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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Fundamentals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamentals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Fundamentals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fundamentals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fundamentals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fundamentals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_flow_paths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_flow_paths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Air flow paths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_flow_paths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Can" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Can"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Can</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Can-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Can-annular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Can-annular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Can-annular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Can-annular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Annular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Double_annular_combustor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_annular_combustor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Double annular combustor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_annular_combustor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Emissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afterburners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afterburners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Afterburners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afterburners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ramjets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ramjets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ramjets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ramjets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scramjets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scramjets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Scramjets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scramjets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Part of a jet engine where fuel is burned</div> <p>A <b>combustor</b> is a component or area of a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">ramjet</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">engine</a> where <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> takes place. It is also known as a <b>burner</b>, <b>burner can</b>, <b>combustion chamber</b> or <b>flame holder</b>. In a gas turbine engine, the <i>combustor</i> or <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chamber</a> is fed high-pressure air by the compression system. The combustor then heats this air at constant pressure as the fuel/air mix burns. As it burns the fuel/air mix heats and rapidly expands. The burned mix is exhausted from the combustor through the nozzle guide vanes to the turbine. In the case of ramjet or scramjet engines, the exhaust is directly fed out through the nozzle. </p><p>A combustor must contain and maintain stable combustion despite very high air flow rates. To do so combustors are carefully designed to first mix and ignite the air and fuel, and then mix in more air to complete the combustion process. Early gas turbine engines used a single chamber known as a can-type combustor. Today three main configurations exist: can, annular, and cannular (also referred to as can-annular tubo-annular). Afterburners are often considered another type of combustor. </p><p>Combustors play a crucial role in determining many of an engine's operating characteristics, such as <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a>, levels of emissions, and transient response (the response to changing conditions such as fuel flow and air speed). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fundamentals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg/220px-Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg/330px-Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg/440px-Combustor_on_Rolls-Royce_Nene_turbojet_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Combustor on a <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Nene" title="Rolls-Royce Nene">Rolls-Royce Nene</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The objective of the combustor in a gas turbine is to add energy to the system to power the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbines</a>, and produce a high-velocity gas to exhaust through the nozzle in aircraft applications. As with any engineering challenge, accomplishing this requires balancing many design considerations, such as the following: </p> <ul><li>Completely combust the fuel. Otherwise, the engine wastes the unburned fuel and creates unwanted emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and soot.</li> <li>Low pressure loss across the combustor. The turbine which the combustor feeds needs high-pressure flow to operate efficiently.</li> <li>The flame (combustion) must be held (contained) inside of the combustor. If combustion happens further back in the engine, the turbine stages can easily be overheated and damaged. Additionally, as <a href="/wiki/Turbine_blade" title="Turbine blade">turbine blades</a> continue to grow more advanced and are able to withstand higher temperatures, the combustors are being designed to burn at higher temperatures and the parts of the combustor need to be designed to withstand those higher temperatures.</li> <li>It should be capable of relighting at high altitude in an event of engine flame-out.</li> <li>Uniform exit temperature profile. If there are hot spots in the exit flow, the turbine may be subjected to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_stress" title="Thermal stress">thermal stress</a> or other types of damage. Similarly, the temperature profile within the combustor should avoid hot spots, as those can damage or destroy a combustor from the inside.</li> <li>Small physical size and weight. Space and weight are at a premium in aircraft applications, so a well designed combustor strives to be compact. Non-aircraft applications, like power-generating gas turbines, are not as constrained by this factor.</li> <li>Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures, and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (i.e., full throttle at low altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).