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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Campaign spending</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_spending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Impact of contributions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact_of_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact of contributions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_on_recipients" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_recipients"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Impact on recipients</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_recipients-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_electoral_success" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_electoral_success"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Impact on electoral success</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_electoral_success-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>State level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solutions/Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solutions/Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Solutions/Reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solutions/Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Criticism of solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_campaign_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_campaign_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sources of campaign funding</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_of_campaign_funding-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources of campaign funding subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_campaign_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funding_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Funding categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Super_wealthy_donors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Super_wealthy_donors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Super wealthy donors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Super_wealthy_donors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_contribution_limits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_contribution_limits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Federal contribution limits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_contribution_limits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_contribution_regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_contribution_regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>State and local contribution regulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_contribution_regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bundling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bundling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Bundling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bundling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advocacy_groups/interest_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocacy_groups/interest_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Advocacy groups/interest groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocacy_groups/interest_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>"Soft" money/Independent expenditure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spending_by_outside_organizations/independent_expenditures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spending_by_outside_organizations/independent_expenditures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Spending by outside organizations/independent expenditures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spending_by_outside_organizations/independent_expenditures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spending by outside organizations/independent expenditures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spending_by_outside_organizations/independent_expenditures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_action_committees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_action_committees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Political action committees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_action_committees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-501(c)_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#501(c)_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>501(c) organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-501(c)_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-527_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#527_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>527 organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-527_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Political parties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disclosure_rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disclosure_rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Disclosure rules</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disclosure_rules-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Disclosure rules subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Disclosure_rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Dark_money"_exception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Dark_money"_exception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>"Dark money" exception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Dark_money"_exception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_campaign_finance_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_campaign_finance_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History of campaign finance in the United States</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_campaign_finance_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of campaign finance in the United States subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_campaign_finance_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_attempts_at_regulating_money_in_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_attempts_at_regulating_money_in_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Early attempts at regulating money in campaigns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_attempts_at_regulating_money_in_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tillman_Act_of_1907" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tillman_Act_of_1907"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Tillman Act of 1907</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tillman_Act_of_1907-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_(1971)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_(1971)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Federal Election Campaign Act (1971)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_(1971)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buckley_v._Valeo_(1976)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buckley_v._Valeo_(1976)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span><i>Buckley v. Valeo (1976)</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buckley_v._Valeo_(1976)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eight_magic_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eight_magic_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Eight magic words</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eight_magic_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Random_audits_in_the_1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Random_audits_in_the_1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Random audits in the 1970s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Random_audits_in_the_1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_(2002)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_(2002)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_(2002)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life_(2007)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life_(2007)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span><i>FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life</i> (2007)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life_(2007)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citizens_United_v._FEC_(2010)_and_SpeechNOW.org_v._FEC_(2010)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizens_United_v._FEC_(2010)_and_SpeechNOW.org_v._FEC_(2010)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span><i>Citizens United v. FEC (2010)</i> and <i>SpeechNOW.org v. FEC (2010)</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizens_United_v._FEC_(2010)_and_SpeechNOW.org_v._FEC_(2010)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission_(2014)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission_(2014)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span><i>McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission_(2014)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_financing_of_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_financing_of_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Public financing of campaigns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Public_financing_of_campaigns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Public financing of campaigns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Public_financing_of_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Of_presidential_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Of_presidential_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Of presidential campaigns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Of_presidential_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>State and local level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_of_spending_campaign_funds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_of_spending_campaign_funds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Ethics of spending campaign funds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_of_spending_campaign_funds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources of data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Contributions to American election campaign funds</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Soft money" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Soft_money_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Soft money (disambiguation)">Soft money (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campaign_finance_web_final.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Campaign_finance_web_final.png/330px-Campaign_finance_web_final.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Campaign_finance_web_final.png/495px-Campaign_finance_web_final.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Campaign_finance_web_final.png/660px-Campaign_finance_web_final.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="831" /></a><figcaption>Diagram by the <a href="/wiki/Sunlight_Foundation" title="Sunlight Foundation">Sunlight Foundation</a> depicting the American campaign finance system</figcaption></figure> <p>The financing of <a href="/wiki/Electoral_campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral campaigns">electoral campaigns</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> happens at the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_government" title="State government">state</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">local levels</a> by contributions from individuals, corporations, political action committees, and sometimes the government. Campaign spending has risen steadily at least since 1990. For example, a candidate who won an election to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> in 1990 spent on average $407,600 (equivalent to $950,000 in 2023),<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the winner in 2022 spent on average $2.79 million; in the Senate, average spending for winning candidates went from $3.87 million (equivalent to $9.03 million in 2023) to $26.53 million.<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trends-OpSe_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trends-OpSe-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, nearly $14 billion was spent on federal election campaigns in the United States — "making it the most expensive campaign in U.S. history",<sup id="cite_ref-Levine-2020_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levine-2020-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "more than double" what was spent in the 2016 election.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2020_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2020-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics assert that following a number of Supreme Court decisions — <i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a></i> (2010) in particular—the "very wealthy" are now allowed to spend unlimited amounts on campaigns (through <a href="/wiki/Political_Action_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Action Committee">Political Action Committees</a>, especially "<a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee#Super_PACs" title="Political action committee">Super PACs</a>"), and to prevent voters from knowing who is trying to influence them (contributing "dark money" that masks the donor's identity).<sup id="cite_ref-BCfJ-big-money_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCfJ-big-money-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, as of at least 2022, critics (such as the <a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_for_Justice" title="Brennan Center for Justice">Brennan Center for Justice</a>) allege "big money dominates U.S. political campaigns to a degree not seen in decades" and is "drowning out the voices of ordinary Americans."<sup id="cite_ref-BCfJ-big-money_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCfJ-big-money-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public concern over the influence of large donors in political campaigns was reflected in a 2018 opinion poll which found that 74% of Americans surveyed thought it was "very" important that "people who give a lot of money to elected officials" "<i>not</i> have more political influence than other people",<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but that 72% thought this was "not at all" or "not too" much the case.<sup id="cite_ref-JONES-pew-2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JONES-pew-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 65% of respondents agreed that it should not be impossible to change this and that "new laws could be written that would be effective in reducing the role of money in politics".<sup id="cite_ref-JONES-pew-2018_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JONES-pew-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Laws regulating campaign donations, spending and public funding have been enacted at the federal level by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> and enforced by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission" title="Federal Election Commission">Federal Election Commission</a> (FEC), an <a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">independent federal agency</a>. Nonprofit, non-governmental grassroots organizations like the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Responsive_Politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Responsive Politics">Center for Responsive Politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Watchdog" title="Consumer Watchdog">Consumer Watchdog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_Cause" title="Common Cause">Common Cause</a> track how money is raised and spent.<sup id="cite_ref-hcfw-bryant_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hcfw-bryant-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although most campaign spending is privately financed (largely through donors that work in subsidized industries),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">public financing</a> is available for qualifying candidates for <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> during both the <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primaries</a> and the general election. Eligibility requirements must be fulfilled to qualify for a government subsidy, and those that do accept government funding are usually subject to spending limits on money. </p><p>Races for non-federal offices are governed by state and local law. Over half the states allow some level of corporate and union contributions. As of 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, some states have stricter limits on contributions, while some states have no limits at all.<sup id="cite_ref-NCSL-2021_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCSL-2021-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much information from campaign spending comes from the federal campaign database which does not include state and local campaign spending.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-billionaires-11-3-2022_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-billionaires-11-3-2022-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology,_definitions"><span id="Terminology.2C_definitions"></span>Terminology, definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology, definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"campaign funds" are (legally) defined by the Federal Election Campaign Act as funds "used for purposes in connection with the campaign to influence the federal election of the candidate" (see below).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Dark money": spending to influence elections where the source of the money is not disclosed to voters (see below).