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id="toc-Causal_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causal_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Causal relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causal_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conformal_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conformal_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Conformal geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conformal_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conformal_infinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conformal_infinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conformal infinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conformal_infinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravitational_singularity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_singularity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gravitational singularity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_singularity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estructura_causal" title="Estructura causal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estructura causal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estruktura_kausal" title="Estruktura kausal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Estruktura kausal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ساختار علی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ساختار علی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B3%BC_%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0" title="인과 구조 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인과 구조" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struttura_causale" title="Struttura causale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Struttura causale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causale_structuur" title="Causale structuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Causale structuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrutura_causal" title="Estrutura causal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estrutura causal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8" title="โครงสร้างเชิงสาเหตุ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครงสร้างเชิงสาเหตุ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84" title="因果结构 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="因果结构" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_relation&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal relation">Causal relation</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Causal relationships between points in a manifold</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the possible causal relationships among points in a Lorentzian manifold. For classification of Lorentzian manifolds according to the types of causal structures they admit, see <a href="/wiki/Causality_conditions" title="Causality conditions">Causality conditions</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>, the <b>causal structure</b> of a <a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian manifold">Lorentzian manifold</a> describes the <a href="/wiki/Causality_(physics)" title="Causality (physics)">causal relationships</a> between points in the manifold. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">modern physics</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>) <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> is represented by a <a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian manifold">Lorentzian manifold</a>. The causal relations between points in the manifold are interpreted as describing which events in spacetime can influence which other events. </p><p>The causal structure of an arbitrary (possibly curved) Lorentzian manifold is made more complicated by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a>. Discussions of the causal structure for such manifolds must be phrased in terms of <a href="/wiki/Smooth_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth function">smooth</a> <a href="/wiki/Curve" title="Curve">curves</a> joining pairs of points. Conditions on the <a href="/wiki/Tangent_vectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangent vectors">tangent vectors</a> of the curves then define the causal relationships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tangent_vectors">Tangent vectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Tangent vectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_line.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/250px-World_line.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/375px-World_line.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/500px-World_line.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Subdivision of Minkowski spacetime with respect to a point in four disjoint sets. The <a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">light cone</a>, the <b>causal future</b>, the <b>causal past</b>, and <b>elsewhere</b>. The terminology is defined in this article.</figcaption></figure> <p>If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,(M,g)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,(M,g)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d6470df93ce06bf1de47784b7b7ab0506442096a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.789ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,(M,g)}"></span> is a <a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian manifold">Lorentzian manifold</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Metric_tensor" title="Metric tensor">metric</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}"></span> on <a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">manifold</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>) then the nonzero tangent vectors at each point in the manifold can be classified into three <a href="/wiki/Disjoint_sets" title="Disjoint sets">disjoint</a> types. A tangent vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> is: </p> <ul><li><b>timelike</b> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf2530170ccfa707b210e39534f0936b8e55f937" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.567ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}"></span></li> <li><b>null</b> or <b>lightlike</b> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51e11bf338c5b12d668b84252ca8bb2225bf80cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.567ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)=0}"></span></li> <li><b>spacelike</b> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e0505d193b9c57d93c8b29c6561b5352a32726a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.567ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)>0}"></span></li></ul> <p>Here we use the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (-,+,+,+,\cdots )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (-,+,+,+,\cdots )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/05f2be14b3c312489e85a71ab1c2afe9a1bb5ebe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.901ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (-,+,+,+,\cdots )}"></span> <a href="/wiki/Metric_signature" title="Metric signature">metric signature</a>. We say that a tangent vector is <b>non-spacelike</b> if it is null or timelike. </p><p>The canonical Lorentzian manifold is <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_spacetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski spacetime">Minkowski spacetime</a>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5cdbbb611f6440d3f1da47525bcf154c9c8bd304" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.273ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{4}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Curvature_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Curvature of space">flat</a> <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski metric">Minkowski metric</a>. The names for the tangent vectors come from the physics of this model. The causal relationships between points in Minkowski spacetime take a particularly simple form because the tangent space is also <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4abb9b9dab94f7b25a4210364f0f9032704bfb9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}}"></span> and hence the tangent vectors may be identified with points in the space. The four-dimensional vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X=(t,r)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X=(t,r)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/20674e6ed582b59319df38949b8880751150d86a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.81ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X=(t,r)}"></span> is classified according