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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Historical science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Related sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Subdivisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sources of evidence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_of_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources of evidence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Body_fossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body_fossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Body fossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body_fossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trace_fossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trace_fossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Trace fossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trace_fossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geochemical_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geochemical_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Geochemical observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geochemical_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifying_ancient_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifying_ancient_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classifying ancient organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifying_ancient_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimating_the_dates_of_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimating_the_dates_of_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Estimating the dates of organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimating_the_dates_of_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History of life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mass_extinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_extinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Mass extinctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_extinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleontology_in_the_popular_press" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleontology_in_the_popular_press"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Paleontology in the popular press</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleontology_in_the_popular_press-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleontology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 106 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-106" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">106 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85)" title="إحاثة (علم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إحاثة (علم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleontoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Paleontoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologiya" title="Paleontologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Paleontologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জীবাশ্মবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীবাশ্মবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-seng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kó͘-seng-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-seng-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеонтология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Палеонтология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеанталогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палеанталогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеанталёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Палеанталёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеонтология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Палеонтология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologija" title="Paleontologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Paleontologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologiezh" title="Paleontologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Paleontologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Палеонтологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Палеонтологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ACa" title="Paleontologìa – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Paleontologìa" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontoleg" title="Paleontoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Paleontoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A6ontologi" title="Palæontologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Palæontologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4ontologie" title="Paläontologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Paläontologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontoloogia" title="Paleontoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paleontoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Παλαιοντολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιοντολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADa" title="Paleontología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Paleontología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologio" title="Paleontologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Paleontologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دیرین‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیرین‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9ontologie" title="Paléontologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paléontologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale%C3%B6ntology" title="Paleöntology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Paleöntology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pail%C3%A9-ointeola%C3%ADocht" title="Pailé-ointeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pailé-ointeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleontoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Paleontoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="고생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնէաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնէաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीवाश्मविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीवाश्मविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologija" title="Paleontologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Paleontologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologio" title="Paleontologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Paleontologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steingervingafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Steingervingafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Steingervingafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פלאונטולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלאונטולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9ontologi" title="Paléontologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Paléontologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პალეონტოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პალეონტოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеонтология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Палеонтология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palantolojia" title="Palantolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Palantolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеонтология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Палеонтология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeontologia" title="Palaeontologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Palaeontologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolo%C4%A3ija" title="Paleontoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Paleontoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologija" title="Paleontologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Paleontologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolojia" title="Paleontolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Paleontolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%90sl%C3%A9nytan" title="Őslénytan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Őslénytan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палеонтологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Палеонтологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="പാലിയെന്റോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പാലിയെന്റോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवाश्मशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीवाश्मशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პალეონტოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პალეონტოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="باليونتولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="باليونتولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB-s%C4%95ng-%C5%ADk-h%C5%8Fk" title="Gū-sĕng-ŭk-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū-sĕng-ŭk-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Палеонтологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Палеонтологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%81%E1%80%AB%E1%80%90%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နိခါတကဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နိခါတကဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीवाश्म विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीवाश्म विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologiya" title="Paleontologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Paleontologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%93%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80" title="ਪੈਲੀਓਨਟੋਲੋਜੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੈਲੀਓਨਟੋਲੋਜੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="پیلیاونٹالوجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پیلیاونٹالوجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%81%E1%80%AB%E1%80%90%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နိခါတကဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="နိခါတကဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="لرغونې ژوند پوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې ژوند پوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ACa" title="Paleontologìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Paleontologìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4ontologie" title="Paläontologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Paläontologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologie" title="Paleontologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Paleontologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеонтология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Палеонтология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Paleontology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologjia" title="Paleontologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Paleontologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පාෂාණීය ධාතු විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පාෂාණීය ධාතු විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Paleontology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%BD%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="پئلئينٽولاجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پئلئينٽولاجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontol%C3%B3gia" title="Paleontológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Paleontológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologija" title="Paleontologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Paleontologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hograadka_Guud" title="Hograadka Guud – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Hograadka Guud" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палеонтологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палеонтологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologija" title="Paleontologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Paleontologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9ontologi" title="Paléontologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Paléontologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paleontologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Paleontologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolohiya" title="Paleontolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Paleontolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தொல்லுயிரியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொல்லுயிரியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="บรรพชีวินวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บรรพชีวินวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontoloji" title="Paleontoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Paleontoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеонтологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Палеонтологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="رکازیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رکازیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%95_sinh_v%E1%BA%ADt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Cổ sinh vật học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cổ sinh vật học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6silav" title="Fösilav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Fösilav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolohiya" title="Paleontolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Paleontolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古生物学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古生物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פאלעאנטאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאלעאנטאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="古生物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古生物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古生物学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古生物学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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For the Science journal, see <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology_(journal)" title="Palaeontology (journal)">Palaeontology (journal)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg/220px-Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg/330px-Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg/440px-Cuvier_and_Palaeotherium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1143" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption>Bust of the paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (left) and a cast skeleton of <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a> magnum</i> (named by Cuvier in 1804, right), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cuvier_Museum_of_Montb%C3%A9liard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuvier Museum of Montbéliard (page does not exist)">Cuvier Museum of Montbéliard</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0em 0.2em; font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleontology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/220px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/330px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/440px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Fossils</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_preparation" title="Fossil preparation">Fossil preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fossils">List of fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte fossil beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organs and processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">Mammalian auditory ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of various taxa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly evolution">Butterflies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Mollusca" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of Mollusca">Molluscs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Sea cows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapods#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">History of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnology">Ichnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_paleontology" title="Molecular paleontology">Molecular paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoxylology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoxylology">Palaeoxylology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolimnology" title="Paleolimnology">Paleolimnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomycology" title="Paleomycology">Paleomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopedology" title="Paleopedology">Paleopedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology Portal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleontology" title="Category:Paleontology">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paleontology" title="Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paleontology" title="Template talk:Paleontology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Paleontology</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>-,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">PAY</span>-lee-on-<span style="font-size:90%">TOL</span>-ə-jee, <span style="font-size:90%">PAL</span>-ee-, -⁠ən-</i></a>), also spelled <b>palaeontology</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>palæontology</b>, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epoch</a> (roughly 11,700 years before present).