F8557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibner2009" class="citation book cs1">Leibner, Uzi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bsxkXam_QzwC&pg=PA321">Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee. An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee</a>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 321. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149871-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149871-8"><bdi>978-3-16-149871-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settlement+and+History+in+Hellenistic%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Galilee.+An+Archaeological+Survey+of+the+Eastern+Galilee&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=321&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-16-149871-8&rft.aulast=Leibner&rft.aufirst=Uzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbsxkXam_QzwC%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAviam2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Aviam, Mordechai (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C5itCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">"People, Land, Economy, and Belief in First-Century Galilee and Its Origins: A Comprehensive Archaeological Synthesis"</a>. In Fiensy, David A.; Hawkins, Ralph K. (eds.). The Galilean Economy in the Time of Jesus. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-758-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-758-4"><bdi>978-1-58983-758-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=People%2C+Land%2C+Economy%2C+and+Belief+in+First-Century+Galilee+and+Its+Origins%3A+A+Comprehensive+Archaeological+Synthesis&rft.btitle=The+Galilean+Economy+in+the+Time+of+Jesus&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-758-4&rft.aulast=Aviam&rft.aufirst=Mordechai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC5itCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewish-faculty.biu.ac.il/sites/jewish-faculty/files/shared/JSIJ19/atkinson.pdf">"Josephus's Use of Scripture to Describe Hasmonean Territorial Expansion"</a> (PDF). Jewish Studies, an Internet Journal. 19: 22, FN 69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Studies%2C+an+Internet+Journal&rft.atitle=Josephus%27s+Use+of+Scripture+to+Describe+Hasmonean+Territorial+Expansion&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=22%2C+FN+69&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewish-faculty.biu.ac.il%2Fsites%2Fjewish-faculty%2Ffiles%2Fshared%2FJSIJ19%2Fatkinson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Cf. on the clearly continuous pagan character of the Iturean region also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliquot2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Aliquot, Julien (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00306502">"Sanctuaries and villages on Mt Hermon during the Roman Period"</a>. In Kaizer, Ted (ed.). The variety of local religious life in the Near East in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Vol. 164. Leiden / Boston: Brill. pp. 73–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004167353.i-396.21">10.1163/ej.9789004167353.i-396.21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16735-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16735-3"><bdi>978-90-04-16735-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sanctuaries+and+villages+on+Mt+Hermon+during+the+Roman+Period&rft.btitle=The+variety+of+local+religious+life+in+the+Near+East+in+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+periods&rft.place=Leiden+%2F+Boston&rft.pages=73-96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004167353.i-396.21&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16735-3&rft.aulast=Aliquot&rft.aufirst=Julien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.hal.science%2Fhalshs-00306502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> See esp. the map on Plate IX. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> E.g. Transjordan. Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin1997" class="citation journal cs1">Berlin, Andrea (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/381507">"Between Large Forces: Palestine in the Hellenistic Period"</a>. Biblical Archaeologist. 60 (1): 30–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3210581">10.2307/3210581</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210581">3210581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeologist&rft.atitle=Between+Large+Forces%3A+Palestine+in+the+Hellenistic+Period&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-31&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3210581&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3210581%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F381507&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewish-faculty.biu.ac.il/sites/jewish-faculty/files/shared/JSIJ19/atkinson.pdf">"Josephus's Use of Scripture to Describe Hasmonean Territorial Expansion"</a> (PDF). Jewish Studies, an Internet Journal. 19: 22 FN 68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Studies%2C+an+Internet+Journal&rft.atitle=Josephus%27s+Use+of+Scripture+to+Describe+Hasmonean+Territorial+Expansion&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=22+FN+68&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewish-faculty.biu.ac.il%2Fsites%2Fjewish-faculty%2Ffiles%2Fshared%2FJSIJ19%2Fatkinson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> E.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1994" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/missionconversio0000good/page/75/mode/1up">Mission and Conversion. Proselytizing in the Religious History of the Roman Empire</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 75–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mission+and+Conversion.+Proselytizing+in+the+Religious+History+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=75-76&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmissionconversio0000good%2Fpage%2F75%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> E.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2006" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Honora H. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ILUR/article/view/ILUR0606110131A/26188">"Paul, Josephus, and the Judean Nationalistic and Imperialistic Policy of Forced Circumcision"</a>. 'Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones. 11: 138–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%27Ilu.+Revista+de+Ciencias+de+las+Religiones&rft.atitle=Paul%2C+Josephus%2C+and+the+Judean+Nationalistic+and+Imperialistic+Policy+of+Forced+Circumcision&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=138-143&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Honora+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucm.es%2Findex.php%2FILUR%2Farticle%2Fview%2FILUR0606110131A%2F26188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> E.