<sup id="cite_ref-DMB-OS_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DMB-OS-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Soft Money: money that is not supposed to "advocate the election or defeat of a federal candidate", but instead to be used for "state and local elections and generic 'party-building' activities, including voter registration campaigns and get-out-the-vote drives". Unlike hard money, there are "no federal contribution limits" on it (see below).<sup id="cite_ref-ARG-OS_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARG-OS-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hard Money: "regulated contributions (see below) "from an individual or PAC to a federal candidate, party committee or other PAC, where the money is used for a federal election"<sup id="cite_ref-ARG-OS_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARG-OS-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Campaign_spending">Campaign spending</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Campaign spending"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Money spent on campaigns in the 21st century has risen somewhat faster than inflation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-OpSe-cost_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OpSe-cost-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dt>Total cost of Federal elections, Congressional and Presidential (1990-2022)</dt> <dd><small>(In billions of dollars, adjusted for inflation. Source: OpenSecrets)<sup id="cite_ref-OpSe-cost_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OpSe-cost-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div style="padding-top:10px;margin-top:1em;max-width:600px;" class="chart noresize"> <div style="position:relative;min-height:250px;min-width:600px;max-width:600px;"> <div style="float:right;position:relative;min-height:170px;min-width:500px;max-width:500px;border-left:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:4px;top:145px;height:24px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 2.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:42px;top:145px;height:24px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 2.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:80px;top:139px;height:30px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 3.6$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:118px;top:140px;height:29px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 3.5$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:156px;top:135px;height:34px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 4.1$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:194px;top:141px;height:28px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 3.4$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:232px;top:128px;height:41px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 4.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:270px;top:130px;height:39px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 4.7$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:308px;top:129px;height:40px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 4.8$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:346px;top:127px;height:42px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 5.1$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:384px;top:113px;height:56px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 6.7$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:422px;top:86px;height:83px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 9.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:460px;top:94px;height:75px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:cyan;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid cyan;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Congressional race: 8.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:42px;top:125px;height:19px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 2.4$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:118px;top:114px;height:25px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 3$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:194px;top:109px;height:31px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 3.8$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:270px;top:101px;height:28px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 3.4$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:346px;top:102px;height:24px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 2.9$"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:422px;top:31px;height:54px;min-width:28px;max-width:28px;background-color:violet;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid violet;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Presidential race: 6.5$"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;height:170px;min-width:100px;max-width:100px;"> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:117px;padding:0 2px">5</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:127px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:75px;padding:0 2px">10</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:85px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:32px;padding:0 2px">15</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:42px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:-10px;padding:0 2px">20</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:0px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;top:170px;left:100px;width:500px;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:1px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1998</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:19px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:39px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2000</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:57px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:77px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2002</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:95px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:115px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2004</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:133px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:153px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2006</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:171px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:191px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2008</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:209px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:229px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2010</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:247px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:267px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2012</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:285px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:305px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2014</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:323px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:343px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2016</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:361px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:381px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2018</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:399px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:419px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2020</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:437px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:457px;top:10px;min-width:36px;max-width:36px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2022</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:475px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> </div> </div> <div> <ul style="list-style:none;column-width:12em;"><li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:cyan;border:1px solid cyan;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> Congressional race</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:violet;border:1px solid violet;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> Presidential race</li></ul> </div> </div> <p>Over the decades it has risen much faster. <a href="/wiki/Jane_Mayer" title="Jane Mayer">Jane Mayer</a> notes that in 1972 a $2 million dollar political donation by an insurance magnate (by <a href="/wiki/W._Clement_Stone" title="W. Clement Stone">W. Clement Stone</a> to <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a>) in 1972 "caused public outrage and contributed to a movement that produced the post-<a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate</a> reforms in campaign financing". But the sum that "was considered deeply corrupt during the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate days</a>" was worth about $11 million adjusted for inflation by 2016, when the <a href="/wiki/Political_activities_of_the_Koch_brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Political activities of the Koch brothers">Koch brothers political network</a> bundled $889 million for a "political war chest" for that year's election.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer-Dark-2016-8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer-Dark-2016-8-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>2022</dt></dl> <p>An estimated $16.7 billion was spent on the 2021 and 2022 election cycle, exceeding that of the last mid-term election. According to Open Secrets, of the 25 top donors for the 2021-2022 cycle, 18 are Republican, who have outspent Democrats by $200 million, and much of the Democrat's money was not disbursed.<sup id="cite_ref-Weisman-2022-Billionaires_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weisman-2022-Billionaires-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2022 Congressional races, the sources of campaign contributions broke down as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>2022 Congressional<br /> races</th> <th>Small Individual <br />Contributors</th> <th>Large Individual <br />Contributors</th> <th>Political Action <br />Committees</th> <th>Self-Financing </th></tr> <tr> <th>House Democrats </th> <td>19.4%</td> <td>52.5%</td> <td>23.4%</td> <td>2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>House Republicans </th> <td>20.9%</td> <td>42%</td> <td>23.1%</td> <td>0.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Senate Democrats </th> <td>27.5%</td> <td>59.3%</td> <td>8.9%</td> <td>0.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Senate Republicans </th> <td>35.1%</td> <td>45.7%</td> <td>11.2%</td> <td>0.1% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:392px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:390px;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption"><b>2016</b>. Presidential election campaign funding per candidate for the 2016 presidential election main party candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_of_contributions">Impact of contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Impact of contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_recipients">Impact on recipients</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Impact on recipients"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2016 experimental study in the <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Political_Science" title="American Journal of Political Science">American Journal of Political Science</a></i> found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2011 study found that "even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2016 study in the <i>Journal of Politics</i> found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is "evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research published in 2020 by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, another study found that increasing lobbying reduces a corporation's effective tax rate, with an increase of 1% in lobbying expenditures expected to reduce a corporation's next-year tax rate between 0.5 and 1.6%.<sup id="cite_ref-cap-rent-seeking_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cap-rent-seeking-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richter-Lobbying-Taxes_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richter-Lobbying-Taxes-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study based on data from 48 different states found that every $1 "invested" in corporate campaign contribution is worth $6.65 in lower state corporate taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-cap-rent-seeking_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cap-rent-seeking-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chirinko-lower-tax-2010_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chirinko-lower-tax-2010-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_electoral_success">Impact on electoral success</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impact on electoral success"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least according to one academic, (Geoffrey Cowan, Annenberg family chair for communication leadership at USC), campaign spending does not correlate with electoral victory. "You have to have enough, but it doesn't have to be the most."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that Donald Trump's victory over well financed opponents was an example of the limits of money in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer-2016_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer-2016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, comparing electoral success with who spent the most running for congress, <a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a> found that while "money doesn't always equal victory ... it usually does."<sup id="cite_ref-Usually-OS_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Usually-OS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><b>Percent of races won by top spending candidate for U.S. House and Senate</b><sup id="cite_ref-Usually-OS_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Usually-OS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div style="padding-top:10px;margin-top:1em;max-width:700px;" class="chart noresize"> <div style="position:relative;min-height:250px;min-width:700px;max-width:700px;"> <div style="float:right;position:relative;min-height:170px;min-width:600px;max-width:600px;border-left:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:0px;top:8px;height:161px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 95.07"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:50px;top:11px;height:158px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 93.5"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:100px;top:4px;height:165px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 97.54"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:150px;top:11px;height:158px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 93.27"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:200px;top:14px;height:155px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 92.02"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:250px;top:24px;height:145px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 85.61"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:300px;top:11px;height:158px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 93.63"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:350px;top:11px;height:158px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 93.46"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:400px;top:8px;height:161px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 95.41"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:450px;top:19px;height:150px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 88.54"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:500px;top:21px;height:148px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 87.71"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:550px;top:9px;height:160px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#FF8000;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #FF8000;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="House of Representatives: 94.9"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:21px;top:30px;height:139px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 82.35"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:71px;top:25px;height:144px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 85.29"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:121px;top:20px;height:149px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 88.24"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:171px;top:46px;height:123px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 72.73"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:221px;top:25px;height:144px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 85.29"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:271px;top:37px;height:132px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 78.38"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:321px;top:41px;height:128px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 75.76"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:371px;top:38px;height:131px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 77.78"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:421px;top:25px;height:144px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 85.29"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:471px;top:29px;height:140px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 82.86"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:521px;top:49px;height:120px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 71.43"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:571px;top:17px;height:152px;min-width:13px;max-width:13px;background-color:#00FF00;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid #00FF00;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="Senate: 90"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;height:170px;min-width:100px;max-width:100px;"> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:143px;padding:0 2px">10</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:153px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:126px;padding:0 