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It includes the study of <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> to classify <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and study their <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">interactions</a> with each other and their environments (their <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a>). Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term has been used since 1822<sup id="cite_ref-cuchet_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuchet-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formed from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_language" title="Ancient language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">παλαιός</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">'palaios'</i></span>, "old, ancient"), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὄν</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">'on'</i></span>, (<a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">gen.</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">'ontos'</i></span>), "being, creature"), and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λόγος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">'logos'</i></span>, "speech, thought, study").<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontology lies on the border between <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, but it differs from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> in that it excludes the study of <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">anatomically modern humans</a>. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, including <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematic">mathematics</a>, and engineering. Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a>, almost back to when Earth became capable of supporting life, nearly 4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised sub-divisions, some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">ecology</a> and environmental history, such as <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">ancient climates</a>. </p><p>Body fossils and <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossils</a> are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>, which provides <a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">absolute dates</a> that are accurate to within 0.5%, but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "<a href="/wiki/Jigsaw_puzzle" title="Jigsaw puzzle">jigsaw puzzles</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a> (arrangement of rock layers from youngest to oldest). Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a> to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring the similarity of the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a> on which such estimates depend. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The simplest definition of "paleontology" is "the study of ancient life".<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field seeks information about several aspects of past organisms: "their identity and origin, their environment and evolution, and what they can tell us about the Earth's organic and inorganic past".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_science">Historical science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joda_paleontologist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Joda_paleontologist.jpg/200px-Joda_paleontologist.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Joda_paleontologist.jpg/300px-Joda_paleontologist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Joda_paleontologist.jpg/400px-Joda_paleontologist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="339" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG/200px-Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG/300px-Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG/400px-Europasaurus_Praeparation.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A paleontologist at work at <a href="/wiki/John_Day_Fossil_Beds_National_Monument" title="John Day Fossil Beds National Monument">John Day Fossil beds National Monument</a> (left) and a preparation of the fossilised bones of <i><a href="/wiki/Europasaurus" title="Europasaurus">Europasaurus</a> holgeri</i> (right)</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> (1794–1866) classified paleontology as one of the historical sciences, along with <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, geology, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> and history itself:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> paleontology aims to describe phenomena of the past and to reconstruct their causes.<sup id="cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence it has three main elements: description of past phenomena; developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change; and applying those theories to specific facts.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When trying to explain the past, paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of one or more <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a> about the causes and then look for a "<a href="/wiki/Smoking_gun" title="Smoking gun">smoking gun</a>", a piece of evidence that strongly accords with one hypothesis over any others.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes researchers discover a "smoking gun" by a fortunate accident during other research. For example, the 1980 discovery by <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Alvarez" title="Walter Alvarez">Walter Alvarez</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>, a mainly extraterrestrial metal, in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>–<a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> boundary layer made <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroid impact">asteroid impact</a> the most favored explanation for the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> – although debate continues about the contribution of volcanism.<sup id="cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A complementary approach to developing scientific knowledge, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental science">experimental science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is often said<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to work by conducting experiments to <i>disprove</i> hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena. This approach cannot prove a hypothesis, since some later experiment may disprove it, but the accumulation of failures to disprove is often compelling evidence in favor. However, when confronted with totally unexpected phenomena, such as the first evidence for invisible <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>, experimental scientists often use the same approach as historical scientists: construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a "smoking gun".<sup id="cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_sciences">Related sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Related sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Life timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:39.92em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.17em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:4.537em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.269em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:44.053em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.026em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.621em;height:5.507em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:17.621em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.811em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:11.663em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.831em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Paleontology lies between <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and geology since it focuses on the record of past life, but its main source of evidence is <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> in rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For historical reasons, paleontology is part of the geology department at many universities: in the 19th and early 20th centuries, geology departments found fossil evidence important for dating rocks, while biology departments showed little interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Laudan1992WhatSpecialP57_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laudan1992WhatSpecialP57-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontology also has some overlap with <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, which primarily works with objects made by humans and with human remains, while paleontologists are interested in the characteristics and evolution of humans as a species. When dealing with evidence about humans, archaeologists and paleontologists may work together – for example paleontologists might identify animal or plant fossils around an <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a>, to discover the people who lived there, and what they ate; or they might analyze the climate at the time of habitation.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPfaqAnthro_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPfaqAnthro-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, paleontology often borrows techniques from other sciences, including biology, <a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">osteology</a>, ecology, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> signatures from rocks may help to discover when life first arose on Earth,<sup id="cite_ref-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and analyses of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis" title="Isotope analysis">isotope ratios</a> may help to identify climate changes and even to explain major transitions such as the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Twitchett_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twitchett-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A relatively recent discipline, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, compares the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> of modern organisms to re-construct the "family trees" of their evolutionary ancestors. It has also been used to estimate the dates of important evolutionary developments, although this approach is controversial because of doubts about the reliability of the "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-PetersonEtAl2005_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersonEtAl2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques from engineering have been used to analyse how the bodies of ancient organisms might have worked, for example the running speed and bite strength of <i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-HutchinsonGarcia2002TrexSlow_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HutchinsonGarcia2002TrexSlow-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MM03_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MM03-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the flight mechanics of <i>Microraptor</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-MicroraptorWindTun_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MicroraptorWindTun-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is relatively commonplace to study the internal details of fossils using <a href="/wiki/X-ray_microtomography" title="X-ray microtomography">X-ray microtomography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SuttonRahman2013_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SuttonRahman2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paleontology, biology, archaeology, and <a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">paleoneurobiology</a> combine to study endocranial casts (endocasts) of species related to humans to clarify the evolution of the human brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruner_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruner-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontology even contributes to <a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>, the investigation of possible life on other <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, by developing models of how life may have arisen and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdivisions">Subdivisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Subdivisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</a> concentrates on fossils from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</a> deals with fossils such as <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelid</a> worms and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a> studies fossil <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, and fungi. <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a>, the study of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a> produced by land plants and <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, straddles paleontology and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, as it deals with both living and fossil organisms. <a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a> deals with microscopic fossil organisms of all kinds.