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Maaren2022" class="citation book cs1">van Maaren, John (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LpZuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114">The Boundaries of Jewishness in the Southern Levant, 200 BCE–132 CE. Power, Strategies, and Ethnic Configurations</a>. Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter. pp. 114–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078745-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078745-0"><bdi>978-3-11-078745-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boundaries+of+Jewishness+in+the+Southern+Levant%2C+200+BCE%E2%80%93132+CE.+Power%2C+Strategies%2C+and+Ethnic+Configurations&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Boston&rft.pages=114-118&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-11-078745-0&rft.aulast=van+Maaren&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLpZuEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasher1988" class="citation book cs1">Kasher, Aryeh (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gw5BswLtBsAC&pg=PA46">Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs. Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Nations of the Frontier and the Desert During the Hellenistic and Roman Era (332 BCE-70 CE)</a>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 46–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145240-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145240-6"><bdi>978-3-16-145240-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Idumaeans%2C+and+Ancient+Arabs.+Relations+of+the+Jews+in+Eretz-Israel+with+the+Nations+of+the+Frontier+and+the+Desert+During+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+Era+%28332+BCE-70+CE%29&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=46-48&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-3-16-145240-6&rft.aulast=Kasher&rft.aufirst=Aryeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgw5BswLtBsAC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Weitzman, Steven (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">"Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology"</a>. The Harvard Theological Review. 92 (1): 37–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000017843">10.1017/S0017816000017843</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8160">0017-8160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">1510155</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162887617">162887617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Forced+Circumcision+and+the+Shifting+Role+of+Gentiles+in+Hasmonean+Ideology&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-59&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0017-8160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162887617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000017843&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SrfMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">A History of the Hasmonean State. Josephus and Beyond</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2"><bdi>978-0-567-66903-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hasmonean+State.+Josephus+and+Beyond&rft.place=London&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66903-2&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSrfMDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SrfMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95">A History of the Hasmonean State. Josephus and Beyond</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2"><bdi>978-0-567-66903-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hasmonean+State.+Josephus+and+Beyond&rft.place=London&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66903-2&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSrfMDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SrfMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">A History of the Hasmonean State. Josephus and Beyond</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66903-2"><bdi>978-0-567-66903-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hasmonean+State.+Josephus+and+Beyond&rft.place=London&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66903-2&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSrfMDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlinKosmin2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Berlin, Andrea M.; Kosmin, Paul J. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wusmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA404">"Conclusion: The Maccabean Rise to Power, in Archaeological and Historical Context"</a>. In Berlin, Andrea M.; Kosmin, Paul J. (eds.). The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom. Atlanta: SBL Press. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-504-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-504-2"><bdi>978-0-88414-504-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conclusion%3A+The+Maccabean+Rise+to+Power%2C+in+Archaeological+and+Historical+Context&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Maccabees.+Archaeology%2C+History%2C+and+the+Rise+of+the+Hasmonean+Kingdom&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-88414-504-2&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Andrea+M.&rft.au=Kosmin%2C+Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwusmEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1999" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vX8moleho2kC&pg=PA116">The Beginnings of Jewishness. Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties</a>. Berkeley / Los Angeles / London: University of California Press. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21141-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21141-4"><bdi>978-0-520-21141-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Jewishness.+Boundaries%2C+Varieties%2C+Uncertainties&rft.place=Berkeley+%2F+Los+Angeles+%2F+London&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21141-4&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shaye+J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX8moleho2kC%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasto2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pasto, James (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10245284">"Origin, Impact, and Expansion of the Hasmoneans in Light of Comparative Ethnographic Studies (and Outside of its Nineteenth Century Context)"</a>. In Davies, Philip R.; Halligan, John M. (eds.). Second Temple Studies III. Studies in Politics, Class and Material Culture. London / New York: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 197–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origin%2C+Impact%2C+and+Expansion+of+the+Hasmoneans+in+Light+of+Comparative+Ethnographic+Studies+%28and+Outside+of+its+Nineteenth+Century+Context%29&rft.btitle=Second+Temple+Studies+III.