to the sign of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g(X,X)=-c^{2}t^{2}+\|r\|^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">‖</mo> <mi>r</mi> <msup> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">‖</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g(X,X)=-c^{2}t^{2}+\|r\|^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b886a565d15f0132564e0cb9d17c4d5495d428be" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.049ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g(X,X)=-c^{2}t^{2}+\|r\|^{2}}"></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea34913a6608d4a8746de837c91e6854cda360a0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.622ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}}"></span> is a <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian</a> coordinate in 3-dimensional space, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span> is the constant representing the universal speed limit, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}"></span> is time. The classification of any vector in the space will be the same in all frames of reference that are related by a <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a> (but not by a general <a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Poincaré transformation">Poincaré transformation</a> because the origin may then be displaced) because of the invariance of the metric. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time-orientability">Time-orientability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Time-orientability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At each point in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> the timelike tangent vectors in the point's <a href="/wiki/Tangent_space" title="Tangent space">tangent space</a> can be divided into two classes. To do this we first define an <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_relation" title="Equivalence relation">equivalence relation</a> on pairs of timelike tangent vectors. </p><p>If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> are two timelike tangent vectors at a point we say that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> are equivalent (written <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X\sim Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X\sim Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a5d68baf65b1398a52e9a21732e8e2a2fc39244b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.852ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X\sim Y}"></span>) if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g(X,Y)<0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>Y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g(X,Y)<0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8837b9c6186585e350bcf9f3de8ae6c7513a00e1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.361ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g(X,Y)<0}"></span>. </p><p>There are then two <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_class" title="Equivalence class">equivalence classes</a> which between them contain all timelike tangent vectors at the point. We can (arbitrarily) call one of these equivalence classes <b>future-directed</b> and call the other <b>past-directed</b>. Physically this designation of the two classes of future- and past-directed timelike vectors corresponds to a choice of an <a href="/wiki/Arrow_of_time" title="Arrow of time">arrow of time</a> at the point. The future- and past-directed designations can be extended to null vectors at a point by continuity. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian manifold">Lorentzian manifold</a> is <b>time-orientable</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if a continuous designation of future-directed and past-directed for non-spacelike vectors can be made over the entire manifold. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curves">Curves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Curves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>path</b> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is a <a href="/wiki/Smooth_function#Parametric_continuity" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth function">continuous</a> map <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu :\Sigma \to M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>:</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu :\Sigma \to M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/76fb79282afacb82d9895c96bdf73a9ef1d5adcd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.073ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu :\Sigma \to M}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e1f558f53cda207614abdf90162266c70bc5c1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"></span> is a nondegenerate interval (i.e., a connected set containing more than one point) in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }"></span>. A <b>smooth</b> path has <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9fd47b2a39f7a7856952afec1f1db72c67af6161" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu }"></span> differentiable an appropriate number of times (typically <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C^{\infty }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C^{\infty }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/971ed05871d69309df32efdfd2020128c9cf69d8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.673ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C^{\infty }}"></span>), and a <b>regular</b> path has nonvanishing derivative. </p><p>A <b>curve</b> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is the image of a path or, more properly, an equivalence class of path-images related by re-parametrisation, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Homeomorphism" title="Homeomorphism">homeomorphisms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diffeomorphism" title="Diffeomorphism">diffeomorphisms</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e1f558f53cda207614abdf90162266c70bc5c1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"></span>. When <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is time-orientable, the curve is <b>oriented</b> if the parameter change is required to be <a href="/wiki/Monotonic_function" title="Monotonic function">monotonic</a>. </p><p>Smooth regular curves (or paths) in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> can be classified depending on their tangent vectors. Such a curve is </p> <ul><li><b>chronological</b> (or <b>timelike</b>) if the tangent vector is timelike at all points in the curve. Also called a <a href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">world line</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>null</b> if the tangent vector is null at all points in the curve.</li> <li><b>spacelike</b> if the tangent vector is spacelike at all points in the curve.</li> <li><b>causal</b> (or <b>non-spacelike</b>) if the tangent vector is timelike <i>or</i> null at all points in the curve.</li></ul> <p>The requirements of regularity and nondegeneracy of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e1f558f53cda207614abdf90162266c70bc5c1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma }"></span> ensure that closed causal curves (such as those consisting of a single point) are not automatically admitted by all spacetimes. </p><p>If the manifold is time-orientable then the non-spacelike curves can further be classified depending on their orientation with respect to time. </p><p>A chronological, null or causal curve in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is </p> <ul><li><b>future-directed</b> if, for every point in the curve, the tangent vector is future-directed.</li> <li><b>past-directed</b> if, for every point in the curve, the tangent vector is past-directed.</li></ul> <p>These definitions only apply to causal (chronological or null) curves because only timelike or null tangent vectors can be assigned an orientation with respect to time. </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Closed_timelike_curve" title="Closed timelike curve">closed timelike curve</a> is a closed curve which is everywhere future-directed timelike (or everywhere past-directed timelike).</li> <li>A <b>closed null curve</b> is a closed curve which is everywhere future-directed null (or everywhere past-directed null).