</li> <li>Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions. (See <i>Emissions</i> section below)</li></ul> <p>Sources:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advancements in combustor technology focused on several distinct areas; emissions, operating range, and durability. Early jet engines produced large amounts of smoke, so early combustor advances, in the 1950s, were aimed at reducing the smoke produced by the engine. Once smoke was essentially eliminated, efforts turned in the 1970s to reducing other emissions, like <a href="/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbon" title="Unburned hydrocarbon">unburned hydrocarbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (for more details, see the <i>Emissions</i> section below). The 1970s also saw improvement in combustor durability, as new manufacturing methods improved liner (see <i>Components</i> below) lifetime by nearly 100 times that of early liners. In the 1980s combustors began to improve their efficiency across the whole operating range; combustors tended to be highly efficient (99%+) at full power, but that efficiency dropped off at lower settings. Development over that decade improved efficiencies at lower levels. The 1990s and 2000s saw a renewed focus on reducing emissions, particularly <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a>. Combustor technology is still being actively researched and advanced, and much modern research focuses on improving the same aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png/440px-Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png/660px-Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png/880px-Combustor_diagram_componentsPNG.png 2x" data-file-width="2215" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <dl><dt><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Case"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Case</span></span></dt></dl> <p>The case is the outer shell of the combustor, and is a fairly simple structure. The casing generally requires little maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case is protected from thermal loads by the air flowing in it, so thermal performance is of limited concern. However, the casing serves as a pressure vessel that must withstand the difference between the high pressures inside the combustor and the lower pressure outside. That mechanical (rather than thermal) load is a driving design factor in the case.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Diffuser"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Diffuser</span></span></dt></dl> <p>The purpose of the diffuser is to slow the high-speed, highly compressed, air from the <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">compressor</a> to a velocity optimal for the combustor. Reducing the velocity results in an unavoidable loss in total pressure, so one of the design challenges is to limit the loss of pressure as much as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the diffuser must be designed to limit the flow distortion as much as possible by avoiding flow effects like <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layer_separation" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary layer separation">boundary layer separation</a>. Like most other gas turbine engine components, the diffuser is designed to be as short and light as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Liner"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Liner</span></span></dt></dl> <p>The liner contains the combustion process and introduces the various airflows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling, see <i>Air flow paths</i> below) into the combustion zone. The liner must be designed and built to withstand extended high-temperature cycles. For that reason liners tend to be made from <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a> like <a href="/wiki/Hastelloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastelloy">Hastelloy X</a>. Furthermore, even though high-performance alloys are used, the liners must be cooled with air flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly760-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some combustors also make use of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_barrier_coating" title="Thermal barrier coating">thermal barrier coatings</a>. However, air cooling is still required. In general, there are two main types of liner cooling; film cooling and transpiration cooling. Film cooling works by injecting (by one of several methods) cool air from outside of the liner to just inside of the liner. This creates a thin film of cool air that protects the liner, reducing the temperature at the liner from around 1800 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a>(K) to around 830 K, for example. The other type of liner cooling, transpiration cooling, is a more modern approach that uses a <a href="/wiki/Porous_medium" title="Porous medium">porous</a> material for the liner. The porous liner allows a small amount of cooling air to pass through it, providing cooling benefits similar to film cooling. The two primary differences are in the resulting temperature profile of the liner and the amount of cooling air required. Transpiration cooling results in a much more even temperature profile, as the cooling air is uniformly introduced through pores. Film cooling air is generally introduced through slats or louvers, resulting in an uneven profile where it is cooler at the slat and warmer between the slats. More importantly, transpiration cooling uses much less cooling air (on the order of 10% of total airflow, rather than 20-50% for film cooling). Using less air for cooling allows more to be used for combustion, which is more and more important for high-performance, high-thrust engines.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Snout"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Snout</span></span></dt></dl> <p>The snout is an extension of the dome (see below) that acts as an air splitter, separating the primary air from the secondary air flows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling air; see <i>Air flow paths</i> section below).<sup id="cite_ref-HandB124_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandB124-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Dome"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Dome</span></span> / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="swirler"></span><span class="vanchor-text">swirler</span></span></dt></dl> <p>The dome and swirler are the part of the combustor that the primary air (see <i>Air flow paths</i> below) flows through as it enters the combustion zone. Their role is to generate <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> in the flow to rapidly mix the air with fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly760-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early combustors tended to use <i>bluff body domes</i> (rather than swirlers), which used a simple plate to create <a href="/wiki/Wake_turbulence" title="Wake turbulence">wake turbulence</a> to mix the fuel and air. Most modern designs, however, are <i>swirl stabilized</i> (use swirlers). The swirler establishes a local low pressure zone that forces some of the combustion products to recirculate, creating the high turbulence.