+Studies+in+Politics%2C+Class+and+Material+Culture&rft.place=London+%2F+New+York&rft.pages=197-198&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Pasto&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F10245284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckhardt2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Eckhardt, Benedikt (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1606562">""An Idumean, That Is, a Half-Jew". Hasmoneans and Herodians between Ancestry and Merit"</a>. Jewish Identity and Politics between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba. Leiden: Brill. pp. 100–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22An+Idumean%2C+That+Is%2C+a+Half-Jew%22.+Hasmoneans+and+Herodians+between+Ancestry+and+Merit&rft.btitle=Jewish+Identity+and+Politics+between+the+Maccabees+and+Bar+Kokhba&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=100-102&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Eckhardt&rft.aufirst=Benedikt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1606562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshak2012" class="citation journal cs1">Marshak, Adam Kolman (2012-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004218512/B9789004218512_008.xml">"Rise of the Idumeans: Ethnicity and Politics in Herod's Judea"</a>. Jewish Identity and Politics Between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba: 117–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004218512_008">10.1163/9789004218512_008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004218512" title="Special:BookSources/9789004218512"><bdi>9789004218512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Identity+and+Politics+Between+the+Maccabees+and+Bar+Kokhba&rft.atitle=Rise+of+the+Idumeans%3A+Ethnicity+and+Politics+in+Herod%27s+Judea&rft.pages=117-129&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004218512_008&rft.isbn=9789004218512&rft.aulast=Marshak&rft.aufirst=Adam+Kolman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004218512%2FB9789004218512_008.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">"The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism"</a>. Religions. 11 (10): 487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">10.3390/rel11100487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+Idumea+and+Its+Relationship+to+Early+Judaism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=487&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel11100487&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel11100487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGuire2011" class="citation journal cs1">McGuire, J. Amanda (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=papers">"Sacred Times: The Book of Jubilees at Qumran"</a>. Papers. 2 – via Digital Commons @ Andrews University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers&rft.atitle=Sacred+Times%3A+The+Book+of+Jubilees+at+Qumran&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=McGuire&rft.aufirst=J.+Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.andrews.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1003%26context%3Dpapers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Schiffman, Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-MTh-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MTh_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MTh_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThiessen2011" class="citation book cs1">Thiessen, Matthew (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/5287/chapter/148016316?login=true#273599969">Contesting Conversion: Genealogy, Circumcision, and Identity in Ancient Judaism and Christianity</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 87–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199914456" title="Special:BookSources/9780199914456"><bdi>9780199914456</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contesting+Conversion%3A+Genealogy%2C+Circumcision%2C+and+Identity+in+Ancient+Judaism+and+Christianity&rft.pages=87-110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199914456&rft.aulast=Thiessen&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F5287%2Fchapter%2F148016316%3Flogin%3Dtrue%23273599969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGassner2019" class="citation web cs1">Gassner, Evie (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/how-jewish-was-herod">"How Jewish Was Herod?"</a>. TheTorah.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheTorah.com&rft.atitle=How+Jewish+Was+Herod%3F&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gassner&rft.aufirst=Evie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetorah.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-jewish-was-herod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Josephus, De Bello Judaico (<a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>) IV, 514 (Wars of the Jews <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D4%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D5">4.9.3</a>) and De Bello Judaico (<a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>) IV, 529 (Wars of the Jews <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D4%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D7">4.9.7</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Josephus_War_IV-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Josephus_War_IV_104-0">^</a> Josephus, Wars of the Jews, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book IV">Book IV</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Josephus, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a> iv. 4, § 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarciak2017" class="citation journal cs1">Marciak, Michael (2017). "Idumea and the Idumeans in Josephus' Story of Hellenistic-Early Roman Palestine (Ant. XII-XX)". Aevum. 91 (1). Vita e Pensiero: 171–193. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26477573">26477573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aevum&rft.atitle=Idumea+and+the+Idumeans+in+Josephus%27+Story+of+Hellenistic-Early+Roman+Palestine+%28Ant.+XII-XX%29&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=171-193&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26477573%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marciak&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinsonSmith1856" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Robinson_(scholar)" title="Edward Robinson (scholar)">Robinson, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Eli_Smith" title="Eli Smith">Smith, E.