2px">20</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:136px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:109px;padding:0 2px">30</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:119px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:92px;padding:0 2px">40</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:102px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:75px;padding:0 2px">50</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:85px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:58px;padding:0 2px">60</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:68px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:41px;padding:0 2px">70</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:51px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:24px;padding:0 2px">80</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:34px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:7px;padding:0 2px">90</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:17px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:-10px;padding:0 2px">100</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:0px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;top:170px;left:100px;width:600px;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:1px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2000</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:25px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:51px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2002</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:75px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:101px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2004</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:125px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:151px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2006</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:175px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:201px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2008</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:225px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:251px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2010</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:275px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:301px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2012</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:325px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:351px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2014</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:375px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:401px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2016</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:425px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:451px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2018</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:475px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:501px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2020</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:525px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:551px;top:10px;min-width:48px;max-width:48px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2022</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:575px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> </div> </div> <div> <ul style="list-style:none;column-width:12em;"><li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:#FF8000;border:1px solid #FF8000;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> House of Representatives</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:#00FF00;border:1px solid #00FF00;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> Senate</li></ul> </div> </div> <p>This may be because donors give to candidates who are "already viewed as being much stronger" than their opponent to ingratiate themselves with what looks like the winner, but also because money going to a less well-known candidate has the intended effect and results in their winning. "Even in wave elections, the candidate who spends the most, usually wins. This trend is stronger in the House than the Senate but applies in both chambers".<sup id="cite_ref-Usually-OS_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Usually-OS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_level">State level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: State level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2012 study by Lynda Powell examined "subtle and not-so-subtle ways in which money buys influence" in state legislatures. They varied "from setting a party's agenda, to keeping bills off the floor, to adding earmarks and crafting key language in legislation", but did not often include voting yes or no on particular legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-rochester-Powell_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rochester-Powell-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She found that political money "carries more weight" in states with "more highly compensated legislators, larger chambers, and more professionalized leadership structures", where the "majority party's advantage is tightly contested and whose legislators are more likely to hold hopes of running for higher office";<sup id="cite_ref-rochester-Powell_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rochester-Powell-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> less weight where legislatures have term limits and voters are more highly educated.<sup id="cite_ref-rochester-Powell_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rochester-Powell-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Powell-influence-2012_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell-influence-2012-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i> however, "several scholars" state that studies "comparing states like Virginia with scant regulation" on political contributions, against those like Wisconsin with "strict rules" have "not found much difference in levels of corruption or public trust".<sup id="cite_ref-Kirkpatrick-2010_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirkpatrick-2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reasons offered for why "big money" in politics (campaign contributions and high level lobbying from corporations and the wealthy) should be regulated include: it </p> <ul><li>"results in corruption";<sup id="cite_ref-Rochester-2020_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochester-2020-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (i.e., “quid pro quo corruption”, or bribery);<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-Democracy-Fully5-4_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-Democracy-Fully5-4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>harms trust in government;<sup id="cite_ref-Rochester-2020_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochester-2020-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>decreases public interest in public affairs and government;<sup id="cite_ref-Rochester-2020_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochester-2020-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>gives powerful corporations and wealthy individuals leverage to not just express their political views or support for a candidate, but to "reshape the American economy in their favor", favoring lower taxes and smaller government over public spending to improve policing, public schools, environmental protection, employment opportunities, that very high income groups naturally have less interest in being protected by their own private security, their children attending private schools, enjoying scenic beauty and recreation on their country clubs and estates.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>wastes economic resources on "<a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a>," as players in the private sector spend time and money "trying to get a bigger piece of the economic pie for themselves" (in the form of tax cuts, subsidies, cuts in regulation and other special favors that the elected officials they donate to can provide), instead of focusing on enlarging the pie itself (with "productive economic activity" such as new inventions and better, cheaper goods and services).<sup id="cite_ref-cap-rent-seeking_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cap-rent-seeking-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solutions/Reforms"><span id="Solutions.2FReforms"></span>Solutions/Reforms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Solutions/Reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance reform in the United States">Campaign finance reform in the United States</a></div> <ul><li>Public financing. A traditional solution offered to dilute the power of a few donors giving large political contributions was to put limits on campaign spending. Following court rulings such as <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a>, putting an end to some of these limits, reformers such as <a href="/wiki/The_Brennan_Center_for_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="The Brennan Center for Justice">The Brennan Center for Justice</a> have suggested encouraging "small donor public financing", by using public funds to match and multiply small donations" (see below).<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-why_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-why-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other proposals for "fixing" the influence of money in politics in the United States made by at least one reform group (the Brennan Center) include </p> <ul><li>Fully Disclose All Political Spending. As of 2018, disclosure laws "fail to regulate political advertising on the internet create the potential for a massive increase in undisclosed online spending".<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-Democracy-Fully_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-Democracy-Fully-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In state and local elections, where there is much less political money, "a dark money expenditure as low as $100,000, or even $10,000 — pocket change for special interests — can easily dominate an election".<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-Democracy-Fully_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-Democracy-Fully-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-n.146_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-n.146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Close fundraising loopholes for candidates and officeholders. Super PACs, can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money in support of candidates, but are supposed to be “independent” of those candidates. In fact "many super PACs were run by candidates’ top aides" or close associates". "Politicians fundraised prominently for their “independent” groups and even appeared in their ads. In addition, "a new breed of tax-exempt nonprofits has proliferated, boosting politicians — and their policies — while in office." They "raise unlimited, undisclosed funds". Brennan suggests "no more appearances by candidates at 'independent' fundraisers", and "a cooling off period before advisers jump to super PAC staff, and so on".<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-why_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-why-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-Democracy-Fully2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-Democracy-Fully2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Reform the Federal Election Commission. In 2016, panel votes on enforcement matters deadlocked roughly 1 time in 3, "according to former FEC Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Ann_Ravel" title="Ann Ravel">Ann Ravel</a>, "10 times more often than a decade ago. In 2016, the agency levied less than $600,000 in penalties, a 90 percent drop over the same time." Brennan suggests adding another (non-partisan) commissioner to end the evenly balanced bipartisan structure, and giving the commission a chief administrative officer for a fixed term of four to six years, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-Democracy-Fully3_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-Democracy-Fully3-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism_of_solutions">Criticism of solutions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticism of solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least many conservatives such as former Secretary of Education <a href="/wiki/Betsy_DeVos" title="Betsy DeVos">Betsy DeVos</a><sup id="cite_ref-Mayer-Dark-2016-234_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer-Dark-2016-234-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and James Bopp of <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a>, maintain legal restrictions on money in politics are an unjust restriction on free speech that should be opposed as a matter of principle. Bopp writes that "there may be too little money spent during political campaigns, not too much", because government is larger and more powerful than it should be, and at least often agree that campaign finance reform limiting spending on political campaigns is an unconstitutionally limit on "citizens' freedom of speech and association".<sup id="cite_ref-Unconstitutional_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unconstitutional-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DeVos compares restrictions on campaign finance to the tyranny of <a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">1984</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Big_Brother_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)" title="Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)">Big Brother</a>", and defends the use of money to buy political influence in the service of conservative governance and "traditional American virtues".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a more practical level, Contrarians (David Primo and Jeffrey Milyo) argue that the public has been deceived by "the incessant message" propagated by 'the media, politicians, reform groups, and scholars", that money in politics is bad. In fact this public disapproval comes from Americans being fed up with politics in general and money is actually "just a convenient bugaboo". Furthermore, many things the public believes about corruption in politics are not true. Experts on campaign finance are much less cynical than the public about the nefarious influence of money in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Rochester-2020_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochester-2020-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Legal scholars and social scientists say the evidence is meager, at best, that the post-<a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate</a> campaign finance system has accomplished the broad goals its supporters asserted."<sup id="cite_ref-Kirkpatrick-2010_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirkpatrick-2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political scientist Kenneth Mayer also agrees that looking at those 1970s reforms, </p> <blockquote><p>there is no evidence that stricter campaign finance rules reduce corruption or raise positive assessments of government. It seems like such an obvious relationship but it has proven impossible to prove.”<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_campaign_funding">Sources of campaign funding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sources of campaign funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Candidates are not the only ones raising and spending more money. Political parties are also raising much more money in elections, which they donate to candidates, spend on behalf of candidates, and use to mobilize voters, among other things. In the 1992 electoral cycle, the Republican and Democratic parties combined raised roughly $650 million. In the 2020 cycle, they raised almost $2.7 billion </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding_categories">Funding categories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Funding categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The money for campaigns for federal office is divided into four broad categories of sources: </p> <ol><li>small individual contributors (defined by the government as being from individuals who contribute $200 or less),</li> <li>large individual contributors (individuals who contribute more than $200),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">political action committees</a>, and</li> <li>self-financing (the candidate's own money).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Super_wealthy_donors">Super wealthy donors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Super wealthy donors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Political_donations.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Political_donations.webp/600px-Political_donations.webp.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Political_donations.webp/900px-Political_donations.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Political_donations.webp/1065px-Political_donations.