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Holonomy" title="Holonomy">holonomy</a> of the ratio of the rate of change of the affine parameter around a closed null geodesic is the <b>redshift factor</b>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causal_relations">Causal relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Causal relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several causal <a href="/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)" title="Relation (mathematics)">relations</a> between points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in the manifold <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>. </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> <b>chronologically precedes</b> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> (often denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,x\ll y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,x\ll y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d8e0075876a3c6bd4f36d932e757f01364602482" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.486ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,x\ll y}"></span>) if there exists a future-directed chronological (timelike) curve from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span>.</span></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> <b>strictly causally precedes</b> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> (often denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x<y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x<y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aeb239de6fee56ea8b6a65f7858d95b87632069f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x<y}"></span>) if there exists a future-directed causal (non-spacelike) curve from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> <b>causally precedes</b> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> (often denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61de07b95a935ac198f35c2b0eb8aa0babdb2fb1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\leq y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\leq y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c07a0bc023490be1c08e6c33a9cdc93bec908224" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\leq y}"></span>) if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> strictly causally precedes <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x=y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x=y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/409a91214d63eabe46ec10ff3cbba689ab687366" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x=y}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> <b>horismos</b> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (often denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\to y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\to y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43570cdee5baeaebcf546338f77cf67c27a7344f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\to y}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\nearrow y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">↗</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\nearrow y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba968a43d6e0383c7f7dbaf569fe34a0bee6ab07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\nearrow y}"></span>) if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x=y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x=y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/409a91214d63eabe46ec10ff3cbba689ab687366" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x=y}"></span> or there exists a future-directed null curve from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulos_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulos-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (or equivalently, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61de07b95a935ac198f35c2b0eb8aa0babdb2fb1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\not \ll y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪̸</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\not \ll y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6612e88a5b9290ee6b83b5b376744e982755bb11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.1ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\not \ll y}"></span>).</li></ul> <p>These relations satisfy the following properties: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\ll y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\ll y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa24e30006077de6c6e962b966f9122dd996df6d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\ll y}"></span> implies <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61de07b95a935ac198f35c2b0eb8aa0babdb2fb1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"></span> (this follows trivially from the definition)<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\ll y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\ll y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa24e30006077de6c6e962b966f9122dd996df6d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\ll y}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y\prec z}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>z</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y\prec z}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f4c4265119b386e9656a66faf671aa33722f715f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.342ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y\prec z}"></span> implies <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\ll z}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>z</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\ll z}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c322064a7fbd2796a8c1ca7c1ffe60852c92e470" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.032ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\ll z}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61de07b95a935ac198f35c2b0eb8aa0babdb2fb1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.584ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y\ll z}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>z</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y\ll z}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/995a9b06ab18c934303665865ac85333575249bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.858ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y\ll z}"></span> implies <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\ll z}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>z</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\ll z}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c322064a7fbd2796a8c1ca7c1ffe60852c92e470" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.032ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\ll z}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ll }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>≪</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ll }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/10563f31a4178c71bef006ea5c601e908f984136" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.324ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ll }"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle <}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo><</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle <}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/33737c89a17785dacc8638b4d66db3d5c8670de1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle <}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \prec }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>≺</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \prec }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59707ac9078525b52a9e21a1baf9ab787af7a9aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \prec }"></span> are <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \to }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \to }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1daab843254cfcb23a643070cf93f3badc4fbbbd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.324ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \to }"></span> is not transitive.