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPpaleoSpecialisms_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPpaleoSpecialisms-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum,_Alberta,_Canada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg/170px-Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg/255px-Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg/340px-Fossil_Tyranausaurus_Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Alberta%2C_Canada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2666" data-file-height="1777" /></a><figcaption> Analyses using engineering techniques show that <i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a></i> had a devastating bite, but raise doubts about its running ability.</figcaption></figure> <p>Instead of focusing on individual organisms, <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a> examines the interactions between different ancient organisms, such as their <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a>, and the two-way interactions with their environments.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  For example, the development of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen#Photosynthesis_and_respiration" title="Oxygen">oxygenic photosynthesis</a> by bacteria caused the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen#Build-up_in_the_atmosphere" title="Oxygen">oxygenation of the atmosphere</a> and hugely increased the productivity and diversity of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoehler_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoehler-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together, these led to the evolution of complex <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells, from which all <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> organisms are built.<sup id="cite_ref-HedgesBlairEtAl2004molecularTimescaleOfEukaryoteEvolution_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HedgesBlairEtAl2004molecularTimescaleOfEukaryoteEvolution-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a>, although sometimes treated as part of paleoecology,<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPpaleoSpecialisms_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPpaleoSpecialisms-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focuses more on the history of Earth's climate and the mechanisms that have changed it<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – which have sometimes included <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> developments, for example the rapid expansion of land plants in the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period removed more <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere, reducing the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> and thus helping to cause an <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-AlgeoScheckler1998errestrialMarineTeleconnectionsInDevonian_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998errestrialMarineTeleconnectionsInDevonian-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a>, the use of fossils to work out the chronological order in which rocks were formed, is useful to both paleontologists and geologists.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> studies the spatial distribution of organisms, and is also linked to geology, which explains how Earth's geography has changed over time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/220px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/330px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/440px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2661" data-file-height="2038" /></a><figcaption>This illustration of an <a href="/wiki/Indian_elephant" title="Indian elephant">Indian elephant</a> jaw and a <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> jaw (top) is from <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>'s 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although paleontology became established around 1800, earlier thinkers had noticed aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record. The ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Philosophy#Ancient_philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a> (570–480 BCE) concluded from fossil sea shells that some areas of land were once under water.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudwick_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudwick-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> the Persian naturalist <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a>, known as <i>Avicenna</i> in Europe, discussed fossils and proposed a theory of petrifying fluids on which <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a> elaborated in the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudwick_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudwick-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese naturalist <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) proposed a theory of climate change based on the presence of <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> in regions that in his time were too dry for bamboo.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europe</a>, the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> that occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Reason</a>. In the Italian Renaissance, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> made various significant contributions to the field as well as depicted numerous fossils. Leonardo's contributions are central to the history of paleontology because he established a line of continuity between the two main branches of paleontology – ichnology and body fossil paleontology.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He identified the following:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The biogenic nature of ichnofossils, i.e. ichnofossils were structures left by living organisms;</li> <li>The utility of ichnofossils as paleoenvironmental tools – certain ichnofossils show the marine origin of rock strata;</li> <li>The importance of the neoichnological approach – recent traces are a key to understanding ichnofossils;</li> <li>The independence and complementary evidence of ichnofossils and body fossils – ichnofossils are distinct from body fossils, but can be integrated with body fossils to provide paleontological information</li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/220px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/330px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/440px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Georges Cuvier's 1812 sketch of a skeletal and muscle reconstruction of <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a> commune</i>. This sketch was amongst the first instances of prehistoric animal reconstructions based on fossil remains.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s work established <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> as a scientific discipline and, by proving that some fossil animals resembled no living ones, demonstrated that animals could become <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a>, leading to the emergence of paleontology.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology, particularly <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer2005EarthTime_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer2005EarthTime-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier proved that the different levels of deposits represented different time periods in the early 19th century. The surface-level deposits in the Americas contained later mammals like the megatheriid ground sloth <i><a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Mammutidae" title="Mammutidae">mammutid</a> <a href="/wiki/Proboscidean" class="mw-redirect" title="Proboscidean">proboscidean</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mammut" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammut">Mammut</a></i> (later known informally as a "mastodon"), which were some of the earliest-named fossil mammal genera with official taxonomic authorities. They today are known to date to the <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>-<a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>. In deeper-level deposits in western Europe are early-aged mammals such as the <a href="/wiki/Palaeothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeothere">palaeothere</a> <a href="/wiki/Perissodactyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Perissodactyl">perissodactyl</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Anoplotheriidae" title="Anoplotheriidae">anoplotheriid</a> <a href="/wiki/Artiodactyl" title="Artiodactyl">artiodactyl</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a></i>, both of which were described earliest after the former two genera, which today are known to date to the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> period. Cuvier figured out that even older than the two levels of deposits with extinct large mammals is one that contained an extinct "crocodile-like" marine reptile, which eventually came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Mosasaurid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosasaurid">mosasaurid</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mosasaurus" title="Mosasaurus">Mosasaurus</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg/220px-Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg/330px-Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg/440px-Earliest-mention-of-the-word-palaeontology-in-January-1822-by-Blainville.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>First mention of the word <i>palæontologie</i>, as coined in January 1822 by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Marie_Ducrotay_de_Blainville" title="Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a> in his <i>Journal de physique</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organised with the growth of geologic societies and museums<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists. Interest increased for reasons that were not purely scientific, as geology and paleontology helped industrialists to find and exploit natural resources such as coal.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudwick_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudwick-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic time scale</a>, largely based on fossil evidence. Although she was rarely recognised by the scientific community,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a> was a significant contributor to the field of palaeontology during this period; she uncovered multiple novel <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> reptile fossils and deducted that what were then known as <a href="/wiki/Bezoar" title="Bezoar">bezoar</a> stones are in fact <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">fossilised faeces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1822 <a href="/wiki/Henri_Marie_Ducrotay_de_Blainville" title="Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a>, editor of <i>Journal de Physique</i>, coined the word "palaeontology" to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BucklandGould_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BucklandGould-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> paths, including <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, and evolutionary theory.<sup id="cite_ref-BucklandGould_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BucklandGould-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haikouichthys4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Haikouichthys4.png/220px-Haikouichthys4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Haikouichthys4.png/330px-Haikouichthys4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Haikouichthys4.png/440px-Haikouichthys4.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</a></i>, from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=518">518</a> million years ago</span> in China, may be the earliest known fish<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity, especially in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection. Fossils found in China near the end of the 20th century have been particularly important as they have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals, early fish, dinosaurs and the evolution of birds.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a> and their role in the evolution of life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowler–Idea_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowler–Idea-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also a renewed interest in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> that apparently saw the development of the body plans of most animal <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>. The discovery of fossils of the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a> and developments in <a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">paleobiology</a> extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2006Explaining_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2006Explaining-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing awareness of <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>'s pioneering work in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> led first to the development of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> and then in the mid-20th century to the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>, which explains <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> as the outcome of events such as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, which provide <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> driving changes in this variation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowler–Idea_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowler–Idea-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the next few years the role and operation of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> in genetic inheritance were discovered, leading to what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">"Central Dogma" of molecular biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, the investigation of evolutionary "family trees" by techniques derived from <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, began to make an impact, particularly when it was proposed that the human lineage had diverged from <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a> much more recently than was generally thought at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this early study compared <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> from apes and humans, most molecular phylogenetics research is now based on comparisons of <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_evidence">Sources of evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources of evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body_fossils">Body fossils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Body fossils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossil</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marrella_(fossil).