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1065" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>Political donations by major donors</figcaption></figure> <p>Money from <a href="/wiki/Billionaire" title="Billionaire">Billionaires</a> and other super wealthy people comprises a disproportionate share of campaign financing in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examining one slice of the campaigning season—Summer 2015 of the 2016 presidential campaign cycle—the donations of fewer than 400 super wealthy families comprised nearly half of all publicly disclosed presidential campaign financing, according to a New York Times analysis of FEC and <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a> (IRS) filings. These donors exploit the SuperPAC loophole, which bypasses the traditional donation maximum for an individual in any year. On the Republican side, just around 130 particularly rich families accounted for more than half of the publicly disclosed presidential candidate campaign financing. For several major Republican presidential candidates, a handful of donors and their businesses accounted for most of the donations to the candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2017 study found that "only a small portion of Americans make campaign donations" and that both Democratic and Republican donors "are more ideologically extreme than other partisans, including primary voters. With respect to why individuals contribute, we show that donors appear responsive to their perception of the stakes in the election."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another 2017 study found that relatively unpopular industries (which depending on the political situation may include fossil fuels, banking, etc.) provide larger contributions to candidates. The authors of the study argue that this is because candidates lose voter support when they are associated with unpopular industries and that the industries therefore provide larger contributions to compensate for this loss of support.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2022 study found that billionaires are increasingly using their personal wealth and that of corporations they control to, "drown out regular voters' voices and elect hand-picked candidates who further rig the nation's economy — especially the tax system."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings comport with a 2015 report from <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a> researchers who found that 82% of U.S. billionaires made financial contributions to political parties or candidates and a third of them "bundled" contributions from others, hosted political fundraisers, or both, focusing primarily on issues of taxes or Social Security, "overwhelmingly, for example, toward repealing the estate tax, reducing capital gains and personal and corporate income taxes, and opposing carbon taxes."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_contribution_limits">Federal contribution limits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Federal contribution limits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Federal law does not allow corporations and labor unions to donate money directly to candidates ("<a href="#"Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure">hard money</a>") or national party committees. It also limits how much money (a) individuals and (b) organizations involved in political action may contribute to political campaigns, political parties, and other FEC-regulated organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The piece apparently consists of one or more graphics which are no longer present, even in archived versions: https://web.archive.org/web/20210101000000*/https://www.npr.org/2010/01/21/121293380/a-century-of-u-s-campaign-finance-law. The link is technically alive, which is why I am not using a "Dead link" template. (December 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;vertical-align: middle;">DONORS</th> <th colspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">RECIPIENTS </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Candidate Committee</th> <th style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">PAC<sup id="cite_ref-ref2_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref2-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(SSF and Nonconnected)</th> <th style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">State/District/Local Party Committee</th> <th style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">National Party Committee</th> <th style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Additional National Party Committee Accounts<sup id="cite_ref-ref3_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Individual </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$3,000<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per election</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$10,000<br />per year<br />(combined)</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$35,500<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$106,500<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per account, per year </td></tr> <tr> <th>Candidate Committee </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$2,000<br />per election</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Unlimited Transfers</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">PAC</a>—Multicandidate </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per election</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year (combined)</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$15,000<br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$45,000<br />per account, per year </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">PAC</a>—Nonmulticandidate </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$2,800<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per election</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$10,000<br />per year<br />(combined)</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$35,500<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per year</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$106,500<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_65-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />per account, per year </td></tr> <tr> <th>State, District & Local Party Committee </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per election</td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Unlimited Transfers</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>National Party Committee </th> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per election<sup id="cite_ref-ref4_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref4-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">$5,000<br />per year</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="6" style="text-align: center;"><b>Source:</b> FEC<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Table footnotes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ref2-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ref2_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">PAC</a>" here refers to a committee that makes contributions to other federal political committees. Independent-expenditure-only political committees (sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee#Super_PACs" title="Political action committee">Super PACs</a>") may accept unlimited contributions, including from corporations and labor organizations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref3-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ref3_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The limits in this column apply to a national party committee's accounts for: (i) the presidential nominating convention; (ii) election recounts and contests and other legal proceedings; and (iii) national party headquarters buildings. A party's national committee, Senate campaign committee and House campaign committee are each considered separate national party committees with separate limits. Only a national party committee, not the parties' national congressional campaign committees, may have an account for the presidential nominating convention.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref1-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_65-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Indexed for inflation in odd-numbered years.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref4-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ref4_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Additionally, a national party committee and its Senatorial campaign committee may contribute up to $46,800 combined per campaign to each Senate candidate.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local_contribution_regulations">State and local contribution regulations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: State and local contribution regulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Election campaigns for non-federal offices are governed by state and local law, and contributions for these campaigns are not found in the federal campaign database.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-billionaires-11-3-2022_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-billionaires-11-3-2022-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, over half the states allow some level of corporate and union contributions, often the same as those for individual contributors, (i.e. lower than the national limits), while several states (Alabama, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah and Virginia) have no limits at all.<sup id="cite_ref-NCSL-2021_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCSL-2021-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bundling">Bundling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bundling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One consequence of the limitation upon personal contributions from any one individual is that campaigns seek out "bundlers"—people who can gather contributions from many individuals in an organization or community and present the sum to the campaign. Campaigns often recognize these bundlers with honorary titles and, in some cases, exclusive events featuring the candidate. </p><p>Although bundling existed in various forms since the enactment of the FECA, bundling became organized in a more structured way in the 2000s, spearheaded by the "<a href="/wiki/Bush_Pioneer" title="Bush Pioneer">Bush Pioneers</a>" for <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>'s <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_presidential_campaign,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2000">2000</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_presidential_campaign,_2004" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2004">2004 presidential campaigns</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">2008 campaign</a> the six leading primary candidates (three Democratic, three Republican) listed a total of nearly two thousand bundlers.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt083107b_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt083107b-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been extensive criticism that US presidents have rewarded bundlers with political appointment, most notably ambassador positions where nominees have no qualifications for appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advocacy_groups/interest_groups"><span id="Advocacy_groups.2Finterest_groups"></span>Advocacy groups/interest groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Advocacy groups/interest groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="Lobbying in the United States">Lobbying in the United States</a></div> <p>Lobbyists often assist congressional campaign finance by arranging fundraisers, assembling PACs, and seeking donations from other clients. Many lobbyists become campaign treasurers and fundraisers for congresspersons.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure"><span id=".22Soft.22_money.2FIndependent_expenditure"></span>"Soft" money/Independent expenditure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: "Soft" money/Independent expenditure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contributions made directly to a specific candidate are called <i>hard money</i> and those made to parties and committees "for party building in general rather than for specific candidates" are called <i>soft money</i> or "independent spending". Following a couple of 2010 court decisions (Citizens United v. FEC and SpeechNOW.org v. FEC, see below), soft money political spending was exempt from federal limits, creating what some have called "a major loophole" in federal campaign financing and spending law.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no limits on soft money and some examples are donations for stickers, posters, and television and radio spots supporting a particular party platform or idea but not a concrete candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soft money contributions may be spent on registering and mobilizing voters, just not on expressed advocacy for a particular candidate. </p><p>The reasoning behind the court decisions was that independent/soft spending would not result in corruption since the candidate would not be indebted to the independent contributor, and that those independent expenditures would "be visible to the public" who would then know "whether elected officials are 'in the pocket' of so-called moneyed interests", since "with the advent of the Internet, prompt disclosure of expenditures" would be easier than ever (quoting Justice Anthony Kennedy). This has been criticized as "naive".<sup id="cite_ref-mayer-dark-228_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mayer-dark-228-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have noted that independent expenditure can be and have been closely coordinated with political campaigns, and that soft money began "flooding into elections" via "social welfare" groups that "claimed the right to spend on elections without disclosing their donors."<sup id="cite_ref-mayer-dark-228-9_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mayer-dark-228-9-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The key factor is whether an ad uses words like or similar to "vote for" or not. Most of such donations received by state party committees are then sent to the national party headquarters to spend as they please, including on political campaigns by candidates. Critics call this a legalized form of political "<a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-politico.com_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politico.com-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another form of soft money is political spending by <a href="/wiki/Independent_expenditure" title="Independent expenditure">"independent expenditure committees"</a>, commonly known as "super PACs," which are allowed to raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to advocate for or against any candidate(s) or issues, as long as there is no coordination, consultation or request by any campaign or candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-politico.com_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politico.com-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such donations in presidential elections amount to hundreds of millions of dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three main legal categories of independent groups: </p> <ul><li>independent expenditure committees,</li> <li>527 organizations, and</li> <li>501(c) organizations.</li></ul> <p>These groups are more active in American politics than ever before, as in 2016, more than $2.3 billion was raised between the Democratic and Republican National Committees.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Parties:_Overview_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Parties:_Overview-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the amounts of soft money contributed in recent years and the legislation that enabled this, see the section on the <a href="#Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_(2002)">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spending_by_outside_organizations/independent_expenditures"><span id="Spending_by_outside_organizations.2Findependent_expenditures"></span>Spending by outside organizations/independent expenditures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Spending by outside organizations/independent expenditures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organizations other than individual candidates and their campaigns also contribute to election spending. These organizations can donate money to political campaigns (according to the limits described above), but in addition they can spend money directly to influence elections in what are known as "independent expenditures". </p> <blockquote><p>All outside groups that aren't political parties — except for a few traditional PACs that make independent expenditures — are allowed to accept unlimited sums of money from individuals, corporations or unions.<sup id="cite_ref-Open_Secrets_Dark_Money_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Open_Secrets_Dark_Money-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_action_committees">Political action committees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Political action committees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">Political action committee</a></div> <p>Federal law allows for multiple types of political action committees (PACs). </p> <ul><li><b>Connected PACs</b>: The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act" title="Federal Election Campaign Act">Federal Election Campaign Act</a> prohibits <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">labor unions</a> from making direct contributions or expenditures in connection with federal elections. These organizations may, however, sponsor a "separate segregated fund" (SSF),<sup id="cite_ref-fec.gov_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fec.gov-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> known as a "connected PAC". These PACs may receive and raise money only from a "restricted class", generally consisting of managers and shareholders in the case of a corporation and members in the case of a union or other interest group. In exchange, the sponsor of the PAC may absorb all the administrative costs of operating the PAC and soliciting contributions. As of January 2009, there were 1,598 registered corporate PACs, 272 related to labor unions and 995 to trade organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FEC_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FEC-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Nonconnected PACs</b>: A nonconnected PAC is financially independent, meaning that it must pay for its own administrative expenses using the contributions it raises. Although an organization may financially support a nonconnected PAC, these expenditures are considered contributions to the PAC and are subject to the dollar limits and other requirements of the Act.