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \prec }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>≺</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \prec }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59707ac9078525b52a9e21a1baf9ab787af7a9aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \prec }"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \to }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \to }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1daab843254cfcb23a643070cf93f3badc4fbbbd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.324ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \to }"></span> are <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_relation" title="Reflexive relation">reflexive</a><sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulos_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulos-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>For a point <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> in the manifold <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> we define<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <b>chronological future</b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>, denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbe4021a6699b7e33a94e15fbf2e9ce7845d69fd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.253ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"></span>, as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> chronologically precedes <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span>:</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\ll y\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\ll y\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c0bb63f028377e9efd76b31e1fb15e956772f650" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.861ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\ll y\}}"></span></dd></dl> <ul><li>The <b>chronological past</b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>, denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c7535302a0d154a99670832371ac45b54afab2ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.253ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)}"></span>, as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> chronologically precedes <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>:</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\ll x\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\ll x\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fd78aba1c4c0f5a36e652142bcc52cd611a98e7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.861ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\ll x\}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>We similarly define </p> <ul><li>The <b>causal future</b> (also called the <b>absolute future</b>) of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>, denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b410e9b3e1733adf13ea799e4a21907d088d4252" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.563ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}"></span>, as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> causally precedes <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span>:</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\prec y\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\prec y\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d1404e09f7cff7e93d74a08343cf8a0680c8dd66" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.655ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)=\{y\in M|x\prec y\}}"></span></dd></dl> <ul><li>The <b>causal past</b> (also called the <b>absolute past</b>) of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>, denoted <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43552ce202fa6ef1990d9f83f0b37aa891fa3993" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.563ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}"></span>, as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> causally precedes <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>:</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\prec x\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\prec x\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a8176edd39c9fe9c93e1e44b67b145c8dd35a00" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.655ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)=\{y\in M|y\prec x\}}"></span></dd></dl> <ul><li>The <b>future null cone</b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\to y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\to y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43570cdee5baeaebcf546338f77cf67c27a7344f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\to y}"></span>.</li> <li>The <b>past null cone</b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> as the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y\to x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y\to x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/781be4ed13287aeb36793c8742beb336f891e131" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y\to x}"></span>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">light cone</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> as the future and past null cones of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> together.<sup id="cite_ref-Sard78_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sard78-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>elsewhere</b> as points not in the light cone, causal future, or causal past.<sup id="cite_ref-Sard78_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sard78-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Points contained in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbe4021a6699b7e33a94e15fbf2e9ce7845d69fd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.253ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"></span>, for example, can be reached from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> by a future-directed timelike curve. The point <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> can be reached, for example, from points contained in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43552ce202fa6ef1990d9f83f0b37aa891fa3993" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.563ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{-}(x)}"></span> by a future-directed non-spacelike curve. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_spacetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski spacetime">Minkowski spacetime</a> the set <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbe4021a6699b7e33a94e15fbf2e9ce7845d69fd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.253ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Interior_(topology)" title="Interior (topology)">interior</a> of the future <a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">light cone</a> at <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>. The set <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b410e9b3e1733adf13ea799e4a21907d088d4252" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.563ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,J^{+}(x)}"></span> is the full future light cone at <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span>, including the cone itself. </p><p>These sets <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x),I^{-}(x),J^{+}(x),J^{-}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x),I^{-}(x),J^{+}(x),J^{-}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c765cf45cfaa59066a7a0dac51f306deb117d8c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:27.573ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x),I^{-}(x),J^{+}(x),J^{-}(x)}"></span> defined for all <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>, are collectively called the <b>causal structure</b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>. </p><p>For <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> a <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> we define<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose12_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}I^{\pm }(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munder> <mo>⋃</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </munder> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}I^{\pm }(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ddc5515570ffb796bf518f8c7401a54a83e2d51" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:17.969ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}I^{\pm }(x)}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}J^{\pm }(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munder> <mo>⋃</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </munder> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}J^{\pm }(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4a46a9fbe4e87ba86f3f19d694596d3324b0a71b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:18.587ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J^{\pm }[S]=\bigcup _{x\in S}J^{\pm }(x)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>For <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S,T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S,T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4972a806d8142ce359a93ddb4c99340d62ef774e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.169ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S,T}"></span> two <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subsets</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> we define </p> <ul><li>The <b>chronological future of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> relative to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span></b>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S;T]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo>;</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{+}[S;T]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3eaf5f087095d84a485e274efbca290925578c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.19ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S;T]}"></span>, is the chronological future of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> considered as a submanifold of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span>. Note that this is quite a different concept from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]\cap T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>∩</mo> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]\cap T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/351357f6168b362aec1872ed4a58ad07a9861f1f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.739ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]\cap T}"></span> which gives the set of points in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span> which can be reached by future-directed timelike curves starting from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span>. In the first case the curves must lie in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span> in the second case they do not. See Hawking and Ellis.</li> <li>The <b>causal future of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> relative to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span></b>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J^{+}[S;T]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo>;</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J^{+}[S;T]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/52549dda2ad42d2934d0911a7ee94f63aedfdd63" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.5ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J^{+}[S;T]}"></span>, is the causal future of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> considered as a submanifold of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span>. Note that this is quite a different concept from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J^{+}[S]\cap T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>∩</mo> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J^{+}[S]\cap T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/efb6e0e8f575bb27b7ba2540c501c265d1d27caf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.048ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J^{+}[S]\cap T}"></span> which gives the set of points in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span> which can be reached by future-directed causal curves starting from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span>. In the first case the curves must lie in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}"></span> in the second case they do not. See Hawking and Ellis.</li> <li>A <b>future set</b> is a set closed under chronological future.</li> <li>A <b>past set</b> is a set closed under chronological past.</li> <li>An <b>indecomposable past set</b> (IP) is a past set which isn't the union of two different open past proper subsets.</li> <li>An IP which does not coincide with the past of any point in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span> is called a <b>terminal indecomposable past set</b> (TIP).</li> <li>A <b>proper indecomposable past set</b> (PIP) is an IP which isn't a TIP. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{-}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{-}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7bd88b1d5c68f88d0e56bbf4b9cd6146bc6205ce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.866ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{-}(x)}"></span> is a proper indecomposable past set (PIP).</li> <li>The future <b><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Cauchy development">Cauchy development</a></b> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D^{+}(S)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D^{+}(S)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/71d966b0c21ef308f0c4e32374208fc9a6a3bb10" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.744ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D^{+}(S)}"></span> is the set of all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> for which every past directed inextendible causal curve through <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> intersects <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> at least once. Similarly for the past Cauchy development. The Cauchy development is the union of the future and past Cauchy developments. Cauchy developments are important for the study of <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>.</li> <li>A subset <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>⊂</mo> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S\subset M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/71da27ce79329082f6bc54d5630d26814ec99a14" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.04ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"></span> is <b>achronal</b> if there do not exist <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q,r\in S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q,r\in S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dfab6caf84813ddc33a40e5873a68b99b1076b90" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.492ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q,r\in S}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r\in I^{+}(q)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r\in I^{+}(q)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ab4834b76ba4d0af51879fb7b80415fddca11a7d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.495ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r\in I^{+}(q)}"></span>, or equivalently, if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> is disjoint from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7a477c64fe41db349b644539b8e802f8a49e790d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.52ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]}"></span>.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="diamond"></span></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png/220px-PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png/330px-PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png/440px-PhysRevD.99.086006_Fig2_CausalDiamond.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Causal diamond</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A <b><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_surface" title="Cauchy surface">Cauchy surface</a></b> is a closed achronal set whose Cauchy development is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>.</li> <li>A metric is <b>globally hyperbolic</b> if it can be foliated by Cauchy surfaces.</li> <li>The <b>chronology violating set</b> is the set of points through which closed timelike curves pass.</li> <li>The <b>causality violating set</b> is the set of points through which closed causal curves pass.</li> <li>The boundary of the causality violating set is a <a href="/wiki/Cauchy_horizon" title="Cauchy horizon">Cauchy horizon</a>. If the Cauchy horizon is generated by closed null geodesics, then there's a redshift factor associated with each of them.