<sup id="cite_ref-HandB124_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandB124-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the higher the turbulence, the higher the pressure loss will be for the combustor, so the dome and swirler must be carefully designed so as not to generate more turbulence than is needed to sufficiently mix the fuel and air.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Fuel_injector"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Fuel injector</span></span></dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg/220px-Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg/330px-Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg/440px-Cannular_combustor_on_a_Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D_turbofan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3368" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Fuel injectors of a swirl-can combustor on a <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D" title="Pratt & Whitney JT9D">Pratt & Whitney JT9D</a> turbofan</figcaption></figure> <p>The fuel injector is responsible for introducing fuel to the combustion zone and, along with the swirler (above), is responsible for mixing the fuel and air. There are four primary types of fuel injectors; pressure-atomizing, air blast, vaporizing, and premix/prevaporizing injectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly760-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pressure atomizing fuel injectors rely on high fuel pressures (as much as 3,400 kilopascals (500 psi)) to atomize<sup id="cite_ref-note1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-note1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the fuel. This type of fuel injector has the advantage of being very simple, but it has several disadvantages. The fuel system must be robust enough to withstand such high pressures, and the fuel tends to be <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneous">heterogeneously</a> atomized, resulting in incomplete or uneven combustion which has more pollutants and smoke.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MHB379_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHB379-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second type of fuel injector is the air blast injector. This injector "blasts" a sheet of fuel with a stream of air, atomizing the fuel into homogeneous droplets. This type of fuel injector led to the first smokeless combustors. The air used is just some of the primary air (see <i>Air flow paths</i> below) that is diverted through the injector, rather than the swirler. This type of injector also requires lower fuel pressures than the pressure atomizing type.<sup id="cite_ref-MHB379_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHB379-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vaporizing fuel injector, the third type, is similar to the air blast injector in that primary air is mixed with the fuel as it is injected into the combustion zone. However, the fuel-air mixture travels through a tube within the combustion zone. Heat from the combustion zone is transferred to the fuel-air mixture, vaporizing some of the fuel (mixing it better) before it is combusted. This method allows the fuel to be combusted with less <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>, which helps protect the liner. However, the vaporizer tube may have serious durability problems with low fuel flow within it (the fuel inside of the tube protects the tube from the combustion heat).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The premixing/prevaporizing injectors work by mixing or vaporizing the fuel before it reaches the combustion zone. This method allows the fuel to be very uniformly mixed with the air, reducing emissions from the engine. One disadvantage of this method is that fuel may auto-ignite or otherwise combust before the fuel-air mixture reaches the combustion zone. If this happens the combustor can be seriously damaged.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Igniter"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Igniter</span></span></dt></dl> <p>Most igniters in gas turbine applications are electrical spark igniters, similar to <a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">automotive spark plugs</a>. The igniter needs to be in the combustion zone where the fuel and air are already mixed, but it needs to be far enough upstream so that it is not damaged by the combustion itself. Once the combustion is initially started by the igniter, it is self-sustaining, and the igniter is no longer used.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In can-annular and annular combustors (see <i>Types of combustors</i> below), the flame can propagate from one combustion zone to another, so igniters are not needed at each one. In some systems ignition-assist techniques are used. One such method is oxygen injection, where oxygen is fed to the ignition area, helping the fuel easily combust. This is particularly useful in some aircraft applications where the engine may have to restart at high altitude.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_flow_paths">Air flow paths</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Air flow paths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Combustor_diagram_airflow.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Combustor_diagram_airflow.png/440px-Combustor_diagram_airflow.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Combustor_diagram_airflow.png/660px-Combustor_diagram_airflow.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Combustor_diagram_airflow.png/880px-Combustor_diagram_airflow.png 2x" data-file-width="2730" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Primary air</dt></dl> <p>This is the main combustion air. It is highly compressed air from the high-pressure compressor (often decelerated via the diffuser) that is fed through the main channels in the dome of the combustor and the first set of liner holes. This air is mixed with fuel, and then combusted.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Intermediate air</dt></dl> <p>Intermediate air is the air injected into the combustion zone through the second set of liner holes (primary air goes through the first set). This air completes the reaction processes, diluting the high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO) and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H<sub>2</sub>),<sup id="cite_ref-HandB111_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandB111-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also helps cooling down the gases from combustion. </p> <dl><dt>Dilution air</dt></dl> <p>Dilution air is air injected through holes in the liner at the end of the combustion chamber to cool the flue gas before it reaches the turbines. The air is carefully used to produce the uniform temperature profile desired in the combustor. However, as turbine blade technology improves, allowing them to withstand higher temperatures, dilution air is used less, allowing the use of more combustion air.