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K. von Kressenstein]]}}<br>{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia|size=23px}} [[Giorgi Kvinitadze]]<br>{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia|size=23px}} [[Ilia Odishelidze]] | commander3 = Unknown | strength1 = {{flagdeco|Ottoman Empire}} [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]] | strength2 = {{flagdeco|German Empire}} 3,000 | strength3 = {{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} 22,000 | casualties1 = | casualties2 = | casualties3 = | territory = Turkish advance Into the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] stalled temporarily. }} {{Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign}} {{Southern Front of the Russian Civil War}} [[File:Transcaucacus Railway 1916.PNG|thumb|300px|[[Transcaucasus Railway]] in 1916]] The '''German Caucasus expedition''' was a military expedition sent in late May 1918, by the [[German Empire]] to the formerly [[Imperial Russia|Russian]] [[Transcaucasia]] during the [[Caucasus Campaign]] of [[World War I]]. Its prime aim was to stabilize the [[Treaty of Poti|pro-German]] [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] and to secure oil supplies for Germany by preventing the Ottoman Empire from gaining access to the oil reserves near Baku on the [[Absheron Peninsula]]. == Background == {{see also|Caucasus Campaign}} On December 5, 1917, the [[Armistice of Erzincan]] was signed by Russians and Ottomans, ending the armed conflicts between Russia and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Caucasus Campaign]] of the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I]].<ref>[[Tadeusz Swietochowski]], ''Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920'', page 119</ref> The [[Committee of Union and Progress]] moved to win the friendship of the Bolsheviks with the signing of the Ottoman-Russian friendship treaty (January 1, 1918). On January 11, 1918, the special decree ''On Armenia'' was signed by Lenin and Stalin which armed and repatriated over 100,000 Armenians from the former Tsar's Army to be sent to the Caucasus for operations against Ottoman interests.<ref name=McMeekin/> On January 20, 1918, [[Talaat Pasha]] entered an official protest against the Bolsheviks arming Armenian army legions and replied, "''the Russian leopard had not changed its spots''."<ref name=McMeekin/> Bolsheviks and Armenians would take the place of [[Nikolai Yudenich|Nikolai Nikolayevich Yudenich]]'s [[Russian Caucasus Army (World War I)|Russian Caucasus Army]].<ref name=Endgame>{{cite book | last = McMeekin | first = Sean | title = The Ottoman Endgame: War, Revolution, and the Making of the Modern Middle East, 1908 – 1923 | publisher = [[Penguin Books|Penguin]] | date = October 13, 2015 | isbn = 9780698410060}}</ref> On March 3, 1918, the Armistice of Erzincan was followed by the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] marking Russia's exit from [[World War I]]. Between March 14 - April 1918 the [[Trabzon peace conference]] was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet ([[Transcaucasian Sejm]]). [[Enver Pasha]] offered to surrender all Turkish ambitions in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman reacquisition of the east Anatolian provinces at Brest-Litovsk at the end of the negotiations.<ref name="ottoman1">Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326</ref> The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk provided some relief to [[Bolshevik]]s who were tied up in fighting the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]]. However, the oil fields of Baku were not under control of the Russians and Germany had a high demand for oil. During March 30 to April 2 in 1918, thousands of [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]] and other Muslims in the city of [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] of the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]] were massacred by [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation|Dashnaks]] with strong support from Bolshevik Soviets. This event is known as the [[March Days|March Days or March Events]]. On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation [[Akaki Chkhenkeli]] accepted the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] as a basis for further negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.<ref name="ric">Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293</ref> The mood prevailing in [[Tiflis]] was very different. The Armenians pressured the Republic to refuse. They acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ric"/> Hostilities resumed and [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman troops]] under [[Vehip Pasha]] overran new lands to the east, reaching pre-war frontiers. On May 11, a new peace conference opened at [[Batum]].