</li> <li>For a causal curve <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a223c880b0ce3da8f64ee33c4f0010beee400b1a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.262ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma }"></span>, the <b>causal diamond</b> is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J^{+}(\gamma (t_{1}))\cap J^{-}(\gamma (t_{2}))}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∩</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J^{+}(\gamma (t_{1}))\cap J^{-}(\gamma (t_{2}))}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f230decf7556d51a8d5c9565570d596c1235e74f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.205ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J^{+}(\gamma (t_{1}))\cap J^{-}(\gamma (t_{2}))}"></span> (here we are using the looser definition of 'curve' whereon it is just a set of points), being the point <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b5bf251b56b9c11f7ff989d84a9f692f30cf9834" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.965ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}"></span> in the causal past of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7f975800df37a383ca13880de4074e536f99f1c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.965ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}"></span>. In words: the causal diamond of a particle's world-line <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a223c880b0ce3da8f64ee33c4f0010beee400b1a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.262ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma }"></span> is the set of all events that lie in both the past of some point in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a223c880b0ce3da8f64ee33c4f0010beee400b1a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.262ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma }"></span> and the future of some point in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a223c880b0ce3da8f64ee33c4f0010beee400b1a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.262ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma }"></span>. In the discrete version, the causal diamond is the set of all the causal paths that connect <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7f975800df37a383ca13880de4074e536f99f1c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.965ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{2})}"></span> from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b5bf251b56b9c11f7ff989d84a9f692f30cf9834" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.965ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma (t_{1})}"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Properties">Properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>See Penrose (1972), p13. </p> <ul><li>A point <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> is in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/de804e7b1420eeca6a5af17e6d9e48f689763a6b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.079ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{-}(y)}"></span> if and only if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> is in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbe4021a6699b7e33a94e15fbf2e9ce7845d69fd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.253ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,I^{+}(x)}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{-}(x)\subset I^{-}(y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟹</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>⊂</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{-}(x)\subset I^{-}(y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/248b269ac14ff24ffd4bade39baa5e4c0a28dad7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.627ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{-}(x)\subset I^{-}(y)}"></span></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{+}(y)\subset I^{+}(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>≺</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟹</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>⊂</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{+}(y)\subset I^{+}(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/88d7b682fee0eb3ceb0fa2dcef246fdbd1acd455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.627ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\prec y\implies I^{+}(y)\subset I^{+}(x)}"></span></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]=I^{+}[I^{+}[S]]\subset J^{+}[S]=J^{+}[J^{+}[S]]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>⊂</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]=I^{+}[I^{+}[S]]\subset J^{+}[S]=J^{+}[J^{+}[S]]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/909b7326d282de57ca80e41850a2089418f8def4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:40.346ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{+}[S]=I^{+}[I^{+}[S]]\subset J^{+}[S]=J^{+}[J^{+}[S]]}"></span></li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{-}[S]=I^{-}[I^{-}[S]]\subset J^{-}[S]=J^{-}[J^{-}[S]]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>⊂</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{-}[S]=I^{-}[I^{-}[S]]\subset J^{-}[S]=J^{-}[J^{-}[S]]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d8c07cccba41e8e1bd57d53d501e04a1cfaae561" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:40.346ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{-}[S]=I^{-}[I^{-}[S]]\subset J^{-}[S]=J^{-}[J^{-}[S]]}"></span></li> <li>The horismos is generated by null geodesic congruences.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">Topological</a> properties: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{\pm }(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34c4e785c4e8c8644d0f3f349b4470caa80c1eaf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.866ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }(x)}"></span> is open for all points <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3d541d82a9b2037fdfcf7512f3d87d4c6e807584" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.52ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]}"></span> is open for all subsets <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>⊂</mo> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S\subset M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/71da27ce79329082f6bc54d5630d26814ec99a14" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.04ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=I^{\pm }[{\overline {S}}]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>S</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=I^{\pm }[{\overline {S}}]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8564f5b519240036fd779620382cca3aabe3e3d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.302ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]=I^{\pm }[{\overline {S}}]}"></span> for all subsets <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>⊂</mo> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S\subset M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/71da27ce79329082f6bc54d5630d26814ec99a14" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.04ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S\subset M}"></span>. Here <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {S}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>S</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {S}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0353b71f671221a0796d94febf9079b11dcca124" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.663ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {S}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Closure_(mathematics)" title="Closure (mathematics)">closure</a> of a subset <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span>.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]\subset {\overline {J^{\pm }[S]}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <msup> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]\subset {\overline {J^{\pm }[S]}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/314a73f8b144f899285f6db5195002f593103a45" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.563ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{\pm }[S]\subset {\overline {J^{\pm }[S]}}}"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conformal_geometry">Conformal geometry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conformal geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two metrics <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/98bd980ef3755427fdcb153b4b37eb38522a7429" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.503ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9351259e90225fb86e6d884862bd7ccc579db8ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.232ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"></span> are <b>conformally related</b><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}=\Omega ^{2}g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}=\Omega ^{2}g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b37b9c916239b689dd1b3816a6b836463c107ace" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.178ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}=\Omega ^{2}g}"></span> for some real function <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24b0d5ca6f381068d756f6337c08e0af9d1eeb6f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega }"></span> called the <b>conformal factor</b>. (See <a href="/wiki/Conformal_map#Riemannian_geometry" title="Conformal map">conformal map</a>). </p><p>Looking at the definitions of which tangent vectors are timelike, null and spacelike we see they remain unchanged if we use <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/98bd980ef3755427fdcb153b4b37eb38522a7429" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.503ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9351259e90225fb86e6d884862bd7ccc579db8ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.232ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"></span>. As