<sup id="cite_ref-HandB111_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandB111-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Cooling air</dt></dl> <p>Cooling air is air that is injected through small holes in the liner to generate a layer (film) of cool air to protect the liner from the combustion temperatures. The implementation of cooling air has to be carefully designed so it does not directly interact with the combustion air and process. In some cases, as much as 50% of the inlet air is used as cooling air. There are several different methods of injecting this cooling air, and the method can influence the temperature profile that the liner is exposed to (see <i>Liner</i>, above).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CanCombustor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/CanCombustor.svg/220px-CanCombustor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/CanCombustor.svg/330px-CanCombustor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/CanCombustor.svg/440px-CanCombustor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>Arrangement of can-type combustors for a gas turbine engine, looking axis on, through the exhaust. Teal color (dark cyan) indicates the cooling-air flow path, orange the combustion gas flow path.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Can">Can</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Can"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each "can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary air from the compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed with fuel, and then ignited. The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner (inside of which is where the combustion is taking place). The secondary air is then fed, usually through slits in the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most applications, multiple cans are arranged around the central axis of the engine, and their shared exhaust is fed to the turbine(s). Can-type combustors were most widely used in early gas turbine engines, owing to their ease of design and testing (one can test a single can, rather than have to test the whole system). Can-type combustors are easy to maintain, as only a single can needs to be removed, rather than the whole combustion section. Most modern gas turbine engines (particularly for aircraft applications) do not use can combustors, as they often weigh more than alternatives. Additionally, the pressure drop across the can is generally higher than other combustors (on the order of 7%). Most modern engines that use can combustors are <a href="/wiki/Turboshafts" class="mw-redirect" title="Turboshafts">turboshafts</a> featuring <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal compressors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Can-annular">Can-annular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Can-annular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CanAnnularCombustor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CanAnnularCombustor.svg/220px-CanAnnularCombustor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CanAnnularCombustor.svg/330px-CanAnnularCombustor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CanAnnularCombustor.svg/440px-CanAnnularCombustor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>Cannular combustor for a gas turbine engine, viewing axis on, through the exhaust</figcaption></figure> <p>The next type of combustor is the "can-annular"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> combustor. Like the can-type combustor, can-annular combustors have discrete combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common ring (annulus) casing. Each combustion zone no longer has to serve as a pressure vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The combustion zones can also "communicate" with each other via liner holes or connecting tubes that allow some air to flow circumferentially. The exit flow from the can-annular combustor generally has a more uniform temperature profile, which is better for the turbine section. It also eliminates the need for each chamber to have its own igniter. Once the fire is lit in one or two cans, it can easily spread to and ignite the others. This type of combustor is also lighter than the can type, and has a lower pressure drop (on the order of 6%). However, a can-annular combustor can be more difficult to maintain than a can combustor.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of gas turbine engines utilizing a can-annular combustor include the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J79" title="General Electric J79">General Electric J79</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_TF30" title="Pratt & Whitney TF30">Pratt & Whitney TF30</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_RB.183_Tay" title="Rolls-Royce RB.183 Tay">Rolls-Royce Tay</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbofans" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbofans">turbofans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annular">Annular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Annular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnnularCombustorNew.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/AnnularCombustorNew.png/220px-AnnularCombustorNew.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/AnnularCombustorNew.png/330px-AnnularCombustorNew.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/AnnularCombustorNew.png/440px-AnnularCombustorNew.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Annular combustor for a gas turbine engine, viewed axis on looking through the exhaust. The small yellow circles are the fuel injection nozzles, while the larger orange ring is the continuous liner for the combustion zone.</figcaption></figure> <p>The final, and most-commonly used type of combustor is the fully annular combustor. Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus). There are many advantages to annular combustors, including more uniform combustion, shorter size (therefore lighter), and less surface area.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, annular combustors tend to have very uniform exit temperatures. They also have the lowest pressure drop of the three designs (on the order of 5%).