</a> (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearc02smitgoog#page/n4/mode/2up">Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions. Journal of Travels in the Year 1838</a>. Vol. 2. London / Boston: <a href="/wiki/Crocker_%26_Brewster" title="Crocker & Brewster">Crocker & Brewster</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc02smitgoog/page/66/mode/2up?view=theater">67 (note 7)</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/425957927">425957927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+Researches+in+Palestine%2C+and+in+the+Adjacent+Regions.+Journal+of+Travels+in+the+Year+1838&rft.place=London+%2F+Boston&rft.pages=67+%28note+7%29&rft.pub=Crocker+%26+Brewster&rft.date=1856&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F425957927&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Smith%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbiblicalresearc02smitgoog%23page%2Fn4%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988">, citing <a href="/wiki/Reland" class="mw-redirect" title="Reland">Reland</a> who cites in turn <a href="/wiki/Tyrannius_Rufinus" title="Tyrannius Rufinus">Tyrannius Rufinus</a> in his Latin translation of <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>' The Jewish War (4.8.1.). </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, Geography Bk.16.2.34 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmelingCottonEckEcker2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ameling, Walter; Cotton, Hannah M.; <a href="/wiki/Werner_Eck" title="Werner Eck">Eck, Werner</a>; Ecker, Avner; <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Isaac" title="Benjamin Isaac">Isaac, Benjamin</a> (2018). Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae / Palaestinae. Vol. 4 (Iudaea / Idumaea). Berlin/Munich: De Gruyter. p. 939. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110544213" title="Special:BookSources/9783110544213"><bdi>9783110544213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+Inscriptionum+Iudaeae+%2F+Palaestinae&rft.place=Berlin%2FMunich&rft.pages=939&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783110544213&rft.aulast=Ameling&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Cotton%2C+Hannah+M.&rft.au=Eck%2C+Werner&rft.au=Ecker%2C+Avner&rft.au=Isaac%2C+Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Mark 3:8 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Mishna Kilaim 6:4; Ketuvot 5:8 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Ahituv, Shmuel. Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period. Jerusalem, Israel: Carta, 2008, pp. 351, 354 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Leuenberger2017" class="citation book cs1">M. Leuenberger (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IK1VDwAAQBAJ&q=%22YhWH%27s+provenance+from+the+south%22&pg=PT123">"YHWH's Provenance from the South"</a>. In J. van Oorschot; M. Witte (eds.). The Origins of Yahwism. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110447118" title="Special:BookSources/9783110447118"><bdi>9783110447118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=YHWH%27s+Provenance+from+the+South&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Yahwism&rft.place=Berlin%2FBoston&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783110447118&rft.au=M.+Leuenberger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIK1VDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522YhWH%2527s%2Bprovenance%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Bsouth%2522%26pg%3DPT123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asknoah.org/faq/edom-magdiel-rome">"Did the Edomite tribe Magdiel found Rome? | AskNoah.org"</a>. January 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+the+Edomite+tribe+Magdiel+found+Rome%3F+%26%23124%3B+AskNoah.org&rft.date=2011-01-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasknoah.org%2Ffaq%2Fedom-magdiel-rome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/people/edomites/">"Edomites"</a>. <q>in rabbinical sources, the word "Edom" was a code name for Rome</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Edomites&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fpeople%2Fedomites%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/esau-the-ancestor-of-rome">"Esau the Ancestor of Rome - TheTorah.com"</a>. www.thetorah.com. Retrieved 2023-09-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thetorah.com&rft.atitle=Esau+the+Ancestor+of+Rome+-+TheTorah.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetorah.com%2Farticle%2Fesau-the-ancestor-of-rome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Tebes, Juan Manuel (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240223054039/https://www.thetorah.com/article/why-the-bible-is-mute-about-qos-the-edomite-god">"Why the Bible Is Mute about Qos, the Edomite God"</a>. TheTorah.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/why-the-bible-is-mute-about-qos-the-edomite-god">the original</a> on February 23, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheTorah.com&rft.atitle=Why+the+Bible+Is+Mute+about+Qos%2C+the+Edomite+God&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Tebes&rft.aufirst=Juan+Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetorah.com%2Farticle%2Fwhy-the-bible-is-mute-about-qos-the-edomite-god&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews" title="Antiquities of the Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a>, Book 15, chapter 7, section 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictor_Sasson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Victor Sasson (2006). "An Edomite Joban Text, with a Biblical Joban Parallel". Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. 117 (4). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzatw.2006.117.4.601">10.1515/zatw.2006.117.4.601</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170594788">170594788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+die+Alttestamentliche+Wissenschaft&rft.atitle=An+Edomite+Joban+Text%2C+with+a+Biblical+Joban+Parallel&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzatw.2006.117.4.601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170594788%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Victor+Sasson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Draper-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Draper_120-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101121073705/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/12/david-and-solomon/draper-text/1">Kings of Controversy</a> Robert Draper <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a>, December 2010. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTebes2022" class="citation book cs1">Tebes, Juan Manuel (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ&dq=the+ancient+israelite+world+edom&pg=PA639">"Edom and the Southern Jordan in the Iron Age"</a>. In Keimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A. (eds.). The Ancient Israelite World. Taylor & Francis. pp. 639–654. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-77324-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-77324-8"><bdi>978-1-000-77324-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edom+and+the+Southern+Jordan+in+the+Iron+Age&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Israelite+World&rft.pages=639-654&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-000-77324-8&rft.aulast=Tebes&rft.aufirst=Juan+Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4beREAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dthe%2Bancient%2Bisraelite%2Bworld%2Bedom%26pg%3DPA639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowell2021" class="citation book cs1">Crowell, Bradley L. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1HxEEAAAQBAJ">Edom at the Edge of Empire: A Social and Political History</a>. SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-528-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-528-8"><bdi>978-0-88414-528-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edom+at+the+Edge+of+Empire%3A+A+Social+and+Political+History&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-88414-528-8&rft.aulast=Crowell&rft.aufirst=Bradley+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1HxEEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al., eds. (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=45&letter=E&search=Edom">"Edom"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edom&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D45%26letter%3DE%26search%3DEdom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegevGibson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Negev" title="Avraham Negev">Negev, Avraham</a>; <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Gibson" title="Shimon Gibson">Gibson, Shimon</a>, eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3JtAAAAMAAJ">Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land</a>. New York and London: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-1316-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-1316-1"><bdi>0-8264-1316-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Encyclopedia+of+the+Holy+Land&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8264-1316-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl3JtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edom&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Edom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Edom">Edom</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2019" class="citation news cs1">Spencer, Richard (24 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/e070f2d4-de4f-11e9-9f61-dcefea5f5359?jobid=emailplatformpipeline-als-section-limit-c4726bf2-77cc-4530-8f38-d62b2a3129bc">"Scientists find state of Edom which they thought was a Bible story"</a>. The Times. Retrieved 24 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Scientists+find+state+of+Edom+which+they+thought+was+a+Bible+story&rft.date=2019-09-24&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fe070f2d4-de4f-11e9-9f61-dcefea5f5359%3Fjobid%3Demailplatformpipeline-als-section-limit-c4726bf2-77cc-4530-8f38-d62b2a3129bc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdom" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/soc/EDOM.asp">UCSD article on age of Edom</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_states_and_regions_in_the_history_of_the_Levant" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_states_and_regions_of_the_Levant" title="Template:Ancient states and regions of the Levant"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_states_and_regions_of_the_Levant" title="Template talk:Ancient states and regions of the Levant"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_states_and_regions_of_the_Levant" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient states and regions of the Levant"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_states_and_regions_in_the_history_of_the_Levant" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ancient states and regions in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">history</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copper_Age_state_societies" title="Copper Age state societies">Copper Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagar_Bazar" title="Chagar Bazar">Chagar Bazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamoukar" title="Hamoukar">Hamoukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andarig" title="Andarig">Andarig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apum" title="Apum">Apum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">First Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla#Third_kingdom" title="Ebla">Third Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekallatum" title="Ekallatum">Ekallatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurda" title="Kurda">Kurda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria#The_third_kingdom" title="Mari, Syria">Third Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Mukish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_eth-Thadeyn" title="Tell eth-Thadeyn">Shaddai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Taban" title="Tell Taban">Ṭābetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Leilan#Shubat-Enlil" title="Tell Leilan">Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahiran" title="Zahiran">Zahiran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barga_(kingdom)" title="Barga (kingdom)">Barga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amalek" title="Amalek">Amalek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Ashtara" title="Tell Ashtara">Aštartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gaza#Bronze_Age" title="History of Gaza">Azzati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashan" title="Bashan">Bashan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beirut#History" title="Beirut">Beruta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus#Late_Bronze" title="Damascus">Dimasqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gezer" title="Gezer">Gezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibeon_(ancient_city)" title="Gibeon (ancient city)">Gibeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Hazor" title="Tel