an example suppose <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> is a timelike tangent vector with respect to the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/98bd980ef3755427fdcb153b4b37eb38522a7429" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.503ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g}"></span> metric. This means that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf2530170ccfa707b210e39534f0936b8e55f937" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.567ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,g(X,X)<0}"></span>. We then have that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}(X,X)=\Omega ^{2}g(X,X)<0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}(X,X)=\Omega ^{2}g(X,X)<0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51103da00719e8c468a4814fdb831dd53f0e8e91" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.046ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}(X,X)=\Omega ^{2}g(X,X)<0}"></span> so <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> is a timelike tangent vector with respect to the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9351259e90225fb86e6d884862bd7ccc579db8ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.232ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}"></span> too. </p><p>It follows from this that the causal structure of a Lorentzian manifold is unaffected by a <a href="/wiki/Conformal_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Conformal transformation">conformal transformation</a>. </p><p>A null geodesic remains a null geodesic under a conformal rescaling. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conformal_infinity">Conformal infinity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conformal infinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conformal_infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Conformal infinity">Conformal infinity</a></div> <p>An infinite metric admits geodesics of infinite length/proper time. However, we can sometimes make a conformal rescaling of the metric with a conformal factor which falls off sufficiently fast to 0 as we approach infinity to get the <b>conformal boundary</b> of the manifold. The topological structure of the conformal boundary depends upon the causal structure. </p> <ul><li>Future-directed timelike geodesics end up on <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i^{+}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i^{+}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca9b34821fdad844a0c9b8e3c7fa3326709ccaa2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.313ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i^{+}}"></span>, the <b>future timelike infinity</b>.</li> <li>Past-directed timelike geodesics end up on <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i^{-}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i^{-}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6a0876f595c37712f7a44b28eda26f8475a50e2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.313ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i^{-}}"></span>, the <b>past timelike infinity</b>.</li> <li>Future-directed null geodesics end up on ℐ<sup>+</sup>, the <b>future <a href="/wiki/Null_infinity" title="Null infinity">null infinity</a></b>.</li> <li>Past-directed null geodesics end up on ℐ<sup>−</sup>, the <b>past null infinity</b>.</li> <li>Spacelike geodesics end up on <b>spacelike infinity</b>.</li></ul> <p>In various spaces: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i^{\pm }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>±</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i^{\pm }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cc056ef8d7fac81156b87b11e956fe08f697780d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.313ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i^{\pm }}"></span> are points, ℐ<sup>±</sup> are null sheets, and spacelike infinity has codimension 2.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space" title="Anti-de Sitter space">Anti-de Sitter space</a>: there's no timelike or null infinity, and spacelike infinity has codimension 1.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_space" title="De Sitter space">de Sitter space</a>: the future and past timelike infinity has codimension 1.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gravitational_singularity">Gravitational singularity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gravitational singularity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a></div> <p>If a geodesic terminates after a finite affine parameter, and it is not possible to extend the manifold to extend the geodesic, then we have a <b>singularity</b>. </p> <ul><li>For <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>, the future timelike boundary ends on a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">singularity</a> in some places.</li> <li>For the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, the past timelike boundary is also a singularity.</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Absolute_horizon" title="Absolute horizon">absolute event horizon</a> is the past null cone of the future timelike infinity. It is generated by null geodesics which obey the <a href="/wiki/Raychaudhuri_equation" title="Raychaudhuri equation">Raychaudhuri optical equation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_dynamical_triangulation" title="Causal dynamical triangulation">Causal dynamical triangulation</a> (CDT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality_conditions" title="Causality conditions">Causality conditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_sets" title="Causal sets">Causal sets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_surface" title="Cauchy surface">Cauchy surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_timelike_curve" title="Closed timelike curve">Closed timelike curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis" title="Cosmic censorship hypothesis">Cosmic censorship hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globally_hyperbolic_manifold" title="Globally hyperbolic manifold">Globally hyperbolic manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malament%E2%80%93Hogarth_spacetime" title="Malament–Hogarth spacetime">Malament–Hogarth spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_infinity" title="Null infinity">Null infinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penrose_diagram" title="Penrose diagram">Penrose diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penrose%E2%80%93Hawking_singularity_theorems" title="Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems">Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHawkingIsrael1979">Hawking & Israel 1979</a>, p. 255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGalloway" class="citation web cs1">Galloway, Gregory J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.math.miami.edu/~galloway/vienna-course-notes.pdf">"Notes on Lorentzian causality"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ESI-EMS-IAMP Summer School on Mathematical Relativity</i>. University of Miami. p. 4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ESI-EMS-IAMP+Summer+School+on+Mathematical+Relativity&rft.atitle=Notes+on+Lorentzian+causality&rft.pages=4&rft.aulast=Galloway&rft.aufirst=Gregory+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.miami.edu%2F~galloway%2Fvienna-course-notes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenrose1972">Penrose 1972</a>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Papadopoulos-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Papadopoulos_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Papadopoulos_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapadopoulosAcharjeePapadopoulos2018" class="citation journal cs1">Papadopoulos, Kyriakos; Acharjee, Santanu; Papadopoulos, Basil K. (May 2018). "The order on the light cone and its induced topology". <i>International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics</i>. <b>15</b> (5): 1850069–1851572. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.05177">1710.05177</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018IJGMM..1550069P">2018IJGMM..1550069P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS021988781850069X">10.1142/S021988781850069X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119120311">119120311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Geometric+Methods+in+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+order+on+the+light+cone+and+its+induced+topology&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1850069-1851572&rft.date=2018-05&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1710.05177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119120311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS021988781850069X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018IJGMM..1550069P&rft.aulast=Papadopoulos&rft.aufirst=Kyriakos&rft.au=Acharjee%2C+Santanu&rft.au=Papadopoulos%2C+Basil+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Penrose12-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose12_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenrose1972">Penrose 1972</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoica2016" class="citation journal cs1">Stoica, O. C. (25 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2016%2F6151726">"Spacetime Causal Structure and Dimension from Horismotic Relation"</a>. <i>Journal of Gravity</i>. <b>2016</b>: 1–6. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1504.03265">1504.03265</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2016%2F6151726">10.1155/2016/6151726</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Gravity&rft.atitle=Spacetime+Causal+Structure+and+Dimension+from+Horismotic+Relation&rft.volume=2016&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2016-05-25&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1504.03265&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2016%2F6151726&rft.aulast=Stoica&rft.aufirst=O.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2016%252F6151726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sard78-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sard78_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sard78_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSard1970">Sard 1970</a>, p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHawkingEllis1973">Hawking & Ellis 1973</a>, p. 42</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingEllis1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, S.W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_Rayner_Ellis" class="mw-redirect" title="George Francis Rayner Ellis">Ellis, G.F.R.</a> (1973), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Large_Scale_Structure_of_Space-Time" class="mw-redirect" title="The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time">The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time</a></i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20016-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20016-4"><bdi>0-521-20016-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Large+Scale+Structure+of+Space-Time&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-521-20016-4&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=S.W.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+G.F.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingIsrael1979" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, S.W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Werner_Israel" title="Werner Israel">Israel, W.</a> (1979), <i>General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22285-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22285-0"><bdi>0-521-22285-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Relativity%2C+an+Einstein+Centenary+Survey&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-521-22285-0&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=S.W.&rft.au=Israel%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a> (1972), <i>Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity</i>, SIAM, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0898710057" title="Special:BookSources/0898710057"><bdi>0898710057</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Techniques+of+Differential+Topology+in+Relativity&rft.pub=SIAM&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0898710057&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSard1970" class="citation book cs1">Sard, R. D. (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/relativisticmech0000sard"><i>Relativistic Mechanics - Special Relativity and Classical Particle Dynamics</i></a></span>. New York: W. A. Benjamin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805384918" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805384918"><bdi>978-0805384918</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativistic+Mechanics+-+Special+Relativity+and+Classical+Particle+Dynamics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+A.+Benjamin&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0805384918&rft.aulast=Sard&rft.aufirst=R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frelativisticmech0000sard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gibbons" title="Gary Gibbons">G. W. Gibbons</a>, S. N. Solodukhin; <i>The Geometry of Small Causal Diamonds</i> <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0703098" class="extiw" title="arxiv:hep-th/0703098">arXiv:hep-th/0703098</a> (Causal intervals)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">S.W. Hawking</a>, A.R. King, P.J. McCarthy; <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113043425/http://link.aip.org/link/?JMAPAQ/17/174/1">A new topology for curved space–time which incorporates the causal, differential, and conformal structures</a></i>; J. Math. Phys. 17 2:174-181 (1976); (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li>A.V. Levichev; <i>Prescribing the conformal geometry of a lorentz manifold by means of its causal structure</i>; Soviet Math. Dokl. 35:452-455, (1987); (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malament" title="David Malament">D. Malament</a>; <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130112104622/http://link.aip.org/link/?JMAPAQ/18/1399/1">The class of continuous timelike curves determines the topology of spacetime</a></i>; J. Math. Phys. 18 7:1399-1404 (1977); (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Robb" title="Alfred Robb">A.A. Robb</a>; <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryoftimespac00robbrich">A theory of time and space</a></i>; Cambridge University Press, 1914; (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Robb" title="Alfred Robb">A.A. Robb</a>; <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/relationsoftime00robbuoft">The absolute relations of time and space</a></i>; Cambridge University Press, 1921; (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Robb" title="Alfred Robb">A.A. Robb</a>; <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geometryoftimean032218mbp">Geometry of Time and Space</a></i>; Cambridge University Press, 1936; (Geometry, <a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Sorkin" title="Rafael Sorkin">R.D. Sorkin</a>, E. Woolgar; <i>A Causal Order for Spacetimes with C^0 Lorentzian Metrics: Proof of Compactness of the Space of Causal Curves</i>; Classical & Quantum Gravity 13: 1971-1994 (1996); <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9508018" class="extiw" title="arxiv:gr-qc/9508018">arXiv:gr-qc/9508018</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causal_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Structure">Causal Structure</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TuringMachineCausalNetworks/">Turing Machine Causal Networks</a> by Enrique Zeleny, the <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Demonstrations_Project" title="Wolfram Demonstrations Project">Wolfram Demonstrations Project</a></li> <li><span class="citation mathworld" id="Reference-Mathworld-Causal_Network"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisstein" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein" title="Eric W. Weisstein">Weisstein, Eric W.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CausalNetwork.html">"Causal Network"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MathWorld&rft.atitle=Causal+Network&rft.au=Weisstein%2C+Eric+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathworld.wolfram.com%2FCausalNetwork.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACausal+structure" class="Z3988"></span></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&oldid=1217667613#Causal_relations">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causal_structure&oldid=1217667613#Causal_relations</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lorentzian_manifolds" title="Category:Lorentzian manifolds">Lorentzian manifolds</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theory_of_relativity" title="Category:Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:General_relativity" title="Category:General relativity">General relativity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theoretical_physics" title="Category:Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 April 2024, at 05:00<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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