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The annular design is also simpler, although testing generally requires a full size test rig. An engine that uses an annular combustor is the <a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM International CFM56</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F110" title="General Electric F110">General Electric F110</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_F401" title="Pratt & Whitney F401">Pratt & Whitney F401</a>. Almost all of the modern gas turbine engines use annular combustors; likewise, most combustor research and development focuses on improving this type. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Double_annular_combustor">Double annular combustor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Double annular combustor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One variation on the standard annular combustor is the <i>double annular combustor</i> (DAC). Like an annular combustor, the DAC is a continuous ring without separate combustion zones around the radius. The difference is that the combustor has two combustion zones around the ring; a pilot zone and a main zone. The pilot zone acts like that of a single annular combustor, and is the only zone operating at low power levels. At high power levels, the main zone is used as well, increasing air and mass flow through the combustor. GE's implementation of this type of combustor focuses on reducing <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>x</i></sub></span> and CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/~propulsi/propulsion/images/jets/basics/combust.jpg">A good diagram of a DAC is available from Purdue</a>. Extending the same principles as the double annular combustor, triple annular and "multiple annular" combustors have been proposed and even patented.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emissions">Emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the driving factors in modern gas turbine design is reducing emissions, and the combustor is the primary contributor to a gas turbine's emissions. Generally speaking, there are five major types of emissions from gas turbine engines: smoke, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO), <a href="/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbon" title="Unburned hydrocarbon">unburned hydrocarbons</a> (UHC), and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a> (NO<sub>x</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-reg_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reduct_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reduct-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smoke is primarily mitigated by more evenly mixing the fuel with air. As discussed in the fuel injector section above, modern fuel injectors (such as airblast fuel injectors) evenly atomize the fuel and eliminate local pockets of high fuel concentration. Most modern engines use these types of fuel injectors and are essentially smokeless.<sup id="cite_ref-reg_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon dioxide is a <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">product</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> process, and it is primarily mitigated by reducing fuel usage. On average, 1 kg of jet fuel burned produces 3.2 kg of CO<sub>2</sub>. Carbon dioxide emissions will continue to drop as manufacturers improve the overall efficiency of gas turbine engines.<sup id="cite_ref-reduct_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reduct-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unburned-hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon-monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted. They are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel).<sup id="cite_ref-reduct_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reduct-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-reg_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>. CO and <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">OH</a> react to form CO<sub>2</sub> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a>. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low-CO combustor has a long <i>residence time</i> (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).<sup id="cite_ref-reg_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NO<sub>x</sub>) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NO<sub>x</sub>, and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.<sup id="cite_ref-reg_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reg-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Afterburners">Afterburners</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Afterburners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">Afterburner</a></div> <p>An afterburner (or reheat) is an additional component added to some <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>, primarily those on military <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> aircraft. Its purpose is to provide a temporary increase in <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a>, both for supersonic flight and for takeoff (as the high <a href="/wiki/Wing_loading" title="Wing loading">wing loading</a> typical of supersonic aircraft designs means that take-off speed is very high). On <a href="/wiki/Military_aircraft" title="Military aircraft">military aircraft</a> the extra thrust is also useful for <a href="/wiki/Aerial_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerial combat">combat</a> situations. This is achieved by injecting additional <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">fuel</a> into the jet pipe downstream of (i.e. <i>after</i>) the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> and combusting it. The advantage of afterburning is significantly increased thrust; the disadvantage is its very high fuel consumption and inefficiency, though this is often regarded as acceptable for the short periods during which it is usually used. </p><p>Jet engines are referred to as operating <i>wet</i> when afterburning is being used and <i>dry</i> when the engine is used without afterburning. An engine producing maximum thrust wet is at <i>maximum power</i> or <i>max reheat</i> (this is the maximum power the engine can produce); an engine producing maximum thrust dry is at <i>military power</i> or <i>max dry</i>. </p><p>As with the main combustor in a gas turbine, the afterburner has both a case and a liner, serving the same purpose as their main combustor counterparts. One major difference between a main combustor and an afterburner is that the temperature rise is not constrained by a turbine section, therefore afterburners tend to have a much higher temperature rise than main combustors.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another difference is that afterburners are not designed to mix fuel as well as primary combustors, so not all the fuel is burned within the afterburner section.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterburners also often require the use of <a href="/wiki/Flame_holder" title="Flame holder">flameholders</a> to keep the velocity of the air in the afterburner from blowing the flame out. These are often bluff bodies or "vee-gutters" directly behind the fuel injectors that create localized low-speed flow in the same manner the dome does in the main combustor.