Hazor">Hazor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem" title="History of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenites" title="Kenites">Kenites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamid_el-Loz" title="Kamid el-Loz">Kumidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Lachish" title="Tel Lachish">Lakisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Megiddo" title="Tel Megiddo">Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadesh_(Syria)" title="Kadesh (Syria)">Qadesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shechem#Bronze_Age" title="Shechem">Shechem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urshu" title="Urshu">Urshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Hadidi" title="Tell Hadidi">Tell Hadidi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naziba" title="Naziba">Naziba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ib%27al" title="Ib'al">Ib'al Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Paleo-Syrian states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Aleppo" title="Ancient Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armanum" title="Armanum">Armanum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tall_Bazi" title="Tall Bazi">Tall Bazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khana" title="Kingdom of Khana">Khana</a>/<a href="/wiki/Terqa" title="Terqa">Terqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Nagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuttul" title="Tuttul">Tuttul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahlamu" title="Ahlamu">Aḫlamū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutu" title="Shutu">Shutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Tadmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunip" title="Tunip">Tunip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upu" title="Upu">Upu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramaean states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_Rehob" title="Aram Rehob">Aram Rehob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit-Adini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bit-Adini">Bit-Adini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Agusi" title="Bit Agusi">Bit Agusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshur" title="Geshur">Geshur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hama, Syria">Hamath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Zobah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Edom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel (Samaria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Israel (united)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistia" title="Philistia">Philistia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashdod_(ancient_city)" title="Ashdod (ancient city)">Ashdod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekron" title="Ekron">Ekron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gath_(city)" title="Gath (city)">Gath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arabs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Itureans">Itureans</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Luwian-Aramaean states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kummuh" title="Kummuh">Kummuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Pattin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> - <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanid Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Tetrarchy">Herodian Tetrarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Iturea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhid confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208475#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208475#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208475#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/157415616">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1282043/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4355330-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no97061251">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85040984">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122041737">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122041737">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007547460705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edom&oldid=1256830984">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edom&oldid=1256830984</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Edom" title="Category:Edom">Edom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_13th_century_BC" title="Category:States and territories established in the 13th century BC">States and territories established in the 13th century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_2nd_century_BC" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC">States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Torah_places" title="Category:Torah places">Torah places</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Category:Semitic-speaking peoples">Semitic-speaking peoples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Groups_who_converted_to_Judaism" title="Category:Groups who converted to Judaism">Groups who converted to Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aqaba" title="Category:Aqaba">Aqaba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_kingdoms" title="Category:Former kingdoms">Former kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Transjordan_(region)" title="Category:Transjordan (region)">Transjordan (region)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canaanite_people" title="Category:Canaanite people">Canaanite people</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_WikiHiero_extension" title="Category:Pages using the WikiHiero extension">Pages using the WikiHiero extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: year">CS1 maint: year</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Hebrew-language_sources_(he)" title="Category:CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he)">CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_numeric_Bible_version_references" title="Category:Pages with numeric Bible version references">Pages with numeric Bible version references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_interwiki-linked_names" title="Category:CS1 interwiki-linked names">CS1 interwiki-linked names</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Edomite-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Edomite-language text">Articles containing Edomite-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Hebrew-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Hebrew-language