</li> <li><b>Leadership PACs</b>: Elected officials and political parties cannot give more than the federal limit directly to candidates. However, they can set up a leadership PAC that makes <a href="/wiki/Independent_expenditure" title="Independent expenditure">independent expenditures</a>. Provided the expenditure is not coordinated with the other candidate, this type of spending is not limited.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the FEC rules, leadership PACs are non-connected PACs, and can accept donations from individuals and other PACs. Since current officeholders have an easier time attracting contributions, leadership PACs are a way dominant parties can capture seats from other parties. A leadership PAC sponsored by an elected official cannot use funds to support that official's own campaign. However, it may fund travel, administrative expenses, consultants, polling, and other non-campaign expenses.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>"Super PACs"</b>: Super Pacs are unlike other PACs, in that they have no legal limit to the funds they can raise from individuals, corporations, unions and other groups, provided they are operated correctly.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are officially known as "<a href="/wiki/Independent_expenditure" title="Independent expenditure">independent-expenditure</a> only committees", because they may not make contributions to candidate campaigns or parties, but rather must do any political spending independently of the campaigns. While super PACs are legally required to disclose their donors, some of these groups are effectively dark money outlets when the bulk of their funding cannot be traced back to the original donor.<sup id="cite_ref-Open_Secrets_Dark_Money_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Open_Secrets_Dark_Money-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2019-2020 election cycle, there were 2,415 groups organized as super PACs; their receipts reportedly totaled a little over $2.5 billion and independent expenditures totaled of a little under $1.3 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-SP-2019-2020-OS_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SP-2019-2020-OS-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Super PACs" first arose in the 2010 election. Super PACs were made possible by two judicial decisions. First, in January 2010 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> held in <i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</a></i> that government may not prohibit unions and corporations from making independent expenditure for political purposes. Two months later, in <i>Speechnow.org v. FEC</i>, the Federal <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeals_for_the_D.C._Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit">Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit</a> held that contributions to groups that only make independent expenditures could not be limited in the size and source of contributions to the group.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independent expenditures continue to grow with $17 million spent in 2002 on congressional elections, $52 million in 2006, and $290 million in 2010. In 10 states independent spending amounted to 19% of the total amount of money contributed to candidates between 2005 and 2010. In three of those states independent spending was greater than 25% of the contributions given to candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics (such as journalist Matea Gold, Representative David E. Price) have complained that Super PACs have found "creative ways to work in concert" with the candidates and FEC regulation of them is nominal.<sup id="cite_ref-Gold-2015_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold-2015-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Hybrid PAC</b>: A hybrid PAC (sometimes called a Carey Committee) is similar to a Super PAC, but can give limited amounts of money directly to campaigns and committees, while still making independent expenditures in unlimited amounts.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-politico_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politico-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_PAC" title="Hybrid PAC">Hybrid PAC</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="501(c)_organizations"><span id="501.28c.29_organizations"></span>501(c) organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 501(c) organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/501(c)_organization" title="501(c) organization">501(c) organization</a></div> <p>501(c)(4) "social welfare", 501(c)(5) "labor unions", 501(c)(6) "chambers of commerce" unlike 501(c)(3) charitable organizations can participate in political campaigns and elections, as long as the organization's "primary purpose" is issue advocacy and not political advocacy and are not required to disclose their donors publicly.[31]. This aspect of the law has led to extensive use of 501(c)(4) organizations in raising and donating money for political activity.[32] The NAACP, Planned Parenthood, Sierra Club, and National Rifle Association are well known examples of organizations that operate 501(c)(4) social welfare organizations that engage in political advocacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="527_organizations">527 organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 527 organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/527_organization" title="527 organization">527 organization</a></div> <p>A <b>527 organization</b> or <b>527 group</b> is a type of American <a href="/wiki/Tax-exempt_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax-exempt organization">tax-exempt organization</a> named after "Section 527" of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code</a>. Technically, almost all political committees, including state, local, and federal candidate committees, traditional <a href="/wiki/Political_action_committees" class="mw-redirect" title="Political action committees">political action committees</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Super_PACs" class="mw-redirect" title="Super PACs">Super PACs</a>", and political parties are "527s." However, in common practice the term is usually applied only to such organizations that are not regulated under state or federal campaign finance laws because they do not <a href="/wiki/Issue_advocacy_ads" title="Issue advocacy ads">"expressly advocate"</a> for the election or defeat of a candidate or party. When operated within the law, there are no upper limits on contributions to 527s and no restrictions on who may contribute. There are no spending limits imposed on these organizations. However, they must register with the IRS, publicly disclose their donors and file periodic reports of contributions and expenditures.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_parties">Political parties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Political parties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political party committees may contribute funds directly to candidates, subject to the contribution limits listed above. National and state party committees may make additional "coordinated expenditures," subject to limits, to help their nominees in general elections. National party committees may also make unlimited "independent expenditures" to support or oppose federal candidates. However, since 2002, national parties have been prohibited from accepting any funds outside the limits established for elections in the FECA. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disclosure_rules">Disclosure rules</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Disclosure rules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Campaign finance law at the federal level requires candidate committees, party committees, and PACs to file periodic reports disclosing the money they raise and spend. Federal candidate committees must identify, for example, all PACs and party committees that give them contributions, and they must provide the names, occupations, employers and addresses of all individuals who give them more than $200 in an election cycle. Additionally, they must disclose expenditures to any individual or vendor.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Federal Election Commission maintains this database and publishes the information about campaigns and donors on its website. (Similar reporting requirements exist in many states for state and local candidates and for PACs and party committees.) There are extensive loopholes in campaign finance disclosure rules.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various organizations, including <a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a>, aggregate data on political contributions to provide insight into the influence of various groups. In August 2014, a new smartphone app called "Buypartisan" was released to allow consumers to scan the barcodes of items in grocery stores and see where that corporation and its leaders directed their political contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Dark_money"_exception"><span id=".22Dark_money.22_exception"></span>"Dark money" exception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: "Dark money" exception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major loophole to disclosure requirements is "<a href="/wiki/Dark_money" title="Dark money">dark money</a>," so named because while the recipient knows the identity of those giving them money, the public knows neither the identity of the campaigns, candidates nor other entities receiving the money, nor the amounts raised and spent, as these are exempt from disclosure requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CRP-PN_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRP-PN-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maguire_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maguire-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2020 election, more than $1 billion in “dark money” was spent at the federal level: </p> <ul><li>$660 million came from "opaque political nonprofits and shell companies" and went to "outside" groups;<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$170 million was spent on TV advertising;<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>132 million on digital advertising;<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$88 million in direct election spending was reported to the Federal Election Commission by politically active nonprofits.<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>(While for many years dark money "overwhelmingly boosting Republicans", in the 2020 presidential election cycle dark money benefited Democrats.)<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Money donated by trade association groups and not-for-profit corporations, which are allowed to raise unlimited amounts from corporations and individuals, and to spend unlimited amounts any way they wish. The amount of dark money raised and spent has been increasing very rapidly each election cycle in recent years in both state and federal elections, to the point that it now amounts to hundreds of millions of dollars in U.S. presidential elections.<sup id="cite_ref-Massoglia-2021-OS_108-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Massoglia-2021-OS-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_campaign_finance_in_the_United_States">History of campaign finance in the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: History of campaign finance in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States#History" title="Campaign finance reform in the United States">Campaign finance reform in the United States § History</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> was one of the first American politicians to use what are now conventional campaign techniques of using campaign staffers to help him raise money and secure votes and campaign committees to organize rallies and parades.<sup id="cite_ref-hcfw-bryant_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hcfw-bryant-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Bryant and McManus, the "first federal campaign finance law" came after the Civil War—the Navy Appropriations Bill of 1867, which prohibited government employees from soliciting contributions from Navy yard workers.<sup id="cite_ref-hcfw-bryant_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hcfw-bryant-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wealthy and notable families such as the Astors and Vanderbilts realized they had much to gain by supporting politicians election campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-hcfw-bryant_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hcfw-bryant-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secret campaign donations from newly rich oil, steel, finance and railroad magnates in the late 19th and early 20th century created a "series of campaign scandals". <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Mark Hanna</a> raised money for <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>'s election in 1896 and 1900 from Rockefeller's Standard Oil.<sup id="cite_ref-mayer-dark-229_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mayer-dark-229-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_attempts_at_regulating_money_in_campaigns">Early attempts at regulating money in campaigns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Early attempts at regulating money in campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A backlash grew against this influence. In 1905, Teddy Roosevelt unsuccessfully attempted to get Congress to outlaw all corporate political contributions .<sup id="cite_ref-hcfw-bryant_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hcfw-bryant-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tillman_Act_of_1907">Tillman Act of 1907</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Tillman Act of 1907"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Named for its sponsor, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Ben_Tillman" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Tillman">Ben Tillman</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tillman_Act_of_1907" title="Tillman Act of 1907">Tillman Act of 1907</a> prohibited corporations and nationally chartered (interstate) banks from making direct financial contributions to federal candidates. However, weak enforcement mechanisms made the Act ineffective. Disclosure requirements and spending limits for <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> candidates followed in 1910 and 1911. General contribution limits were enacted in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Federal Corrupt Practices Act">Federal Corrupt Practices Act</a> (1925). An amendment to the <a href="/wiki/Hatch_Act_of_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatch Act of 1939">Hatch Act of 1939</a> set an annual ceiling of $3 million for political parties' campaign expenditures and $5,000 for individual campaign contributions. The <a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Connally_Act" title="Smith–Connally Act">Smith–Connally Act</a> (1943) and <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> (1947) extended the corporate ban to <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">labor unions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_(1971)"><span id="Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_.281971.29"></span>Federal Election Campaign Act (1971)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Federal Election Campaign Act (1971)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act" title="Federal Election Campaign Act">Federal Election Campaign Act</a></div> <p>In 1971, Congress passed the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), instituting various campaign finance disclosure requirements for federal candidates (those running for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>, the President and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Vice_President" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Vice President">Vice President</a>), <a href="/wiki/Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">political parties</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_action_committees" class="mw-redirect" title="Political action committees">political action committees</a>. In 1974, Congress passed amendments to the FECA establishing a comprehensive system of regulation and enforcement, including public financing of presidential campaigns and the creation of a central enforcement agency, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission" title="Federal Election Commission">Federal Election Commission</a>. The new regulations included limits on campaign finance, including caps on (1) individual contributions to candidates, (2) contributions to candidates by "political committees" (commonly known as Political Action Committees, or PACs), (3) total campaign expenditures, and (4) independent expenditures by individuals and groups "relative to a clearly identified candidate." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buckley_v._Valeo_(1976)"><span id="Buckley_v._Valeo_.281976.29"></span><i>Buckley v. Valeo (1976)</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Buckley v. Valeo (1976)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">constitutionality</a> of the FECA was challenged in the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> case <i><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a></i> (1976). In <i>Buckley</i>, the Court upheld the Act's limits on individual contributions, as well as the disclosure and reporting provisions and the public financing scheme. The Court held that limitations on donations to candidates were constitutional because of the <a href="/wiki/Compelling_state_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Compelling state interest">compelling state interest</a> in preventing corruption or the appearance of corruption. However, the Court also held that caps on the amount campaigns could spend and caps on independent expenditures were an unconstitutional abridgment of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> under the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. In addition, <i>Buckley</i> also held that the disclosure and reporting requirements of FECA could only apply to expenditures authorized or requested by a candidate or expenditures for communications that "expressly advocate the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate." In conclusion, the arguments presented by the courts came to the decision in <i>Buckley v. Valeo</i> to limit donations in campaigns, not spending.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eight_magic_words">Eight magic words</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Eight magic words"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It also showed the limited reach of campaign finance laws to candidate and party committees, and other committees with a major purpose of electing candidates, or to speech that "expressly advocated" election or defeat of candidates. In an effort to distinguish between funding that could be limited because it was for the purpose of electing a candidate and so subject to corruption, and funding for independent expenditures that could not be limited because there was no corruption danger, the Court listed <a href="/wiki/Eight_Magic_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Magic Words">eight words</a> or phrases in footnote 52 of that opinion — "vote for," "elect," "support", "cast your ballot for", "____ for Congress", "vote against", "defeat", "reject", or any variations thereof<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — as illustrative of speech that qualified as "express advocacy". The definition of express advocacy is what created dark money groups. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Random_audits_in_the_1970s">Random audits in the 1970s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Random audits in the 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1970s, the FEC ran random audits into the campaign finances of House representatives. The audits revealed that nearly half of House members had campaign finance violations. Audited House members were more likely to retire. Among those that did not retire, their re-election races were more competitive.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_(2002)"><span id="Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_.282002.29"></span>Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act</a></div> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act" title="Federal Election Campaign Act">FECA</a>, corporations, unions, and individuals could contribute unlimited "nonfederal money"—also known as "<a href="#"Soft"_money/Independent_expenditure">soft money</a>"—to political parties for activities intended to influence state or local elections. In a series of advisory opinions between 1977 and 1995, the FEC ruled that political parties could fund "mixed-purpose" activities—including get-out-the-vote drives and generic party advertising—in part with soft money, and that parties could also use soft money to defray the costs of "legislative advocacy media advertisements," even if the ads mentioned the name of a federal candidate, so long as they did not expressly advocate the candidate's election or defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in 1996, the Supreme Court decided <i>Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. FEC</i>, in which the Court ruled that Congress could not restrict the total amount of "independent expenditures" made by a political party without coordination with a candidate, invalidating a FECA provision that restricted how much a political party could spend in connection with a particular candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of these rulings, soft money effectively enabled parties and candidates to circumvent FECA's limitations on federal election <a href="/wiki/Campaign_contributions" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign contributions">campaign contributions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Soft money raised from 1993 to 2002</b> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Party</th> <th>1993–1994</th> <th>1995–1996</th> <th>1997–1998</th> <th>1999–2000</th> <th>2001–2002 </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a></td> <td>45.6 million</td> <td>122.3 million</td> <td>92.8 million</td> <td>243 million</td> <td>199.6 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></td> <td>59.5 million</td> <td>141.2 million</td> <td>131.6 million</td> <td>244.4 million</td> <td>221.7 million </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total contributions</td> <td>105.1 million</td> <td>263.5 million</td> <td>224.4 million</td> <td>487.4 million</td> <td>421.3 million<sup id="cite_ref-soft_money_table_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soft_money_table-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In 2002, Congress further attempted to reform federal campaign financing with the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act</a>. The BCRA, sometimes called the "McCain-Feingold" Act, amended the FECA in several respects. First, it prohibited <a href="/wiki/Political_party_committee" title="Political party committee">national political party committees</a> from soliciting or spending any soft money and prohibited state and local party committees from using soft money for activities that affect federal elections. Second, it prohibited the use of corporate and union treasury funds to pay for "electioneering communications"—broadcast or cable advertisements clearly identifying a federal candidate—within 30 days of a primary or 60 days of a general election. The law also included a <a href="/wiki/I_approve_this_message" class="mw-redirect" title="I approve this message">"stand by your ad" provision</a> requiring candidates to appear in campaign advertisements and claim responsibility for the ad (most commonly with a phrase similar to "I'm John Smith and I approve this message.") </p><p>This law was also challenged in the Supreme Court, but its core provisions were upheld by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/McConnell_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="McConnell v. Federal Election Commission">McConnell v. Federal Election Commission</a></i>. However, in <i>McConnell</i>, the Court also interpreted the "electioneering communications" provisions of BCRA to exempt "nonprofit corporations that [1] were formed for the sole purpose of promoting political ideas, [2] did not engage in business activities, and [3] did not accept contributions from for-profit corporations or labor unions." Thus, non-business, non-profit political organizations could run electioneering advertisements provided that they did not accept corporate or union donations. </p><p>Furthermore, the BCRA did not regulate "<a href="/wiki/527_organization" title="527 organization">527 organizations</a>" (named for the section of the tax code under which they operate). These nonprofit organizations are not regulated by the FEC, provided that they do not coordinate with candidates or expressly advocate for the election or defeat of a specific candidate. After the passage of the BCRA, many of the soft money-funded activities previously undertaken by political parties were taken over by various 527 groups, which funded many issue ads in the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 presidential election</a>. The heavy spending of key 527 groups to attack presidential candidates brought complaints to the Federal Elections Commission of illegal coordination between the groups and rival political campaigns. (In 2006 and 2007 the FEC fined a number of organizations, including <a href="/wiki/MoveOn.org" class="mw-redirect" title="MoveOn.org">MoveOn.org</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swift_Boat_Veterans_for_Truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Swift Boat Veterans for Truth">Swift Boat Veterans for Truth</a>, for violations arising from the <a href="/wiki/527_organization#2004_election_controversy" title="527 organization">2004 campaign</a>. The FEC's rationale was that these groups had specifically advocated the election or defeat of candidates, thus making them subject to federal regulation and its limits on contributions to the organizations.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life_(2007)"><span id="FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life_.282007.29"></span><i>FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life</i> (2007)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life (2007)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life">FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life</a></div> <p>The reach of the "electioneering communications" provisions of the BCRA was also limited in the 2007 Supreme Court ruling <i>Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.</i> In <i>Wisconsin Right to Life</i>, the Supreme Court stated that the restrictions on "electioneering communications" applied only to advertisements that "can only reasonably be viewed as advocating or opposing a candidate." Thus, if there was any reasonable way to view an advertisement as an "issue ad," it would be exempt from the BCRA's restrictions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizens_United_v._FEC_(2010)_and_SpeechNOW.org_v._FEC_(2010)"><span id="Citizens_United_v._FEC_.282010.29_and_SpeechNOW.org_v._FEC_.282010.29"></span><i>Citizens United v. FEC (2010)</i> and <i>SpeechNOW.org v. FEC (2010)</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citizens United v. FEC (2010) and SpeechNOW.org v. FEC (2010)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Campaign finance law in the United States changed drastically in the wake of two 2010 judicial opinions: the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a></i> and the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals decision in <i>SpeechNow.org v. FEC</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a 2011 <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> report, these two decisions constitute "the most fundamental changes to campaign finance law in decades."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Citizens United</i> struck down, on free speech grounds, the limits on the ability of organizations that accepted corporate or union money from running electioneering communications. The Court reasoned that the restrictions permitted by <i>Buckley</i> were justified based on avoiding corruption or the appearance of corruption, and that this rationale did not apply to <a href="/wiki/Corporate_donations" title="Corporate donations">corporate donations</a> to independent organizations. <i>Citizens United</i> overruled the 1990 case <i><a href="/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce">Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce</a></i>, in which the Supreme Court upheld the Michigan Campaign Finance Act, which prohibited corporations from using treasury money to support or oppose candidates in elections. </p><p>Two months later, a unanimous nine-judge panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit decided <i>SpeechNow</i>, which relied on <i>Citizens United</i> to hold that Congress could not limit donations to organizations that only made independent expenditures, that is, expenditures that were "uncoordinated" with a candidate's campaign. These decisions led to the rise of "independent-expenditure only" PACs, commonly known as "Super PACs." Super PACs, under <i>Citizens United</i> and <i>SpeechNow</i>, can raise unlimited funds from individual and corporate donors and use those funds for electioneering advertisements, provided that the Super PAC does not coordinate with a candidate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission_(2014)"><span id="McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission_.282014.29"></span><i>McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On February 19, 2013, the Supreme Court announced it would hear <i><a href="/wiki/McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission">McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission</a></i>, a case challenging the limit on how much individuals can donate directly to political parties and federal candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 2, 2014, the Court announced its opinion and maintained aggregate limits on campaign contributions were unconstitutional under the First Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-MCCUTCHEON-2014_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MCCUTCHEON-2014-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_financing_of_campaigns">Public financing of campaigns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Public financing of campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States#Current_proposals_for_reform" title="Campaign finance reform in the United States">Campaign finance reform in the United States § Current proposals for reform</a></div> <p>After <i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a></i> and other court rulings ended limits on some campaign spending, reformers concerned about the political deck being unfairly stacked "in favor of the few donors able to give large contributions" concentrated on public finance of political campaigns. The <a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_for_Justice" title="Brennan Center for Justice">Brennan Center for Justice</a>, for example, promotes "small donor public financing", i.e. a system where "public funds match and multiply small donations", the idea being candidates would be incentivized "to seek out many supporters, not just a few big donors".<sup id="cite_ref-Brennen-why_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennen-why-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Of_presidential_campaigns">Of presidential campaigns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Of presidential campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the federal level, public funding is limited to subsidies for presidential campaigns. This includes (1) a matching program for the first $250 of each individual contribution during the primary campaign and (2) funding the major party nominees' general election campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the 2012 campaign, public funding was also available to finance the major parties' national nominating conventions. </p><p>To receive subsidies in the primary, candidates must qualify by privately raising $5000 each in at least 20 states. During the primaries, in exchange for agreeing to limit their spending according to a statutory formula, eligible candidates receive matching payments for the first $250 of each individual contribution (up to half of the spending limit). However, candidates who decline matching funds are free to spend as much money as they can raise privately. </p><p>From the inception of this program in 1976 through 1992, almost all candidates who could qualify accepted matching funds in the primary. In 1996 Republican <a href="/wiki/Steve_Forbes" title="Steve Forbes">Steve Forbes</a> opted out of the program. In 2000, Forbes and <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> opted out. In 2004 Bush and Democrats <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Howard Dean</a> chose not to take matching funds in the primary.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, Democrats <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, and Republicans <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">John McCain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudy Giuliani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Ron Paul</a> decided not to take primary matching funds. Republican <a href="/wiki/Tom_Tancredo" title="Tom Tancredo">Tom Tancredo</a><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Democrats <a href="/wiki/Chris_Dodd" title="Chris Dodd">Chris Dodd</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Edwards" title="John Edwards">John Edwards</a> elected to take public financing. </p><p>Since the 2012 primary campaign, few candidates have chosen to accept matching funds. In 2012, only <a href="/wiki/Buddy_Roemer" title="Buddy Roemer">Buddy Roemer</a> (who ran unsuccessfully for the <a href="/wiki/Americans_Elect" title="Americans Elect">Americans Elect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Reform Party of the United States of America">Reform Party</a> nominations), <a href="/wiki/Gary_Johnson" title="Gary Johnson">Gary Johnson</a> (the eventual <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)" title="Libertarian Party (United States)">Libertarian</a> nominee), and <a href="/wiki/Jill_Stein" title="Jill Stein">Jill Stein</a> (the eventual <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Green Party of the United States">Green Party</a> nominee) received matching funds in the primaries.<sup id="cite_ref-allpublicfunds_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allpublicfunds-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Primary season matching funds are not limited to major party candidates.) In 2016, only <a href="/wiki/Martin_O%27Malley" title="Martin O'Malley">Martin O'Malley</a> (Democrat) and Jill Stein (Green) received matching funds in the primaries.