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ramjets">Ramjets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ramjets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a> engines differ in many ways from traditional gas turbine engines, but most of the same principles hold. One major difference is the lack of rotating machinery (a turbine) after the combustor. The combustor exhaust is directly fed to a nozzle. This allows ramjet combustors to burn at a higher temperature. Another difference is that many ramjet combustors do not use liners like gas turbine combustors do. Furthermore, some ramjet combustors are <i>dump combustors</i> rather than a more conventional type. Dump combustors inject fuel and rely on recirculation generated by a large change in area in the combustor (rather than swirlers in many gas turbine combustors).<sup id="cite_ref-fh_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fh-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That said, many ramjet combustors are also similar to traditional gas turbine combustors, such as the combustor in the ramjet used by the <a href="/wiki/RIM-8_Talos" title="RIM-8 Talos">RIM-8 Talos</a> missile, which used a can-type combustor.<sup id="cite_ref-hist_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hist-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scramjets">Scramjets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Scramjets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ScramjetDiagram.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ScramjetDiagram.gif/440px-ScramjetDiagram.gif" decoding="async" width="440" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/ScramjetDiagram.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="252" /></a><figcaption>Diagram illustrating a scramjet engine. Notice the isolator section between the compression inlet and combustion chamber. (Illustration from <a href="/wiki/The_Hy-V_Scramjet_Flight_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hy-V Scramjet Flight Experiment">The Hy-V Scramjet Flight Experiment</a>.)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">Scramjet</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">Scramjet</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">ramjet</a></i>) engines present a much different situation for the combustor than conventional gas turbine engines (scramjets are not gas turbines, as they generally have few or no moving parts). While scramjet combustors may be physically quite different from conventional combustors, they face many of the same design challenges, like fuel mixing and flame holding. However, as its name implies, a scramjet combustor must address these challenges in a <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> flow environment. For example, for a scramjet flying at <a href="/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 5, the air flow entering the combustor would nominally be Mach 2. One of the major challenges in a scramjet engine is preventing <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> generated by combustor from traveling upstream into the inlet. If that were to happen, the engine may <a href="/wiki/Unstart" title="Unstart">unstart</a>, resulting in loss of thrust, among other problems. To prevent this, scramjet engines tend to have an isolator section (see image) immediately ahead of the combustion zone.<sup id="cite_ref-hyv_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hyv-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Components_of_jet_engines" title="Components of jet engines">Components of jet engines</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-note1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-note1_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While <b>atomize</b> has several definitions, in this context it means to form a fine spray. It is not meant to imply that the fuel is being broken down to its atomic components.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Combustors" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Combustors">Combustors</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <dl><dt>Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flack, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKoff,_Bernard_L.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Koff, Bernard L. (July–August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/1.4361">"Gas Turbine Technology Evolution: A Designer's Perspective"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Propulsion_and_Power" title="Journal of Propulsion and Power">Journal of Propulsion and Power</a></i>. <b>20</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">577–</span>595. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F1.4361">10.2514/1.4361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Propulsion+and+Power&rft.atitle=Gas+Turbine+Technology+Evolution%3A+A+Designer%27s+Perspective.&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E577-%3C%2Fspan%3E595&rft.date=2004-07%2F2004-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F1.4361&rft.au=Koff%2C+Bernard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.aiaa.org%2Fdoi%2F10.2514%2F1.4361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 119–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mattingly760-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly760_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, p. 760.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, pp. 372–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 124–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HandB124-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HandB124_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandB124_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flack, p. 441.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MHB379-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MHB379_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MHB379_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 379.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 129–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HandB111-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HandB111_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandB111_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 111, 125–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasa_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benson, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/burner.html">Combustor-Burner</a>. 