<ref name="ottoman1"/> At this conference the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as [[Alexandropol]] and [[Echmiadzin]]; they also wanted a railroad to be built to connect [[Kars]] and [[Julfa, Azerbaijan (city)|Julfa]] with [[Baku]]. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation began to stall. Beginning on May 21, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The ensuing conflict led to the [[Battle of Sardarapat]] (May 21–29), the [[Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)]] (May 24–28), and the [[Battle of Bash Abaran]] (May 21–24). On May 28, 1918, Georgia, signed the [[Treaty of Poti]] with Germany, and welcomed the prospect of a German expedition, seeing the Germans as protectors against the post-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] havoc and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Caucasus Campaign|military advances]].<ref name="LANG">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962). ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 207-8. [[London]]: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> == Forces == The expedition was composed almost exclusively of [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavarian]] troops and included the 7th Bavarian Cavalry Brigade, reinforced by the 29th Bavarian Infantry Regiment (7th and 9th [[Jäger (military)|Jäger]] Battalions), the 10th Sturm Battalion, 1 machine-gun detachment, and the 176th Mortar Company.<ref>Erickson, Edward J. (2000) ''[[Ordered to Die: a history of the Ottoman army in the first World War]]'', p. 233</ref> It was 3,000 strong and commanded by [[Major General]] [[Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein]]. General [[Erich Ludendorff]] was also involved in supervision and organizing the expedition; he met Georgian representatives in Berlin, accompanying them to see Kaiser [[Wilhelm II]]. Besides the Georgians of the Caucasus, there were Georgians who served in the [[Georgian Legion (1914–1918)|Georgian Legion]] of the Imperial German Army.<ref>Lang (1962), p. 182</ref> Many of these officers and soldiers were awarded by the Georgian [[Order of Queen Tamara (1918)|Order of Queen Tamar]], issued specifically for the German military personnel. This force was transported by sea from the [[Crimea]] to the Georgian [[Black Sea]] port of [[Poti]] where it landed on June 8, 1918, and was later reinforced by the German troops recalled from [[Syria]] and [[Ukraine]] for service in Georgia.<ref name="Erickson 2000, p. 186">Erickson (2000), p. 186</ref> The Ottoman Empire had the [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]] in the region. ==Expedition== === Prelude === On June 4, under direct threat of the Ottoman 3rd Army, which had advanced to within 7&nbsp;km of [[Yerevan]] and 10&nbsp;km of [[Echmiadzin]], the [[First Republic of Armenia]] signed the [[Treaty of Batum]]. On June 10, the German force arrived at [[Tiflis]], the capital of Georgia, and held a joint German-Georgian military parade in the city's [[Rustavelis Gamziri|main thoroughfare]]. The German expedition was soon joined by the former German [[prisoners of war]] in Russia and the mobilized [[Württemberg]] colonists who had settled in Georgia in the mid-19th century. Combined German-Georgian garrisons were stationed in various regions of Georgia, including [[Poti]], [[Ochamchire]], [[Kutaisi]], and [[Marneuli|Borchalo]]. ===The skirmish === The arrival of the German troops in Georgia coincided with the growing German-Turkish rivalry for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|oil fields]] near [[Baku]], [[Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan]], on the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and the associated rail and pipeline connection to [[Batumi]] on the Black Sea ([[Baku-Batumi pipeline]]).<ref>Briton Cooper. Busch (1976), ''Mudros to Lausanne: Britain’s Frontier in West Asia, 1918-1923'', page 22. [[SUNY Press]], {{ISBN|0-87395-265-0}}</ref> Early in June 1918, the [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman 3rd Army]] under [[Vehip Pasha]] renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, and confronted a joint German-Georgian force. On June 10, the Turks attacked and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from [[Berlin]] to withdraw its support and troops from the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Erickson 2000, p. 186"/> [[Hans von Seeckt]] was dispatched to Georgia and met with Enver Pasha at Batumi.