text">Articles containing Hebrew-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Akkadian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Akkadian-language text">Articles containing Akkadian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_April_2024" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from April 2024">Articles with disputed statements from April 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_April_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2024">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1906_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1906_Jewish_Encyclopedia_without_a_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_1906_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, at 19:54 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edom&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g5pcr","wgBackendResponseTime":181,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.444","walltime":"1.699","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10111,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":233190,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12818,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":17,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":354076,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1510.238 1 -total"," 35.79% 540.528 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.14% 198.386 28 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.26% 170.032 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 9.05% 136.732 28 Template:Cite_book"," 7.08% 106.916 5 Template:Lang"," 6.38% 96.406 1 Template:History_of_Jordan"," 6.19% 93.555 1 Template:Sidebar"," 6.08% 91.781 2 Template:Sfn"," 4.98% 75.158 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.951","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26966319,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAchim_Lichtenberger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAliquot2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmanda_Borschel-Dan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmelingCottonEckEcker2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtkinson2016\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFAtkinson2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAviam2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlin1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlinKosmin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChancey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_Léon_Souvay1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowell2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDykehouse2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDébora_Sandhaus2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckhardt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEph\u0026#039;al1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEshelKloner1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaustEhrlich2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkielsztejn1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGassner2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauthier1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodblatt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerzog2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIan_Stern2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItzhaq_Beit-Arieh,_Liora_Freud2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_GunnewegTh._BeierU._DiehlD._Lambrecht1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasher1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatharina_Heyden2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlonerStern2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeibner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepinskin.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2020\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFLevyNajjarTiroshYagel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Leuenberger2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarciak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshak2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGuire2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichał_Marciak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNegevGibson2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFParpola1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasto2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProf._Itzhaq_Beit-Arieh1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetso2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Gottheil,_Max_Seligsohn1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonSmith1856\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahidShahîd1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShatzman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTebes2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThiessen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobi2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVictor_Sasson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVlastimil_Drbal2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzman1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWöhrle2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Maaren2022\"] = 2,\n [\"Classical_Idumaea\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient states and regions of the Levant\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleref2\"] = 2,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 34,\n [\"Bquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 11,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Hiero\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Jordan\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"JewishEncyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Strong-number\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 7,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vh5cv","timestamp":"20241122143952","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Edom","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edom","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208475","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208475","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-08-29T02:39:23Z","dateModified":"2024-11-11T19:54:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d2\/Kingdoms_around_Israel_830_map.svg","headline":"ancient kingdom in Transjordan located between Moab to the northeast, the Arabah to the west and the Arabian Desert to the south and east, today part of Israel and Jordan"}</script> </body> </html>