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Marrella_%28fossil%29.png/220px-Marrella_%28fossil%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Marrella_%28fossil%29.png/330px-Marrella_%28fossil%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Marrella_%28fossil%29.png/440px-Marrella_%28fossil%29.png 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption> This <i><a href="/wiki/Marrella" title="Marrella">Marrella</a></i> specimen illustrates how clear and detailed the fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</a> <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätte</a> are.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPWhatIsPaleo_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPWhatIsPaleo-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a> before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history.<sup id="cite_ref-BentonQualityFossilRecord_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BentonQualityFossilRecord-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2003ExceptionalFossilPreservation_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2003ExceptionalFossilPreservation-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, only the parts of organisms that were already <a href="/wiki/Mineralisation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralisation (biology)">mineralised</a> are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Occasionally, unusual environments may preserve soft tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2023FossilChemicalFramework_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2023FossilChemicalFramework-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätten</a> allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are represented only by shells, spines, claws, etc. – if they are preserved at all. However, even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time. The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments, e.g. where soft-bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record – this is known as the <a href="/wiki/Signor%E2%80%93Lipps_effect" title="Signor–Lipps effect">Signor–Lipps effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Signor1982_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Signor1982-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trace_fossils">Trace fossils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trace fossils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CambrianRusophycus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/200px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/300px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/400px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg/200px-Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg/300px-Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg/400px-Climactichnites_ToddGass3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossils</a> including <i><a href="/wiki/Rusophycus" title="Rusophycus">Rusophycus</a></i>, made by a <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a> (left) and (10–12 cm wide) from large, slug-like animals on a Cambrian <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal flat">tidal flat</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> (right)</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossils</a> consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a> (fossil <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>) and marks left by feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPWhatIsPaleo_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPWhatIsPaleo-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilised hard parts, and they reflect organisms' behaviours. Also many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them.<sup id="cite_ref-Seilacher1994_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seilacher1994-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible, traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals (comparable to <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geochemical_observations">Geochemical observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Geochemical observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></div> <p>Geochemical observations may help to deduce the global level of biological activity at a certain period, or the affinity of certain fossils. For example, geochemical features of rocks may reveal when life first arose on Earth,<sup id="cite_ref-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may provide evidence of the presence of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells, the type from which all <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> organisms are built.<sup id="cite_ref-BrocksLoganEtAl1999RiseOfEukaryotes_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrocksLoganEtAl1999RiseOfEukaryotes-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analyses of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis" title="Isotope analysis">isotope ratios</a> may help to explain major transitions such as the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Twitchett_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twitchett-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifying_ancient_organisms">Classifying ancient organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Classifying ancient organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></div> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px; float:right; font-size:90%"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapods</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">Amniotes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">Synapsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct Synapsids </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span style="background-color:red; color:yellow;">   </span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Reptiles </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct reptiles </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Lizards and snakes </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">Archosaurs</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct<br />Archosaurs </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crocodilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilian">Crocodilians</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap">Dinosaurs<br /><span style="background-color:red; color:yellow;"> <b>?</b> </span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct<br />Dinosaurs </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><br /><span style="background-color:red; color:yellow;"> <b>?</b> </span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Birds </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div><b>Simple example cladogram</b><br /><span style="background-color: red;color:black;">   </span> Warm-bloodedness evolved somewhere in the<br />synapsid–mammal transition.<br /><span style="background-color:red; color:yellow;"> <b>?</b> </span> Warm-bloodedness must also have evolved at one of<br /> these points – an example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> <p>Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important, as some disputes in paleontology have been based just on misunderstandings over names.<sup id="cite_ref-BrochuSumrall2001_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrochuSumrall2001-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> is commonly used for classifying living organisms, but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones. For example: it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher-level grouping, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a> or <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a>; this is important since the Linnaean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels, and hence if a group is moved to a different level it must be renamed.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontologists generally use approaches based on <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>, a technique for working out the evolutionary "family tree" of a set of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-BrochuSumrall2001_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrochuSumrall2001-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It works by the logic that, if groups B and C have more similarities to each other than either has to group A, then B and C are more closely related to each other than either is to A. Characters that are compared may be <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomical</a>, such as the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular phylogeny">molecular</a>, by comparing sequences of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. The result of a successful analysis is a hierarchy of clades – groups that share a common ancestor. Ideally the "family tree" has only two branches leading from each node ("junction"), but sometimes there is too little information to achieve this, and paleontologists have to make do with junctions that have several branches. The cladistic technique is sometimes fallible, as some features, such as wings or <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">camera eyes</a>, evolved more than once, <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergently</a> – this must be taken into account in analyses.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a>, commonly abbreviated to "Evo Devo", also helps paleontologists to produce "family trees", and understand fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-Tetrop_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tetrop-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Embryological" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryological">embryological</a> development of some modern <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> suggests that brachiopods may be descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Halkieriid" title="Halkieriid">halkieriids</a>, which became extinct in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimating_the_dates_of_organisms">Estimating the dates of organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Estimating the dates of organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:334px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:338px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_fossils_blank_01.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Common index fossils used to date rocks in the northeast United States"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png/338px-Index_fossils_blank_01.png" decoding="async" width="338" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png/507px-Index_fossils_blank_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="533" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; font-size:9px; line-height:11px;"> <div id="annotation_1x15" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:15px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_1x70" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:70px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_1x165" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:165px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_1x252" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:252px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x0" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:0px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quater-<br />nary</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x25" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:25px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x42" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:42px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Creta-<br />ceous</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x68" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:68px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x89" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:89px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x109" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:109px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x122" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:122px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Missis-<br />sippian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x146" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:146px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsyl-<br />vanian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x166" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:166px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devo-<br />nian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x191" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:191px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x207" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:207px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordo-<br />vician</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_57x227" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:227px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Camb-<br />rian</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_112x2" style="position:absolute; left:112px; top:2px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Pecten_(bivalve)" title="Pecten (bivalve)">Pecten gibbus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_120x20" style="position:absolute; left:120px; top:20px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calyptraphorus_velatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calyptraphorus velatus (page does not exist)">Calyptraphorus<br />velatus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_125x40" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:40px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Scaphites_hippocrepis" class="mw-redirect" title="Scaphites hippocrepis">Scaphites<br />hippocrepis</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_129x63" style="position:absolute; left:129px; top:63px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Perisphinctes" title="Perisphinctes">Perisphinctes</a><br />tiziani</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_125x83" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:83px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropites_subbullatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropites subbullatus (page does not exist)">Tropites<br />subbullatus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_123x105" style="position:absolute; left:123px; top:105px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptodus_americanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptodus americanus (page does not exist)">Leptodus<br />americanus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_110x125" style="position:absolute; left:110px; top:125px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cactocrinus_multibrachiatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cactocrinus multibrachiatus (page does not exist)">Cactocrinus<br />multibrachiatus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_128x143" style="position:absolute; left:128px; top:143px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dictyoclostus_americanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dictyoclostus americanus (page does not exist)">Dictyoclostus<br />americanus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_99x166" style="position:absolute; left:99px; top:166px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Mucrospirifer_mucronatus" title="Mucrospirifer mucronatus">Mucrospirifer<br />mucronatus</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_125x186" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:186px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cystiphyllum_niagarense&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cystiphyllum