<ref name=McMeekin/> The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure by sacking Vehip Pasha and halting its drive, for the moment, and further advance into Georgia for the [[Transcaucasus Railway|Batumi-Tiflis-Baku railway]] and associated pipeline. The Ottomans reoriented their strategic direction towards Azerbaijan with a blocking action against British forces in [[Iran|northwestern Persia]].<ref name=McMeekin/><ref>Erickson (2000), p. 187</ref> [[Nuri Pasha]] led the drive under the [[Islamic Army of the Caucasus]] also known as the Ottoman Army of Islam.<ref name=McMeekin/><ref name=Buffers/> === On the way to Baku === Simultaneously, two additional German divisions were moved from the [[Balkans]] and Ukraine to advance on Baku. At the same time, Germany provided financial assistance to the Bolshevik government in Moscow and offered to stop the Ottoman Army of Islam in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. According to the August 27 agreement between the Bolshevik government in Moscow and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku's oil production which was sent through the Caspian Sea and up the lower Volga to German supported forces in [[Ukrainian Peoples Republic|Ukraine]].<ref name=McMeekin>{{cite book | last = McMeekin | first = Sean | title = The Berlin-Baghdad Express: Ottoman Empire and Germany's bid for World Power | url = https://archive.org/details/berlinbaghdadexp00sean | url-access = registration | publisher = [[Harvard University Press|Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press]] | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | date = 2010 | isbn = 9780674057395}}</ref><ref name=Buffers>{{cite journal | last = Reynolds | first = Michael A. | title = Buffers, not Brethren: Young Turk Military Policy in the First World War and the Myth of Panturanism | publisher = [[Past & Present (journal)|Past and Present]] | volume = 2003 | date = May 2009}}</ref> The German government requested from the Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. [[Enver Pasha]] ignored this request. After the [[Battle of Baku]], the [[Ottoman Army of Islam]] under [[Nuri Pasha]], on the heels of the evacuating Soviet forces, captured the city on September 15, 1918. The [[Russian SFSR|Soviet]] [[Lazar Bicherakhov|Bicherakhov]] detachment and the German Caucasus Expedition led by Colonel Friedrich von der Holtz met on 17 September, along with the forces of the [[Baku Commune]] who were leaving the city. [[Grigory Korganov]] was a [[Georgian people|Georgian]] [[Communism|Communist]] activist participating in the Battle of Baku, one of the [[26 Baku Commissars]] and [[Bolshevik Party]] leaders in [[Azerbaijan]] during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. However, a severe political crisis in Germany, which started later that month, rendered the Caucasus expedition abortive. == Aftermath == On October 21, the German government ordered the withdrawal of all troops from the region. The last ship with German soldiers aboard departed from Poti, Georgia, on December 13, 1918. Thus, in April 1919 it became the last German military formation to return home from active service in World War I. == Memoirs == The memoirs of General of Artillery Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein were published in 2001 in the German language in Tbilisi, Georgia – Editor Dr. David Paitschadse, publishing house Samschoblo, {{ISBN|99928-26-62-2}}, online version can be found [http://davidpaitschadse.blogspot.com/2010/08/meine-mission-im-kaukasus-general-der.html here] == References == {{Reflist|2}} {{World War I}} {{Ottoman battles in the 20th century}} [[Category:Campaigns and theatres of World War I]] [[Category:Military operations of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Military operations of World War I involving Germany]] [[Category:1918 in Azerbaijan]] [[Category:1918 in Georgia (country)]] [[Category:Georgia (country) in the Russian Civil War]] [[Category:Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War]] [[Category:German involvement in the Russian Civil War]] [[Category:Expeditions from Germany]] [[Category:Campaigns of the Russian Civil War]] [[Category:Battles involving Soviet Russia (1917–1922)]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox" title="Template:Campaignbox">Template:Campaignbox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Campaignbox&action=edit" title="Template:Campaignbox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Caucasus_Campaign" title="Template:Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign">Template:Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Campaignbox_Caucasus_Campaign&action=edit" title="Template:Campaignbox Caucasus Campaign">edit</a>) </li><li><a 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