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D. and Craig, R. R. (1975). Investigation of Dump Combustors with Flameholders. <i>13th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting</i>. Pasadena, CA. 20–22 January 1975. AIAA 75-165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hist-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hist_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltrup,_P.J.White_M.E.Zarlingo_FGravlin_E._S.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Waltrup, P.J.; White M.E.; Zarlingo F; Gravlin E. S. (January–February 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/2.5928">"History of U.S. Navy Ramjet, Scramjet, and Mixed-Cycle Propulsion Development"</a>. <i>Journal of Propulsion and Power</i>. <b>18</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">14–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F2.5928">10.2514/2.5928</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070413051619/http://pdf.aiaa.org/downloads/1996/1996_3152.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2007-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Propulsion+and+Power&rft.atitle=History+of+U.S.+Navy+Ramjet%2C+Scramjet%2C+and+Mixed-Cycle+Propulsion+Development&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2002-01%2F2002-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F2.5928&rft.au=Waltrup%2C+P.J.&rft.au=White+M.E.&rft.au=Zarlingo+F&rft.au=Gravlin+E.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.aiaa.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.2514%2F2.5928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hyv-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hyv_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoyne,_C._PHall,_C._D.O'Brian,_W._F.Schetz,_J._A2006" class="citation conference cs1">Goyne, C. P; Hall, C. D.; O'Brian, W. F.; Schetz, J. A (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/6.2006-7901"><i>The Hy-V Scramjet Flight Experiment (AIAA 2006-7901)</i></a>. 14th AIAA/AHI Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F6.2006-7901">10.2514/6.2006-7901</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930183608/http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMHYP06_1276/PV2006_7901.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2007-09-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Hy-V+Scramjet+Flight+Experiment+%28AIAA+2006-7901%29&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F6.2006-7901&rft.au=Goyne%2C+C.+P&rft.au=Hall%2C+C.+D.&rft.au=O%27Brian%2C+W.+F.&rft.au=Schetz%2C+J.+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.aiaa.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.2514%2F6.2006-7901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlack2005" class="citation book cs1">Flack, Ronald D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MLlmJSRUY50C&pg=PA440">"Chapter 9: Combustors and Afterburners"</a>. <i>Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications</i>. Cambridge Aerospace Series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81983-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81983-1"><bdi>978-0-521-81983-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Combustors+and+Afterburners&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Jet+Propulsion+with+Applications&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.series=Cambridge+Aerospace+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81983-1&rft.aulast=Flack&rft.aufirst=Ronald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMLlmJSRUY50C%26pg%3DPA440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendersonBlazowski1989" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, Robert E.; Blazowski, William S. (1989). "Chapter 2: Turbopropulsion Combustion Technology". In Oates, Gordon C. (ed.). <i>Aircraft Propulsion Systems Technology and Design</i>. AIAA Education Series. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930403-24-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-930403-24-X"><bdi>0-930403-24-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Turbopropulsion+Combustion+Technology&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Propulsion+Systems+Technology+and+Design&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=AIAA+Education+Series&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-930403-24-X&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft.au=Blazowski%2C+William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattinglyHeiserPratt2002" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, Jack D.; Heiser, William H.; Pratt, David T. (2002). "Chapter 9: Engine Component Design: Combustion Systems". <i>Aircraft Engine Design</i>. AIAA Education Series (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56347-538-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56347-538-3"><bdi>1-56347-538-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Engine+Component+Design%3A+Combustion+Systems&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Engine+Design&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.series=AIAA+Education+Series&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56347-538-3&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft.au=Heiser%2C+William+H.&rft.au=Pratt%2C+David+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2006" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, Jack D. (2006). "Chapter 10: Inlets, Nozzles, and Combustion Systems". <i>Elements of Propulsion: Gas Turbines and Rockets</i>. AIAA Education Series. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56347-779-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56347-779-3"><bdi>1-56347-779-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Inlets%2C+Nozzles%2C+and+Combustion+Systems&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Propulsion%3A+Gas+Turbines+and+Rockets&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.series=AIAA+Education+Series&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-56347-779-3&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aerospacenotes.com/classification-of-combustion-chamber/">Classification of Combustion Chamber</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/combustion-section-combustion-section.html">[1]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://aviation_dictionary.en-academic.com/560/annular_combustion_chamber">[2]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5521/9/7/161">[3]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.jet-x.org/a4.html">[4]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Aerodynamic-Performance-of-an-Annular-Combustion-Dinh-Le/e0733c92208f49c34de0183922ca8697eb21c029">[5]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Sketch-of-annular-combustion-chamber_fig2_330120910">[6]</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_turborocket" title="Air turborocket">Air turborocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsejet" title="Pulsejet">Pulsejet</a>/<a href="/wiki/Valveless_pulsejet" title="Valveless pulsejet">Valveless