niagarense (page does not exist)">Cystiphyllum<br />niagarense</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_105x211" style="position:absolute; left:105px; top:211px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bathyurus_extans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bathyurus extans (page does not exist)">Bathyurus extans</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_127x231" style="position:absolute; left:127px; top:231px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxides" title="Paradoxides">Paradoxides</a> pinus</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_225x6" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:6px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Neptunea" title="Neptunea">Neptunea</a> tabulata</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_257x20" style="position:absolute; left:257px; top:20px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Venericardia" title="Venericardia">Venericardia</a><br />planicosta</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_249x40" style="position:absolute; left:249px; top:40px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Inoceramus" title="Inoceramus">Inoceramus</a><br />labiatus</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_253x63" style="position:absolute; left:253px; top:63px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Nerinea" title="Nerinea">Nerinea</a> trinodosa</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_252x82" style="position:absolute; left:252px; top:82px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Monotis_subcircularis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monotis subcircularis (page does not exist)">Monotis<br />subcircularis</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_275x103" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:103px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Parafusulina" title="Parafusulina">Parafusulina</a><br />bosei</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_230x123" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:123px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lophophyllidium_proliferum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lophophyllidium proliferum (page does not exist)">Lophophyllidium<br />proliferum</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_255x143" style="position:absolute; left:255px; top:143px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prolecanites_gurleyi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prolecanites gurleyi (page does not exist)">Prolecanites gurleyi</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_240x165" style="position:absolute; left:240px; top:165px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmatolepus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palmatolepus (page does not exist)">Palmatolepus</a><br />unicornis</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_251x185" style="position:absolute; left:251px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hexamocaras_hertzeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hexamocaras hertzeri (page does not exist)">Hexamocaras hertzeri</a></i></span></div> <div id="annotation_250x206" style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:206px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/wiki/Tetragraptus" title="Tetragraptus">Tetragraptus</a> fructicosus</i></span></div> <div id="annotation_260x226" style="position:absolute; left:260px; top:226px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Billingsella_corrugata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Billingsella corrugata (page does not exist)">Billingsella corrugata</a></i></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_fossils_blank_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png/338px-Index_fossils_blank_01.png" decoding="async" width="338" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png/507px-Index_fossils_blank_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Index_fossils_blank_01.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="533" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_fossils_blank_01.png" title="File:Index fossils blank 01.png"> </a></div>Common <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">index fossils</a> used to date rocks in the northeast United States</div> </div></div> <p>Paleontology seeks to map out how living things have changed through time. A substantial hurdle to this aim is the difficulty of working out how old fossils are. Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>. This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age, and can be accurate to within 0.5% or better.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although radiometric dating requires very careful laboratory work, its basic principle is simple: the rates at which various radioactive elements <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> are known, and so the ratio of the radioactive element to the element into which it decays shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock. Radioactive elements are common only in rocks with a volcanic origin, and so the only fossil-bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are a few volcanic ash layers.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequently, paleontologists must usually rely on <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> to date fossils. Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the "layer-cake" that is the <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sedimentary</a> record, and has been compared to a <a href="/wiki/Jigsaw_puzzle" title="Jigsaw puzzle">jigsaw puzzle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it. If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known, the fossil's age must lie between the two known ages.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because rock sequences are not continuous, but may be broken up by <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a> or periods of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly next to one another. However, fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to link up isolated rocks: this technique is called <i>biostratigraphy</i>. For instance, the conodont <i>Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus</i> has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If rocks of unknown age are found to have traces of <i>E. pseudoplanus</i>, they must have a mid-Ordovician age. Such <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">index fossils</a> must be distinctive, be globally distributed and have a short time range to be useful. However, misleading results are produced if the index fossils turn out to have longer fossil ranges than first thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Gehling2001_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehling2001-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating (<i>A</i> was before <i>B</i>), which is often sufficient for studying evolution. However, this is difficult for some time periods, because of the problems involved in matching up rocks of the same age across different <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gehling2001_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehling2001-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Family-tree relationships may also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared. For instance, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated "family tree" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved more than X million years ago. </p><p>It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged – i.e. approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived – by assuming that DNA <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> accumulate at a constant rate. These "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clocks</a>", however, are fallible, and provide only a very approximate timing: for example, they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> first evolved,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two.<sup id="cite_ref-PetersonEtAl2005_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersonEtAl2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_life">History of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Runzelmarken.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Runzelmarken.jpg/220px-Runzelmarken.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Runzelmarken.jpg/330px-Runzelmarken.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Runzelmarken.jpg/440px-Runzelmarken.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3332" data-file-height="1852" /></a><figcaption>This wrinkled "elephant skin" texture is a <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossil</a> of a non-<a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolite</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mat</a>. The image shows the location, in the <a href="/wiki/Burgsvik_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgsvik beds">Burgsvik beds</a> of Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-Manten1966_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manten1966-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolutionary history of life</a></div> <p>Earth formed about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4,570">4,570</a> million years ago</span> and, after a collision that formed the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> about 40 million years later, may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4,440">4,440</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence on the Moon of a <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a> by asteroids from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4000–3800">4,000 to 3,800</a> million years ago</span>. If, as seems likely, such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time, the first atmosphere and oceans may have been stripped away.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontology traces the evolutionary history of life back to over <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3,000">3,000</a> million years ago</span>, possibly as far as <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3,800">3,800</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-PiP_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PiP-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest clear evidence of life on Earth dates to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3,000">3,000</a> million years ago</span>, although there have been reports, often disputed, of <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> bacteria from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3,400">3,400</a> million years ago</span> and of geochemical evidence for the presence of life <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3,800">3,800</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006FreshLook-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">"seeded" from elsewhere</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">arisen independently</a> on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/220px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/330px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/440px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Opabinia" title="Opabinia">Opabinia</a></i> sparked modern interest in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>For about 2,000 million years <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mats</a>, multi-layered colonies of different bacteria, were the dominant life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003BiofilmBiodictyonBiomatEtc_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003BiofilmBiodictyonBiomatEtc-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen#Photosynthesis_and_respiration" title="Oxygen">oxygenic photosynthesis</a> enabled them to play the major role in the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen#Build-up_in_the_atmosphere" title="Oxygen">oxygenation of the atmosphere</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hoehler_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoehler-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2,400">2,400</a> million years ago</span>. This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-NisbetFowler1999ArchaeanMetabolicEvolution_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NisbetFowler1999ArchaeanMetabolicEvolution-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, cells with complex internal structures, may have been present earlier, their evolution speeded up when they acquired the ability to transform oxygen from a <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poison</a> to a powerful source of <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> energy. This innovation may have come from primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen-powered bacteria as <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> and transforming them into <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> called <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PiP_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PiP-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles (such as mitochondria) dates from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,850">1,850</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-HedgesBlairEtAl2004molecularTimescaleOfEukaryoteEvolution_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HedgesBlairEtAl2004molecularTimescaleOfEukaryoteEvolution-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">Multicellular</a> life is composed only of eukaryotic cells, and the earliest evidence for it is the <a href="/wiki/Francevillian_Group_Fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Francevillian Group Fossil">Francevillian Group Fossils</a> from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2,100">2,100</a> million years ago</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-albani_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-albani-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although specialisation of cells for different functions first appears between <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,430">1,430</a> million years ago</span> (a possible fungus) and <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,200">1,200</a> million years ago</span> (a probable <a href="/wiki/Red_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Red alga">red alga</a>). <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> may be a prerequisite for specialisation of cells, as an asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000Bangiomorpha_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000Bangiomorpha-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2005ProterozoicFungi_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2005ProterozoicFungi-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known animals are <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> million years ago</span>, but these are so modern-looking that they must be descendants of earlier animals.