<sup id="cite_ref-allpublicfunds_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allpublicfunds-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the 2020 campaign, only <a href="/wiki/Steve_Bullock_(American_politician)" title="Steve Bullock (American politician)">Steve Bullock</a> (Democrat) had announced plans to apply for matching funds by September 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to primary matching funds, the public funding program also assists with funding the major party (and eligible minor party) nominees' general election campaigns. The grants for the major parties' general election nominees are adjusted each Presidential election year to account for increases in the cost of living. In 2012, the parties' general election nominees were eligible to receive $91.2 million in public funds, although neither the Democratic or Republican campaigns chose to accept those funds. If general election candidates accept public funds, they agree not to raise or spend private funds or to spend more than $50,000 of their personal resources. Hence, general election candidates who have the ability to raise more than the amount of public funds offered may decline the offer of public funds in favor of privately raising and spending a larger sum of money.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No major party nominee turned down government funds for the general election from 1976, when the program was launched, until <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> did so in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obama again declined government funds for the 2012 campaign, as did Republican nominee <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a>, setting up the first election since the program's launch in which neither major party nominee accepted federal funding.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor did either Donald Trump or Hillary Clinton accept federal funding for the 2016 general election.<sup id="cite_ref-gimein_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gimein-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public funding was formerly available to finance the major parties' (and eligible minor parties') <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_nominating_convention" title="United States presidential nominating convention">presidential nominating conventions</a>. In 2012, each major party was entitled to $18.2 million in public funds for their conventions. However, the provisions for public funding of nominating conventions were eliminated in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eligibility of minor parties for public funds is based on showing in the previous election, with 5% of the popular vote needed to qualify. The only party other than the Republicans and Democrats to receive government funding in a general election was the Reform Party, which qualified for public funding in 1996 and 2000 on the basis of Ross Perot's strong showing in the 1992 and 1996 elections. In addition, <a href="/wiki/John_B._Anderson" title="John B. Anderson">John B. Anderson</a>'s 1980 campaign received payments of public funds after the election because he had attained more than 5% of the popular vote.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The presidential public financing system is funded by a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_election_campaign_fund_checkoff" title="Presidential election campaign fund checkoff">$3 tax check-off</a> on individual tax returns (the check off does not increase the filer's taxes, but merely directs $3 of the government's general fund to the presidential fund). The number of taxpayers who use the check off has fallen steadily since the early 1980s, until by 2006 fewer than 8 percent of taxpayers were directing money to the fund, leaving the fund chronically short of cash.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the fact that fewer candidates have chosen to apply for public funding has alleviated the fund's former monetary shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-gimein_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gimein-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local_level">State and local level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: State and local level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A small number of states and cities have started to use broader programs for public financing of campaigns. One method, which its supporters call <a href="/wiki/Clean_Elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean Elections">Clean Money, Clean Elections</a>, gives each candidate who chooses to participate a fixed amount of money. To qualify for this subsidy, the candidates must collect a specified number of signatures and small (usually $5) contributions. The candidates are not allowed to accept outside donations or to use their own personal money if they receive this public funding. Candidates who choose to raise money privately rather than accept the government subsidy are subject to significant administrative burdens and legal restrictions, with the result that most candidates accept the subsidy. This procedure has been in place in races for all statewide and legislative offices in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> since 2000, where a majority of officials were elected without spending any private contributions on their campaigns. <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> passed a Clean Elections law in 2005, along with the cities of <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico" title="Albuquerque, New Mexico">Albuquerque, New Mexico</a>. </p><p>A 2003 study by GAO found, "It is too soon to determine the extent to which the goals of Maine's and Arizona's public financing programs are being met."<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (June 2018)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The "Clean Elections" movement had several defeats in the 2000s and 2010s. <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_89_(2006)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 89 (2006)">Proposition 89</a>, a <a href="/wiki/California_ballot_proposition" title="California ballot proposition">California ballot proposition</a> in November 2006, sponsored by the California Nurses Union, that would have provided for public financing of political campaigns and strict contribution limits on corporations, was defeated. In 2008, the non-partisan California Fair Elections Act passed the legislature and Governor Schwarzenegger signed it, but the law did not take effect unless approved by voters in a referendum in 2010. In June 2010, voters soundly rejected the measure, 57% to 43%.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A proposal to implement Clean Elections in Alaska was voted down by a two-to-one margin in 2008,<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a pilot program in New Jersey was terminated in 2008 amid concern about its constitutionality and that the law was ineffective in accomplishing its goals. In 2010, Portland voters used a referendum to repeal the clean elections law, originally enacted by the city council.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, in <i><a href="/wiki/Randall_v._Sorrell" title="Randall v. Sorrell">Randall v. Sorrell</a></i>, the Supreme Court held that large parts of Vermont's Clean Elections law were unconstitutional. In 2008, the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Davis v. Federal Election Commission">Davis v. Federal Election Commission</a></i> suggested that a key part of most Clean Election laws—a provision granting extra money (or "rescue funds") to participating candidates who are being outspent by non-participating candidates—is unconstitutional. In 2011, in <i>Arizona Free Enterprise Club's Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett</i>, the Supreme Court struck down the matching funds provision of Arizona's law on First Amendment grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-ARIZONA-Bennett-2011_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARIZONA-Bennett-2011-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Massachusetts has had a hybrid public funding system for statewide offices since 1978. Taxpayers are allowed to contribute $1 to the statewide election fund by checking a box on their annual income taxes. Candidates who agree to spending limits are eligible for money from this fund. Non-participating candidates are required to estimate spending, and this will raise the limit for participating opponents if higher than the agreed-to limit.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> voters approved the <a href="/wiki/Democracy_voucher" title="Democracy voucher">Democracy voucher</a> program in 2015, which gives city residents four $25 vouchers to donate to participating candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-st_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-st-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vouchers have been proposed in other cities and states as a means to diversify the donor pool, help more candidates run for office, and boost political engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics_of_spending_campaign_funds">Ethics of spending campaign funds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Ethics of spending campaign funds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Politicians are sometimes tempted to spend campaign funds for personal purposes instead of their election campaign. One U.S. Representative, <a href="/wiki/Duncan_D._Hunter" title="Duncan D. Hunter">Duncan D. Hunter</a> of California, for example, was sentenced to 11 months in prison in 2020 "for spending 2018 campaign donations on family trips to Hawaii and Italy and private school for his children."<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In other situations where the line between "legitimate campaign and officeholder expenses" and personal spending can be much finer, the Federal Election Commission uses what it calls an "irrespective test," whereby </p> <blockquote><p> personal use is any use of funds in a campaign account of a candidate (or former candidate) to fulfill a commitment, obligation or expense of any person that would exist irrespective of the candidate's campaign or responsibilities as a federal officeholder. <sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_data">Sources of data</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Sources of data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Type of data </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>level</th> <th>campaign finance</th> <th>lobbying</th> <th>voting </th></tr> <tr> <td>Federal</td> <td><a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a></td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a>; <a href="/wiki/MapLight" title="MapLight">MapLight</a> </p> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/MapLight" title="MapLight">MapLight</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>State</td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a> maintains a publicly accessible database for campaign finance information for state-level races in all 50 states dating back to 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/MapLight" title="MapLight">MapLight</a> has state-level data for <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> and <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. </p><p>In Pennsylvania the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Department_of_State" title="Pennsylvania Department of State">Department of State</a> maintains a database searchable by the public.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In California the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_of_California" title="Secretary of State of California">Secretary of State</a> maintains public databases on campaign finance and lobbying activities.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/MapLight" title="MapLight">MapLight</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> and <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Local</td> <td><a href="/wiki/MapLight" title="MapLight">MapLight</a> for a few locations. </td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Many localities have their own reporting requirements that are not listed here. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance" title="Campaign finance">Campaign finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance reform in the United States">Campaign finance reform in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DISCLOSE_Act" title="DISCLOSE Act">DISCLOSE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Magic_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Magic Words">Eight Magic Words</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life">FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_trail" class="mw-redirect" title="Money trail">Money trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_corporate_PAC_pledge" title="No corporate PAC pledge">No corporate PAC pledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">Political action committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Political corruption in the United States">Political corruption in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_finance" title="Political finance">Political finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_the_waters" title="Testing the waters">Testing the waters</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">90% of Americans surveyed thought it was "very" or "somewhat" important</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">OpenSecrets provides a breakdown of spending for presidential and congressional campaigns for federal elections from 1990-2022.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <b>2020</b> In 2020, $14.4 billion was spent on federal election campaigns<sup id="cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — $5.7 billion for the presidential election and $8.7 billion for congressional races—according to Open Secrets.org.<sup id="cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2020_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2020-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Democrats outspent Republicans in races for both branches of government.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2020_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2020-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The percentage of fundraising from PACs in 2020, fell to 4% of all spending (from 9% in the last presidential election cycle), but 'outside spending' (i.e. political expenditures made by groups or individuals supposedly independently of, and not coordinated with, candidates' committees, which includes super PACs and 501(c) 'dark money' organizations),<sup id="cite_ref-Introduction_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introduction-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> came to almost $3.3 billion, nearly doubling the 2016 number.<sup id="cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small contributions rose (from 15.2% to 22.9%) but were still less in total than large individual donations (42.59%).<sup id="cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The percentage of really large donations to political committees, i.e. from the top 100 donors, came to $1.6 billion in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <dl><dt>2016</dt></dl> In the 2016 election campaign, $5.1 billion was spent in congressional races and $2.9 billion was spent in the presidential campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-CoE-OpSe_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CoE-OpSe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <dl><dt>2010</dt></dl> In the 2010 midterm election cycle, candidates for office, political parties, and independent groups spent a total of $3.6 billion on federal elections. The average winner of a seat in the House of Representatives spent $1.4 million on their campaign. The average winner of a Senate seat spent $9.8 million.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <dl><dt>2008</dt></dl> In 2008, candidates for office, <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">political parties</a>, and independent groups spent a total of $5.3 billion on federal elections.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount spent on the presidential race alone was $2.4 billion,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and over $1 billion of that was spent by the campaigns of the two major candidates: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> spent $730 million in his election campaign, and <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">John McCain</a> spent $333 million.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total amount spent by Obama and McCain was a record at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Money that has been funneled into PACS has been on the rise. Congressional PACS went from raising 131 million dollars in 1978 to 466 million dollars in 2018 (Sides et al 2018). Even though people think that the majority of spending during a political campaign comes from PACS the data shows otherwise. In the 2016 election cycle individual donations to candidates made up 52 percent of funds raised by House candidates compared to the 32 percent that PACS raised (Side et al 2018). This goes directly against the media narrative that PACS hold the power when it comes to election cycle spending.