pulsejet</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gluhareff_Pressure_Jet" title="Gluhareff Pressure Jet">Gluhareff Pressure Jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_detonation_engine" title="Pulse detonation engine">Pulse detonation engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propfan" title="Propfan">Propfan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">Turbofan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">Turbojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">Turboprop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">Turboshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">Scramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shcramjet" title="Shcramjet">Shcramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_detonation_engine" title="Rotating detonation engine">Rotating detonation engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical<br /> components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_drive" title="Accessory drive">Accessory drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Components_of_jet_engines#Air_intakes" title="Components of jet engines">Air intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">Afterburner (reheat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">Axial compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">Centrifugal compressor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Combustor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_speed_drive" title="Constant speed drive">Constant speed drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeller" title="Impeller">Impeller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nose_bullet" title="Nose bullet">Nose bullet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">Propelling nozzle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine_blade" title="Turbine blade">Turbine blade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine_starting" title="Aircraft engine starting">Aircraft engine starting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bypass_ratio" title="Bypass ratio">Bypass ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor_stall" title="Compressor stall">Compressor stall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine_pressure_ratio" title="Engine pressure ratio">Engine pressure ratio (EPR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flameout" title="Flameout">Flameout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_engine_performance" title="Jet engine performance">Jet engine performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratio" title="Overall pressure ratio">Overall pressure ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">Propulsive efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">Specific impulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">Thrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust lapse">Thrust lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust specific fuel consumption">Thrust specific fuel consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_to_weight_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust to weight ratio">Thrust to weight ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_cycle_engine" title="Variable cycle engine">Variable cycle engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill_restart" class="mw-redirect" title="Windmill restart">Windmill restart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Propeller (aeronautics)">Propellers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller governor">Propeller governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_speed_reduction_unit" title="Propeller speed reduction unit">Propeller speed reduction unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autofeather" title="Autofeather">Autofeather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_pitch" title="Blade pitch">Blade pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-speed_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant-speed propeller">Constant-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contra-rotating_propellers" title="Contra-rotating propellers">Contra-rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-rotating_propellers" title="Counter-rotating propellers">Counter-rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprotor" title="Proprotor">Proprotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scimitar_propeller" title="Scimitar propeller">Scimitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)">Variable-pitch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engine<br /> instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annunciator_panel" title="Annunciator panel">Annunciator panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_centralised_aircraft_monitor" title="Electronic centralised aircraft monitor">Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_flight_instrument_system" title="Electronic flight instrument system">Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine-indicating_and_crew-alerting_system" title="Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system">Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_data_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight data recorder">Flight data recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cockpit" title="Glass cockpit">Glass cockpit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine_controls" title="Aircraft engine controls">Engine controls</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autothrottle" title="Autothrottle">Autothrottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FADEC" title="FADEC">Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lever" title="Thrust lever">Thrust lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">Thrust reversal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fuel_system" title="Aircraft fuel system">Fuel</a> and induction<br /> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flame_holder" title="Flame holder">Flame holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-start_system" title="Air-start system">Air-start system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">Auxiliary power unit (APU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid#Aircraft_hydraulic_systems" title="Hydraulic fluid">Hydraulic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system" title="Ice protection system">Ice protection system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combustor&oldid=1274009238">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combustor&oldid=1274009238</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combustion_chambers" title="Category:Combustion chambers">Combustion chambers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jet_engine_technology" title="Category:Jet engine technology">Jet engine technology</a></li><li><a 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