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early fossils of animals are rare because they had not developed <a href="/wiki/Biomineralisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomineralisation">mineralised</a>, easily fossilized hard parts until about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=548">548</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest modern-looking <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> animals appear in the Early <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, along with several "weird wonders" that bear little obvious resemblance to any modern animals. There is a long-running debate about whether this <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> was truly a very rapid period of evolutionary experimentation; alternative views are that modern-looking animals began evolving earlier but fossils of their precursors have not yet been found, or that the "weird wonders" are <a href="/wiki/Stem_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem group">evolutionary "aunts" and "cousins"</a> of modern groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2006Explaining_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2006Explaining-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</a> remained a minor group until the first jawed fish appeared in the Late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanoconodon_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Yanoconodon_BW.jpg/220px-Yanoconodon_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Yanoconodon_BW.jpg/330px-Yanoconodon_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Yanoconodon_BW.jpg/440px-Yanoconodon_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption> At about 13 centimetres (5.1 in) the Early Cretaceous <i><a href="/wiki/Yanoconodon" title="Yanoconodon">Yanoconodon</a></i> was longer than the average mammal of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>The spread of animals and plants from water to land required organisms to solve several problems, including protection against drying out and supporting themselves against <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garwood_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Selden2001TerrestrializationOfAnimals_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selden2001TerrestrializationOfAnimals-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KenrickCrane1997EvolutionOfLandPlants_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KenrickCrane1997EvolutionOfLandPlants-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of land plants and land invertebrates date back to about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=476">476</a> million years ago</span> and <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=490">490</a> million years ago</span> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-KenrickCrane1997EvolutionOfLandPlants_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KenrickCrane1997EvolutionOfLandPlants-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those invertebrates, as indicated by their trace and body fossils, were shown to be arthropods known as <a href="/wiki/Euthycarcinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Euthycarcinoid">euthycarcinoids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lineage that produced land vertebrates evolved later but very rapidly between <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=370">370</a> million years ago</span> and <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=360">360</a> million years ago</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> recent discoveries have overturned earlier ideas about the history and driving forces behind their evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Clack2005GettingLegUp_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clack2005GettingLegUp-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land plants were so successful that their detritus caused an <a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">ecological crisis</a> in the Late <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, until the evolution of fungi that could digest dead wood.<sup id="cite_ref-AlgeoScheckler1998errestrialMarineTeleconnectionsInDevonian_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998errestrialMarineTeleconnectionsInDevonian-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_sparrow04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/House_sparrow04.jpg/220px-House_sparrow04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/House_sparrow04.jpg/330px-House_sparrow04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/House_sparrow04.jpg/440px-House_sparrow04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Birds are the only surviving dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-padian2004_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-padian2004-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> period, <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a>, including the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, may have dominated land environments,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this ended with the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=251">251</a> million years ago</span>, which came very close to wiping out all complex life.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extinctions were apparently fairly sudden, at least among vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the slow recovery from this catastrophe a previously obscure group, <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurs</a>, became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates. One archosaur group, the dinosaurs, were the dominant land vertebrates for the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and birds evolved from one group of dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-padian2004_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-padian2004-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time mammals' ancestors survived only as small, mainly nocturnal <a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">insectivores</a>, which may have accelerated the development of mammalian traits such as <a href="/wiki/Endothermy" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermy">endothermy</a> and hair.<sup id="cite_ref-RubenJones2000FurAndFeathers_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RubenJones2000FurAndFeathers-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> million years ago</span><sup id="cite_ref-Renne2013_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renne2013-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> killed off all the dinosaurs except the birds, mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity, and some took to the air and the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fossil evidence indicates that <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> appeared and rapidly diversified in the Early <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> between <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=130">130</a> million years ago</span> and <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=90">90</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-CraneFriisPedersen2000OriginAndDiversificationOfAngiosperms_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CraneFriisPedersen2000OriginAndDiversificationOfAngiosperms-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their rapid rise to dominance of terrestrial ecosystems is thought to have been propelled by <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> with <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollinating</a> insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insects">Social insects</a> appeared around the same time and, although they account for only small parts of the insect "family tree", now form over 50% of the total mass of all insects.<sup id="cite_ref-WilsonHölldobler2005EusocialityOriginConsequences_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilsonHölldobler2005EusocialityOriginConsequences-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a> whose earliest fossils date from over <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=6">6</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although early members of this lineage had <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimp</a>-sized brains, about 25% as big as modern humans', there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3">3</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a long-running debate about whether <i>modern</i> humans are descendants of a <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">single small population in Africa</a>, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous <a href="/wiki/Hominine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominine">hominine</a> species, or <a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">arose worldwide at the same time</a> as a result of <a href="/wiki/Interbreeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Interbreeding">interbreeding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_extinctions">Mass extinctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mass extinctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:332px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:10px; top:30px; width:320px; position:absolute;"> <figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_30x10" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:10px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Marine extinction intensity during <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_10x15" style="position:absolute; left:10px; top:15px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="apparent percentage of readily fossilized marine genera becoming extinct">%</span></span></div> <div id="annotation_115x235" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:235px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Millions of years ago</span></div> <div id="annotation_312x135" style="position:absolute; left:312px; top:135px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction"><small>(H)</small></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_275x105" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:105px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K–Pg</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_203x110" style="position:absolute; left:203px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Tr–J</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_175x50" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:50px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">P–Tr</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_158x96" style="position:absolute; left:158px; top:96px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitanian_mass_extinction_event" title="Capitanian mass extinction event">Cap</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_97x130" style="position:absolute; left:97px; top:130px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late D</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_70x110" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">O–S</a></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption">Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> going extinct at any given time, as reconstructed from the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> (graph not meant to include recent epoch of <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene extinction event">Holocene extinction event</a>)</div> </div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">Mass extinction</a></div> <p>Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=542">542</a> million years ago</span>. Despite their disastrous effects, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth. When dominance of an <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a> passes from one group of organisms to another, this is rarely because the new dominant group outcompetes the old, but usually because an extinction event allows a new group, which may possess an advantageous trait, to outlive the old and move into its niche.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fossil record appears to show that the rate of extinction is slowing down, with both the gaps between mass extinctions becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction decreasing. However, it is not certain whether the actual rate of extinction has altered, since both of these observations could be explained in several ways:<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod2001Extinction_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod2001Extinction-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions: <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths; the development of life on land reduced the run-off of nutrients and hence the risk of <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic events</a>; marine ecosystems became more diversified so that <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a> were less likely to be disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Reasonably complete <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> are very rare: most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils, and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks. So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>, which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds – the story of <i><a href="/wiki/Anomalocaris" title="Anomalocaris">Anomalocaris</a></i> is an example of this.<sup id="cite_ref-WonderfulLifeP194To206_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WonderfulLifeP194To206-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism. Many "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments that are not found again, and these "superfluous" genera are interpreted as becoming extinct very quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod2001Extinction_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod2001Extinction-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> in the fossil record, which is </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"the number of distinct genera alive at any given time; that is, those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time"<sup id="cite_ref-RohdeMuller2005_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RohdeMuller2005-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>shows a different trend: a fairly swift rise from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=542–400">542 to 400</a> million years ago</span>, a slight decline from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=400–200">400 to 200</a> million years ago</span>, in which the devastating <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> is an important factor, and a swift rise from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> million years ago</span> to the present.