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2018 election cycle, leadership PACs donated more than $67 million to federal candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cost+of+election&rft.pub=OpenSecrets&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensecrets.org%2Felections-overview%2Fcost-of-election%3Fcycle%3D2020%26display%3DT%26infl%3DN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opensecrets.org/elections-overview/where-the-money-came-from?">"Where the Money Came From"</a>. OpenSecrets<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Where+the+Money+Came+From&rft.pub=OpenSecrets&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensecrets.org%2Felections-overview%2Fwhere-the-money-came-from%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opensecrets.org/pres16">"2016 Presidential Race"</a>. <a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2016+Presidential+Race&rft.pub=OpenSecrets&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensecrets.org%2Fpres16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evers-Hillstrom-OS-2020_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvers-Hillstrom2021" class="citation web cs1">Evers-Hillstrom, Karl (February 11, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2021/02/2020-cycle-cost-14p4-billion-doubling-16/">"Most expensive ever: 2020 election cost $14.4 billion"</a>. <i>Open Secrets</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=2008+campaign+costliest+in+U.S.+history&rft.date=2008-11-05&rft.aulast=Cummings&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F1108%2F15283.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120408144105/http://www.opensecrets.org/pres08/index.php">"Banking on Becoming President - OpenSecrets"</a>. 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Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freespeechontria00park/page/n213">203</a>–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8173-1301-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8173-1301-X"><bdi>0-8173-1301-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Buckley+v.+Valeo&rft.btitle=Free+Speech+on+Trial%3A+Communication+Perspectives+on+Landmark+Supreme+Court+Decisions&rft.place=Tuscaloosa%2C+AL&rft.pages=203-217&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8173-1301-X&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreespeechontria00park&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodGrose2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Abby K.; <a href="/wiki/Christian_R._Grose" title="Christian R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.atitle=Arizona+Free+Enterprise+Club%27s+Freedom+Club+PAC+et+al.+v.+Bennett%2C+Secretary+of+State+of+Arizona%2C+et+al.&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2F10pdf%2F10-238.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wbur.org/news/2018/06/09/public-financing-mass-governor">"State Funding Program Unlikely To Make Dent In Governor's Race"</a>. <i>www.wbur.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wbur.org&rft.atitle=State+Funding+Program+Unlikely+To+Make+Dent+In+Governor%27s+Race&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wbur.org%2Fnews%2F2018%2F06%2F09%2Fpublic-financing-mass-governor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-st-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-st_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2015" class="citation news cs1">Young, Bob (November 3, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/democracy-vouchers/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Democracy vouchers' win in Seattle; first in country"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Seattle_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Seattle Times">Seattle Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+Times&rft.atitle=%27Democracy+vouchers%27+win+in+Seattle%3B+first+in+country&rft.date=2015-11-03&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fseattle-news%2Fpolitics%2Fdemocracy-vouchers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://democracypolicy.network/the-agenda/policy_kit/democracy-vouchers">"Democracy Policy Network"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Democracy+Policy+Network&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdemocracypolicy.network%2Fthe-agenda%2Fpolicy_kit%2Fdemocracy-vouchers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.propublica.org/article/how-to-understand-political-contributions-campaign-finance">"Democracy How to "Follow the Money" in a Political Campaign"</a>. ProPublica. November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Democracy+How+to+%22Follow+the+Money%22+in+a+Political+Campaign&rft.pub=ProPublica&rft.date=2022-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.propublica.org%2Farticle%2Fhow-to-understand-political-contributions-campaign-finance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/making-disbursements/personal-use/">"Personal use"</a>. Federal Election Commission of the United States of America<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Personal+use&rft.pub=Federal+Election+Commission+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fec.gov%2Fhelp-candidates-and-committees%2Fmaking-disbursements%2Fpersonal-use%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.OpenSecrets.org/">"OpenSecrets"</a>. <a href="/wiki/OpenSecrets" title="OpenSecrets">OpenSecrets</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OpenSecrets&rft.pub=OpenSecrets&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.OpenSecrets.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dos.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/campaign_finance/12731">"Campaign Finance Information"</a>. Pennsylvania Department of State<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Campaign+Finance+Information&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+Department+of+State&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dos.state.pa.us%2Fportal%2Fserver.pt%2Fcommunity%2Fcampaign_finance%2F12731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cal-access.ss.ca.gov/">"Welcome to Cal-Access"</a>. California Department of State<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+Cal-Access&rft.pub=California+Department+of+State&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcal-access.ss.ca.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSides,_JohnShaw,_DaronGrossman,_MattLipsitz,_Keena" class="citation book cs1">Sides, John; Shaw, Daron; Grossman, Matt; Lipsitz, Keena. <i>Campaigns and Elections Rules, Reality, Strategy, Choice</i>. W.W Norton and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Campaigns+and+Elections+Rules%2C+Reality%2C+Strategy%2C+Choice&rft.pub=W.W+Norton+and+Company&rft.au=Sides%2C+John&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Daron&rft.au=Grossman%2C+Matt&rft.au=Lipsitz%2C+Keena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050317200121/http://www.cfinst.org/eguide/shays.html">"Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act"</a>. The Campaign Finance Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cfinst.org/eguide/shays.html">the original</a> on March 17, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bipartisan+Campaign+Reform+Act&rft.pub=The+Campaign+Finance+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfinst.org%2Feguide%2Fshays.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill,_DavidLipsmeyer,_Christine2005" class="citation book cs1">Gill, David; Lipsmeyer, Christine (2005). <i>Soft Money and Hard Choices: Why Political Parties Might Legislate Against Soft Money Donations</i>. Public Choice. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1422616">1422616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soft+Money+and+Hard+Choices%3A+Why+Political+Parties+Might+Legislate+Against+Soft+Money+Donations&rft.pub=Public+Choice&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1422616%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.au=Gill%2C+David&rft.au=Lipsmeyer%2C+Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen,_Mark2002" class="citation book cs1">Green, Mark (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sellingouthowbig00gree"><i>Selling Out, How Big Corporate Money Buys Elections, Rams Through Legislation, and Betrays Our Democracy</i></a></span>. Regan Books (Harper Collins). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-052392-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-052392-3"><bdi>978-0-06-052392-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selling+Out%2C+How+Big+Corporate+Money+Buys+Elections%2C+Rams+Through+Legislation%2C+and+Betrays+Our+Democracy&rft.pub=Regan+Books+%28Harper+Collins%29&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-06-052392-3&rft.au=Green%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsellingouthowbig00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Post_(law_professor)" title="Robert Post (law professor)">Post, Robert C.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5nWWAwAAQBAJ"><i>Citizens Divided: Campaign Finance Reform and the Constitution</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72900-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72900-1"><bdi>978-0-674-72900-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens+Divided%3A+Campaign+Finance+Reform+and+the+Constitution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72900-1&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5nWWAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamples,_John2006" class="citation book cs1">Samples, John (2006). <i>The Fallacy of Campaign Finance Reform</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73450-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73450-7"><bdi>978-0-226-73450-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fallacy+of+Campaign+Finance+Reform&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73450-7&rft.au=Samples%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Bradley2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Bradley (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1q1ImAEACAAJ"><i>Unfree Speech: The Folly of Campaign Finance Reform</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11369-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11369-2"><bdi>978-0-691-11369-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfree+Speech%3A+The+Folly+of+Campaign+Finance+Reform&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11369-2&rft.au=Smith%2C+Bradley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1q1ImAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Rodney2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Rodney (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moneypowerelecti0000smit"><i>Money, Power & Election: How Campaign Finance Reform Subverts American Democracy</i></a></span>. Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3128-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3128-2"><bdi>978-0-8071-3128-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Money%2C+Power+%26+Election%3A+How+Campaign+Finance+Reform+Subverts+American+Democracy&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-3128-2&rft.au=Smith%2C+Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoneypowerelecti0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1729827">Writing Reform: A Guide to Drafting State & Local Campaign Finance Laws</a> (2010 Revised Edition).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b>use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 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text" href="http://www.cfinst.org/">Campaign Finance Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041128090353/http://www.publicampaign.org/">Public Campaign</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commoncause.org/">Common Cause</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.citizen.org/">Public Citizen</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moneyedpoliticians.wordpress.com/">Moneyed Politicians</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.campaignfreedom.org">Center for Competitive Politics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140328071325/http://www.campaignfreedom.org/">Archived</a> March 28, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracynow.org/2010/10/7/campaign_cash_the_independent_fundraising_gold">Campaign Cash Since Citizens United Ruling</a>—video report by <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Now!" title="Democracy Now!">Democracy Now!</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.factcheck.org/cashattack/">Cash Attack 2010</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/461/take-the-money-and-run-for-office">"Take the Money and Run for Office"</a>. <a href="/wiki/This_American_Life" title="This American Life"><i>This American Life</i></a>. Episode 461. March 30, 2012. <a href="/wiki/Public_Radio_International" title="Public Radio International">Public Radio International</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+American+Life&rft.series=Episode+461&rft.date=2012-03-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thisamericanlife.org%2Fradio-archives%2Fepisode%2F461%2Ftake-the-money-and-run-for-office&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACampaign+finance+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> An in-depth look at American campaign finance from the viewpoints of both politicians and lobbyists.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141103201657/http://www.idea.int/political-finance/country.cfm?id=231">Political Finance data for United States</a> (archive)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.retroreport.org/video/the-cost-of-campaigns/">The Cost of Campaigns</a> by <a href="/wiki/Retro_Report" title="Retro Report">Retro Report</a> looks at how campaign finance reform and how it has come full circle since the Watergate campaign finance scandals.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.movetoamend.org">Move to Amend</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lobbying in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lobbying_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="Lobbying in the United States">Lobbying in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="History of lobbying in the United States">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="Direct lobbying in the United States">Direct lobbying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_action_committee" title="Political action committee">Political action committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Super_PAC" title="Super PAC">Super PAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_PAC" title="Hybrid PAC">Hybrid PAC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/527_organization" title="527 organization">527 organization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Campaign finance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance reform in the United States">reform</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_scorecard" title="Legislative scorecard">Legislative scorecard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major industrial and business lobbies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" title="Fossil fuels lobby">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care in the United States">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance#Insurance_companies" title="Insurance">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Organized labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_lobby" title="Pharmaceutical lobby">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_lobbying_groups" title="List of software lobbying groups">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco lobby">Tobacco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major single-issue lobbies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_by_the_administration_in_the_United_States" title="Lobbying by the administration in the United States">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_pro-choice_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="United States pro-choice movement">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_PAC" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership PAC">Federal leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun lobby">Guns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_movements_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT movements in the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AARP" title="AARP">Retirees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_history_in_the_United_States" title="Tax protester history in the United States">Taxes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Diaspora politics in the United States">Diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_interest_groups_in_the_United_States" title="Ethnic interest groups in the United States">ethnic lobbies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Arab lobby in the United States">Arab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Egypt lobby in the United States">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Libya lobby in the United States">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Saudi Arabia lobby in the United States">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_lobby_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian lobby in the United States">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="China lobby in the United States">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban-American_lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban-American lobby">Cuba</a> <small>(Anti Castro)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Greece lobby in the United States">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Ireland lobby in the United States">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Israel lobby in the United States">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_lobby" title="Jewish lobby">Jewish lobby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Israel_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Israel lobby in the United States">Anti-Israel lobby</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Pakistan lobby in the United States">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Turkey lobby in the United States">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_lobby_in_the_United_States" title="Japan lobby in the United States">Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_caucus" title="Congressional caucus">Congressional caucus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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