<sup id="cite_ref-RohdeMuller2005_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RohdeMuller2005-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paleontology_in_the_popular_press">Paleontology in the popular press</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Paleontology in the popular press"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Books catered to the general public on paleontology include: </p> <ul><li>The Last Days of the Dinosaurs: An Asteroid Extinction, and the Beginning of our World<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> written by Riley Black</li> <li>The Rise and Reign of the Mammals: A New History, from the Shadow of the Dinosaurs to Us<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> written by Steve Brusatte</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otherlands_(book)._A_Journey_through_Earth%27s_Extinct_Worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Otherlands (book). A Journey through Earth's Extinct Worlds">Otherlands: A Journey Through Earth's Extinct Worlds</a><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> written by Thomas Halliday</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a> – Stratigraphy which assigns ages of rock strata by using fossils</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_land_mammal_age" title="European land mammal age">European land mammal age</a> – Rock layers based on occurrences of fossil assemblages of European land mammals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_collecting" title="Fossil collecting">Fossil collecting</a> – Collecting fossils to study, collect or sell</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a> (<i>with link directory</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notable_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of notable fossils">List of notable fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paleontologists" title="List of paleontologists">List of paleontologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a> – Study of ancient humans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a> – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</a> – study of the past through the examination of preserved genetic material from the remains of ancient organisms<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontographer">Paleontographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleophycology" title="Paleophycology">Paleophycology</a> – Study and identification of fossil algae</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> – Technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_commonly_fossilised_invertebrates" title="Taxonomy of commonly fossilised invertebrates">Taxonomy of commonly fossilised invertebrates</a> – Classification of ancient, commonly preserved, spine-lacking animals<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology" title="Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology">Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology</a> – Ongoing series of zoology books</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Une_Femme_ou_Deux" title="Une Femme ou Deux">Une Femme ou Deux</a></i> - <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_France" title="Cinema of France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Screwball_comedy" title="Screwball comedy">screwball comedy</a> romance film starring <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu" title="Gérard Depardieu">Gérard Depardieu</a> as a paleontologist.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outside the United States</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1822, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Marie_Ducrotay_de_Blainville" title="Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a> used the French term <i>palœontologie</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-cuchet_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuchet-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1838, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> used the English term <i>palæontology</i> in <i>Elements of Geology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cuchet-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cuchet_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cuchet_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96079365?rk=42918;4"><i>Journal de physique, de chimie, d'histoire naturelle et des arts</i></a>. Paris: Cuchet. 1822. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96079365/f60.image.r=paloeontologie">liv</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+de+physique%2C+de+chimie%2C+d%27histoire+naturelle+et+des+arts&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=liv&rft.pub=Cuchet&rft.date=1822&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k96079365%3Frk%3D42918%3B4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyell1838" class="citation book cs1">Lyell, Charles (1838). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsgeology06lyelgoog"><i>Elements of geology</i></a>. London: J. Murray. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsgeology06lyelgoog/page/281">281</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+geology&rft.place=London&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1838&rft.aulast=Lyell&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementsgeology06lyelgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=paleontology&allowed_in_frame=0">"paleontology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130307065643/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=paleontology&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on March 7, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=paleontology&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dpaleontology%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoolittleWorm2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ford_Doolittle" title="Ford Doolittle">Doolittle, W. Ford</a>; <a href="/wiki/Boris_Worm" title="Boris Worm">Worm, Boris</a> (February 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110715111244/http://shiva.msu.montana.edu/courses/mb437_537_2005_fall/docs/uprooting.pdf">"Uprooting the tree of life"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>282</b> (6): 90–95. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000SciAm.282b..90D">2000SciAm.282b..90D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0200-90">10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10710791">10710791</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shiva.msu.montana.edu/courses/mb437_537_2005_fall/docs/uprooting.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Uprooting+the+tree+of+life&rft.volume=282&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=90-95&rft.date=2000-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10710791&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0200-90&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000SciAm.282b..90D&rft.aulast=Doolittle&rft.aufirst=W.+Ford&rft.au=Worm%2C+Boris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshiva.msu.montana.edu%2Fcourses%2Fmb437_537_2005_fall%2Fdocs%2Fuprooting.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3Pxi_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowen,_R.2000" class="citation book cs1">Cowen, R. (2000). <i>History of Life</i> (3rd ed.). Blackwell Science. pp. xi, 47–50, 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-04444-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-04444-6"><bdi>0-632-04444-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Life&rft.pages=xi%2C+47-50%2C+61&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-632-04444-6&rft.au=Cowen%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaporte,_L.F.1988" class="citation journal cs1">Laporte, L.F. (October 1988). "What, after All, Is Paleontology?". <i><a href="/wiki/PALAIOS" title="PALAIOS">PALAIOS</a></i>. <b>3</b> (5): 453. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988Palai...3..453L">1988Palai...3..453L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3514718">10.2307/3514718</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3514718">3514718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PALAIOS&rft.atitle=What%2C+after+All%2C+Is+Paleontology%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=453&rft.date=1988-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3514718%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3514718&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988Palai...3..453L&rft.au=Laporte%2C+L.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaudan,_R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Laudan, R. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kyLRtsvLS2AC&pg=PA55">"What's so Special about the Past?"</a>. In Nitecki, M.H.; Nitecki, D.V. (eds.). <i>History and Evolution</i>. SUNY Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1211-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1211-3"><bdi>0-7914-1211-3</bdi></a>. <q>To structure my discussion of the historical sciences, I shall borrow a way of analyzing them from the great Victorian philosopher of science, William Whewell [...]. [...] while his analysis of the historical sciences (or as Whewell termed them, the palaetiological sciences) will doubtless need to be modified, it provides a good starting point. Among them he numbered geology, paleontology, cosmogony, philology, and what we would term archaeology and history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What%27s+so+Special+about+the+Past%3F&rft.btitle=History+and+Evolution&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7914-1211-3&rft.au=Laudan%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkyLRtsvLS2AC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cleland2002MethodologicalAndEpistemicDifferences_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleland,_C.E.2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carol_Cleland" title="Carol Cleland">Cleland, C.E.</a> (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081003221929/http://spot.colorado.edu/~cleland/articles/Cleland.PS.Pdf">"Methodological and Epistemic Differences between Historical Science and Experimental Science"</a>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>69</b> (3): 474–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F342453">10.1086/342453</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224835750">224835750</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spot.colorado.edu/~cleland/articles/Cleland.PS.Pdf">the original</a> on October 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Methodological+and+Epistemic+Differences+between+Historical+Science+and+Experimental+Science&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=474-96&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F342453&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224835750%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Cleland%2C+C.E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspot.colorado.edu%2F~cleland%2Farticles%2FCleland.PS.Pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaudan,_R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Laudan, R. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kyLRtsvLS2AC&pg=PA55">"What's so Special about the Past?"</a>. In Nitecki, M.H.; Nitecki, D.V. (eds.). <i>History and Evolution</i>. SUNY Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1211-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1211-3"><bdi>0-7914-1211-3</bdi></a>. <q>[Whewell] distinguished three tasks for such a historical science (1837 [...]): ' the Description of the facts and phenomena; – the general Theory of the causes of change appropriate to the case; – and the Application of the theory to the facts.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What%27s+so+Special+about+the+Past%3F&rft.btitle=History+and+Evolution&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7914-1211-3&rft.au=Laudan%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkyLRtsvLS2AC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerreault2019" class="citation book cs1">Perreault, Charles (2019). "The Search for Smoking Guns". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TwyiDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Quality of the Archaeological Record</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226631011" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226631011"><bdi>978-0226631011</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Historical scientists successfully learn about the past by employing a 'smoking-gun' approach. They start by formulating multiple, mutually exclusive hypotheses and then search for a "smoking gun" that discriminates between these hypotheses [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Search+for+Smoking+Guns&rft.btitle=The+Quality+of+the+Archaeological+Record&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0226631011&rft.aulast=Perreault&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTwyiDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncse.ngo/creationism/analysis/historical-science-vs-experimental-science">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Historical science' vs. 'experimental science'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. National Center for Science Education. October 25, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Philosophers of science draw a distinction between research directed towards identifying laws and research which seeks to determine how particular historical events occurred. They do not claim, however, that the line between these sorts of science can be drawn neatly, and certainly do not agree that historical claims are any less empirically verifiable than other sorts of claims. [...] 'we can separate their two enterprises by distinguishing means from ends. The astronomer's problem is a historical one because the goal is to infer the properties of a particular object; the astronomer uses laws only as a means. Particle physics, on the other hand, is a nomothetic discipline because the goal is to infer general laws; descriptions of particular objects are only relevant as a means.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Historical+science%27+vs.+%27experimental+science%27&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2019-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.ngo%2Fcreationism%2Fanalysis%2Fhistorical-science-vs-experimental-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/paleontology">"paleontology | science"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170824223403/https://www.britannica.com/science/paleontology">Archived</a> from the original on August 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biostratigraphy%3A+William+Smith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2Fevosite%2Fhistory%2Fbiostratigraphy.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515204649/http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/history/biogeography.shtml">"Biogeography: Wallace and Wegener (1 of 2)"</a>. University of California Museum of Paleontology and University of California at Berkeley. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biogeography%3A+Wallace+and+Wegener+%281+of+2%29&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Paleontology+and+University+of+California+at+Berkeley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2Fevosite%2Fhistory%2Fbiogeography.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudwick-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rudwick_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rudwick_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rudwick_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_J._S._Rudwick" title="Martin J. S. Rudwick">Rudwick, Martin J.S.</a> (1985). <i>The Meaning of Fossils</i> (2nd ed.). The University of Chicago Press. pp. 24, 39, 200–01. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73103-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-73103-0"><bdi>0-226-73103-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils&rft.pages=24%2C+39%2C+200-01&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-226-73103-0&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1986). <i><span></span></i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth<i><span></span></i>. Caves Books Ltd. p. 614. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-34547-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-34547-2"><bdi>0-253-34547-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%3A+Volume+3%2C+Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.pages=614&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-253-34547-2&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baucon, A. (2010). "Leonardo da Vinci, the founding father of ichnology". <i><a href="/wiki/PALAIOS" title="PALAIOS">PALAIOS</a></i> 25. Abstract available from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tracemaker.com">author's webpage</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (September 2020)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baucon A., Bordy E., Brustur T., Buatois L., Cunningham T., De C., Duffin C., Felletti F., Gaillard C., Hu B., Hu L., Jensen S., Knaust D., Lockley M., Lowe P., Mayor A., Mayoral E., Mikulas R., Muttoni G., Neto de Carvalho C., Pemberton S., Pollard J., Rindsberg A., Santos A., Seike K., Song H., Turner S., Uchman A., Wang Y., Yi-ming G., Zhang L., Zhang W. (2012). "A history of ideas in ichnology". In: Bromley R.G., Knaust D. <i>Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments. Developments in Sedimentology</i>, vol. 64. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tracemaker.com">Tracemaker.com</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (September 2020)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baucon, A. (2010). "Da Vinci's <i>Paleodictyon</i>: the fractal beauty of traces". <i>Acta Geologica Polonica</i>, 60(1). Accessible from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tracemaker.com">author's homepage</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (September 2020)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGowan2001" class="citation book cs1">McGowan, Christopher (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dragonseekershow00mcgo_0/page/3"><i><span></span></i>The Dragon Seekers<i><span></span></i></a>. Persus Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dragonseekershow00mcgo_0/page/3">3–4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0282-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0282-7"><bdi>0-7382-0282-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dragon+Seekers&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Persus+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7382-0282-7&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdragonseekershow00mcgo_0%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palmer2005EarthTime-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Palmer2005EarthTime_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer,_D.2005" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, D. (2005). <i>Earth Time: Exploring the Deep Past from Victorian England to the Grand Canyon</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470022214" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470022214"><bdi>978-0470022214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+Time%3A+Exploring+the+Deep+Past+from+Victorian+England+to+the+Grand+Canyon&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0470022214&rft.au=Palmer%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2004" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, David Rains (2004). "Chapter 1: Pachyderms in the Catacombs". <i>Beasts of Eden: Walking Whales, Dawn Horses, and Other Enigmas of Mammal Evolution</i>. University of California Press. pp. 1–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Pachyderms+in+the+Catacombs&rft.btitle=Beasts+of+Eden%3A+Walking+Whales%2C+Dawn+Horses%2C+and+Other+Enigmas+of+Mammal+Evolution&rft.pages=1-13&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=David+Rains&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreneDavid_Depew2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Grene" title="Marjorie Grene">Grene, Marjorie</a>; David Depew (2004). <i>The Philosophy of Biology: An Episodic History</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64371-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64371-6"><bdi>0-521-64371-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Biology%3A+An+Episodic+History&rft.pages=128-30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-64371-6&rft.aulast=Grene&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rft.au=David+Depew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerIwan_Rhys_Morus2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Iwan Rhys Morus (2005). <i>Making Modern Science</i>. 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(2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10926399">"Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate <i>Haikouichthys</i>"</a>, <i>Nature</i>, <b>421</b> (6922): 526–29, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.421..526S">2003Natur.421..526S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01264">10.1038/nature01264</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12556891">12556891</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4401274">4401274</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124194721/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10926399_Head_and_backbone_of_the_Early_Cambrian_vertebrate_Haikouichthys">archived</a> from the original on November 24, 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Head+and+backbone+of+the+Early+Cambrian+vertebrate+Haikouichthys&rft.volume=421&rft.issue=6922&rft.pages=526-29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01264&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4401274%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12556891&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.421..526S&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=D.G.&rft.au=Conway+Morris%2C+S.&rft.au=Han%2C+J.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z+F.&rft.au=Yasui%2C+K.&rft.au=Janvier%2C+P.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+X.L.&rft.au=Liu%2C+J.N.&rft.au=Li%2C+Y.&rft.au=Liu%2C+H.-Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F10926399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverhart2005" class="citation book cs1">Everhart, Michael J. (2005). <i><span></span></i>Oceans of Kansas: A Natural History of the Western Interior Sea<i><span></span></i>. Indiana University Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-34547-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-34547-2"><bdi>0-253-34547-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oceans+of+Kansas%3A+A+Natural+History+of+the+Western+Interior+Sea&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-253-34547-2&rft.aulast=Everhart&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGee,_H.2001" class="citation book cs1">Gee, H., ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+degenerate+templates+and+the+adaptor+hypothesis&rft.date=1955&rft.au=Crick%2C+F.H.C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgenome.wellcome.ac.uk%2Fassets%2Fwtx030893.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarich,_V.M.Wilson,_A.C.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Sarich, V.M. & Wilson, A.C. (December 1967). 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(2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/13615/files/PAL_E635.pdf">"Quality of the fossil record through time"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>403</b> (6769): 534–37. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.403..534B">2000Natur.403..534B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35000558">10.1038/35000558</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10676959">10676959</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4407172">4407172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Quality+of+the+fossil+record+through+time&rft.volume=403&rft.issue=6769&rft.pages=534-37&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35000558&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4407172%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10676959&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.403..534B&rft.au=Benton+M.J.&rft.au=Wills+M.A.&rft.au=Hitchin+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoc.rero.ch%2Frecord%2F13615%2Ffiles%2FPAL_E635.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span> <dl><dd>Non-technical <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/cladestrat/news.html">summary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070809045303/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/cladestrat/news.html">Archived</a> August 9, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Butterfield2003ExceptionalFossilPreservation-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Butterfield2003ExceptionalFossilPreservation_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfield,_N.J.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Butterfield, N.J. 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(2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2023.104367">"A chemical framework for the preservation of fossil vertebrate cells and soft tissues"</a>. <i>Earth-Science Reviews</i>. <b>240</b>: 104367. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ESRv..24004367A">2023ESRv..24004367A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2023.104367">10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104367</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth-Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+chemical+framework+for+the+preservation+of+fossil+vertebrate+cells+and+soft+tissues&rft.volume=240&rft.pages=104367&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2023.104367&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023ESRv..24004367A&rft.au=Anderson%2C+L.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.earscirev.2023.104367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfield,_N.J.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Butterfield, N.J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ecology+of+the+Cambrian+Radiation&rft.atitle=Ecology+and+evolution+of+Cambrian+plankton&rft.pages=200-16&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Butterfield%2C+N.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earthscape.org%2Fr3%2FES14785%2Fch09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Signor1982-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Signor1982_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSignor,_P.W.1982" class="citation journal cs1">Signor, P.W. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044012/https://about.proquest.com/">"Sampling bias, gradual extinction patterns and catastrophes in the fossil record"</a>. <i>Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on the Earth</i>. Geological Society of America Special Papers. <b>190</b>. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America: 291–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FSPE190-p291">10.1130/SPE190-p291</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8137-2190-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8137-2190-3"><bdi>0-8137-2190-3</bdi></a>. A 84–25651 10–42. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A8425675AH">the original</a> on July 28, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Implications+of+Impacts+of+Large+Asteroids+and+Comets+on+the+Earth&rft.atitle=Sampling+bias%2C+gradual+extinction+patterns+and+catastrophes+in+the+fossil+record&rft.volume=190&rft.pages=291-96&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FSPE190-p291&rft.isbn=0-8137-2190-3&rft.au=Signor%2C+P.W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3DA8425675AH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFedonkin,_M.A.Gehling,_J.G.Grey,_K.Narbonne,_G.M.2007" class="citation book cs1">Fedonkin, M.A.; Gehling, J.G.; Grey, K.; Narbonne, G.M.; Vickers-Rich, P. 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Brusatte">Brusatte, Steve</a> (2022). <i>The Rise and Reign of the Mammals: A New History, from the Shadow of the Dinosaurs to Us</i> (1st ed.). United States: Mariner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062951519" title="Special:BookSources/978-0062951519"><bdi>978-0062951519</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Reign+of+the+Mammals%3A+A+New+History%2C+from+the+Shadow+of+the+Dinosaurs+to+Us&rft.place=United+States&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0062951519&rft.aulast=Brusatte&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliday2022" class="citation book cs1">Halliday, Thomas (2022). <i>Otherlands: A Journey Through Earth's Extinct Worlds</i> (1st ed.). United States: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0593132883" title="Special:BookSources/978-0593132883"><bdi>978-0593132883</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Otherlands%3A+A+Journey+Through+Earth%27s+Extinct+Worlds&rft.place=United+States&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0593132883&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleontology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Paleontology</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="c:Category:Paleontology">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Paleontology" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Paleontology">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" 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data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Paleontology">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Paleontology" class="extiw" title="b:Paleontology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Paleontology" class="extiw" title="v:Paleontology">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Paleontology" class="extiw" title="voy:Paleontology">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleobiology.si.edu/">Smithsonian's Paleobiology website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paleosoc.org">The Paleontological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palass.org">The Palaeontological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vertpaleo.org">The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paleoportal.org">The Paleontology Portal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090930070415/http://www.paleoportal.org/">Archived</a> September 30, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/collection/earththeory">"Geology, Paleontology & Theories of the Earth"</a> – a collection of more than 100 digitised landmark and early books on Earth sciences at the <a href="/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological 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title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology" title="Template:Geology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology" title="Template talk:Geology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/50px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/75px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/100px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a 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title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a 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sciences</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/21px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/42px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png/19px-Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" 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